CHRISTIANITY  , the See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion which accepts Jesus See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ as See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord and Saviour, embracing all who profess and See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call themselves Christians, the See also:

• TERM

term derived from his formal See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title (Xpurros, i.e. the anointed) . Within this broad characterization are found many varieties of cult, organization and creed (see See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

CHURCH See also:

• HISTORY

HISTORY) . Christianity is classed by the students of the See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science of religion as a universal religion; it proclaims itself as intended for all men without distinction of See also:

• RACE

race or See also:

• CASTE (through the Fr. from Span. and Port. casta, lineage, Lat. cast us, pure)

caste, and as in See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute truth . In fact, Christianity has been widely accepted by varied races in very different stages of culture, and it has maintained itself through a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long 'See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession of centuries in lands where the transformations in See also:

• POLITICAL

political structure, the revolutions in social conditions, and the changes in science and See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy, have been numerous and extreme . Beginning in See also:

• ASIA

Asia, Christianity extended itself rapidly through-out the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• EMPIRE

empire and beyond its See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders among the barbarians . When the Empire in the 4th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century adopted it, its cult, organization and teaching were carried throughout the western See also:

• WORLD

world . The influences and motives and processes which led to the result were many and varied, but ultimately in one way or another it became the religion of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe and of the nations founded by the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European races beyond the seas and in the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• PART

part of Asia called See also:

• SIBERIA

Siberia . Beyond these See also:

• BOUNDS, BEATING THE

bounds it has not greatly prospered . The explanation of the apparent bounding of Christianity by Europe and its offspring is not, however, to be found in any psychological peculiarity separating the European races from those of other continents, nor in any See also:

• SPECIAL

special characteristic of Christianity which fits it for European See also:

• SOIL

soil . For not only were its founder and his disciples Asiatics, and the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original authoritative writings Semitic, but See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic tribes and nations coming into Europe have been readily converted . See also:

• MISSIONS (Lat. missio, a sending)

Missions in Asia too have achieved sufficient success to prove that there exists no inherent obstacle either in the See also:

• GOSPEL (O. Eng. godspel, i.e. good news, a translation of Lat. bona annuntiatio, or evangelium, Gr. evayyeXwv; cf. Goth. iu spillon, " to announce good news," Ulfilas' translation of the Greek, from iu, that which is good, and spellon to announce)

gospel or in the Asiatic mind . Moreover, Christianity was once represented in Asia by a powerful organization extending throughout See also:

• PERSIA

Persia and central Asia into See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India (see PERSIA) .

Mutatis mutandis, the same applies to See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa also, and Christianity still survives in both continents in the Coptic, Abyssinian and Armenian Churches . The explanation is rather to be sought in the political See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early centuries of the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian era, especially in the rise of Mahommedanism . This may be regarded indeed as a See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of Christianity, for it is not more See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign perhaps to the prevailing type than are some sects which claim the name . It exerted a strong See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence upon Europe, but its followers have been peculiarly unsusceptible to missionary labours, and even in Europe have retained the faith of the See also:

• PROPHET (Irpo4i ri7s)

Prophet . In the limitations of the Roman empire and in the separation of See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East and See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West consequent upon its decline, Christianity, as a dominant religion, was confined for a thousand years to Europe, and even portions of this See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent for centuries were in the hands of its See also:

• GREAT

great foe . The East appeared as the See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

Mahommedan dominions, and beyond these the continents of Asia and Africa were so dimly discerned that little reciprocal influence was See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt . Thus the development of the two great civilized portions of the race in Europe and Asia followed See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent lines in religion as in all else; and Africa, excepting its northern border, was See also:

• LEFT

left untouched by the progress of enlightenment . Not only is Christianity thus the religion of a wide variety of races but across the divisions there cut other lines . In its organization Christianity exists in three great divisions, Roman, See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek and See also:

• PROTESTANT

Protestant; and in various See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient sects in the Orient . The Roman See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic and Greek divisions of the Christian Church are homogeneous in organization, but in Protestantism certain denominations are See also:

• NATIONAL

national, established by differing governments, and others are independent of governmental aid, making a large number of differing denominations . Some of these divisions are mutually antagonistic, denying to each other the name of Christian and even the See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope of salvation . According to a second See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification, Christianity maybe placed among the " individual " religions, since it traces its origin, like See also:

• ISLAM

Islam and See also:

• BUDDHISM

Buddhism, to an individual as its founder .

This beginning is not in the dimness of antiquity nor in a multitude of customs, beliefs, traditions, See also:

• RITES

rites and personalities, as is the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case with the so-called " natural " religions . It is not implied that in the formation of the " natural " religions individuals were not of great importance, nor, on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, that in individual religions the founder formed his faith independently of the community of which he was a part; but only that as undoubted historic facts certain religions, in tracing their lines to individuals, thereby acquired a distinctive See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, and retain the impress of their founder . Such religions begin as a reform or a protest or revolt . They proclaim either a new See also:

• REVELATION, BOOK OF

revelation, or the return to an ancient truth which has been forgotten or distorted . They demand repentance and See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change of See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart, i.e. the renouncing of the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary faith of the community and the See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance of a new gospel . Thus demanding an See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of will on the part of individuals, they are classed once more as " ethical " religions . To be sure, the new is built upon the old—in part unconsciously—and the rejection of the faith of the past, however violent, is never thoroughgoing . In consequence the old affects the new in various ways . Thus in Buddhism the presuppositions which See also:

• BUDDHA

Buddha uncritically took over See also:

• WORK

work out their logical results in the See also:

• MAHAYANA (" Great Vehicle ")

Mahayana, so that great sects calling themselves " Buddhist " affirm what the See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

Master denied and deny what he taught . Christianity takes Judaism (see See also:

• HEBREW

HEBREW RELIGION) for granted—rejects it in part as a merely preparatory See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage, in part reinterprets it, and does not submit what it accepts to rigorous See also:

• SCRUTINY (Fr. scrutin, Late Lat. scrulinium, from scrutari, to search or examine thoroughly)

scrutiny . As a result the Old Testament (see See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

BIBLE) remains not only as the larger part of the Christian See also:

• CANON

canon, but, sometimes, in some churches, as obscuring its distinctive truth . Moreover, in the transference of Christianity from the Jewish to the Greek-Roman world again various elements were taken into it .

More properly perhaps we might consider the Greekand Roman See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization as the permanent See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element— so that the relationship to it was not different from the relationship to Judaism—in part it was denied, in part it was of purpose accepted, in still larger part unconsciously the Greek-Roman converts took over with them the presuppositions of their older world view—and thus formed the moulds into which the Christian truth was run . See also:

• ISERE
• ISERE [anc. Isara]

Isere again, in some instances the pre-Christian elements so asserted themselves as to obscure the new and distinctive teaching . Christianity, regarded objectively as one of the great religions of the world, owes its rise to Jesus of See also:

• NAZARETH (mod. en-Ndsira)

Nazareth, in ancient See also:

• GALILEE
• GALILEE (Heb. 5'S?, " border " or " ring," Gr. I'aXi?aia)
• GALILEE, SEA OF

Galilee . (See JESUS CHRIST.) By reverent disciples his ancestry was traced to the royal See also:

• FAMILY

family of See also:

• DAVID
• DAVID (a Hebrew name meaning probably beloved 1)
• DAVID, FELICIEN (1810—1876)
• DAVID, GERARD [GHEERAERT DAVIT], (?=1523)
• DAVID, PIERRE JEAN (1789–1856)
• DAVID, ST (Dewi, Sant)

David, Relation and his See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth is ascribed by the church to the miraculous Judaism. act of See also:

• GOD

God . His See also:

• LIFE

life was spent, until the beginning of his public See also:

• MINISTRY

ministry, in humble circumstances as the son of a See also:

• CARPENTER, LANT (1780-1840)
• CARPENTER, MIRY (1807-1877)
• CARPENTER, WILLIAM BENJAMIN (1813-1885)

carpenter and his wife, See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph and See also:

• MARY
• MARY (1457-1482)
• MARY (1496-1533)
• MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS

Mary . Of Joseph we hear nothing after the boyhood of Jesus, who followed the same See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade, supporting himself and perhaps his See also:

• MOTHER

mother and younger See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

brothers and sisters . Of this See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period we have only a few fragmentary anecdotes and a stray reference or two . At See also:

• THIRTY

thirty years of See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age he appeared in public, and after a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short period (we cannot determine how long, but possibly eighteen months) he was crucified, upon the See also:

• ACCUSATION (Lat. accusatio, accusare, to challenge to a causa, a suit or trial at law)

accusation of his countrymen, by the Roman authorities . He was without technical See also:

• EDUCATION

education, but he had been carefully trained in the sacred books, as was usual with his See also:

• PEOPLE

people . Belonging neither to the See also:

• ARISTOCRACY (Gr. apuvror, best; «paria, government)

aristocracy nor to the learned class, he was one of the See also:

• COMMON

common people yet See also:

• SEPARATE

separate from them—a separation not of race or caste or education, but of unique See also:

• PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's mask, from personare,1 to sound through)

personality . His career is understood only in the See also:

• LIGHT

light of his relations to Judaism (see HEBREW RELIGION) . This faith, in a peculiarly vivid See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion, illustrates the growth and development of religion, for its great teachers in the highest degree possessed what the Germans call God-consciousness .

The Hebrew national literature centres in the thought of God . It is Yahweh who is all and in all, the See also:

• FATHER

father, the See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader, the hope, the See also:

• HERO (Gr. open)
• HERO, THE YOUNGER

hero of his people . No other national literature is so continuously and so highly religious . Another See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor gives it still greater See also:

• INTEREST

interest for the student of religion,—in it the progress of religious thought can be traced, and the varying elements of the religious life seen in See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony and in conflict . In the early period the Hebrew religion was of the ordinary Semitic type . In its ancient stories were remnants of See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive religion, of tabu, of anthropomorphic gods, of native forms of See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship, of magic and See also:

• DIVINATION
• DIVINATION, OMEN, ASTROLOGY

divination, of See also:

• LOCAL

local and tribal cults . Out of these See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed, by the labours of the prophets, a religion of high spirituality and exalted ethical ideals . According to it God demands not See also:

• RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom)

ritual nor See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice nor offerings . He does not delight in prayers and praise, but he demands truth in the soul and bids See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man to walk humbly and See also:

• DEAL

deal righteously and mercifully with his See also:

• BROTHER

brother (See also:

• MICAH
• MICAH (r )

Micah vi.6-8; Isa. i . 2-20) . He requires kindness, forgiveness and loving sacrifice from all to all (Isa . Iviii.3-I2) .

This conception of God revealed itself as so essential to the prophets that their intense national feeling was modified . God would not deliver See also:

• ISRAEL (Hebrew for " God strives " or " rules "; see Gen. xxxii. 28; and the allusion in Hosea xii. 4)

Israel because it was his people, descended from See also:

• ABRAHAM, or ABRAM (Hebrew for " father is high ")

Abraham, his chosen, but he would punish it even more severely than the other nations because it denied him by its sins (See also:

• AMOS
• AMOS, SHELDON (1835–1886)

Amos iii . 1-2) . Yet Israel would not be destroyed, for a spiritual remnant, loving and obeying God, would be saved and purified (Ezek. See also:

• XXXVI

xxxvi.-See also:

• XXXVII

xxxvii.) . Thus Israel survived its misfortunes . When the national See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence was destroyed, the prophetic teaching held the people together in the hope of a re-See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of the See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom when all nations should be subject to it and blessed in its See also:

• EVERLASTING, or IMMORTELLE

everlasting reign of righteousness and See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace (Isa. xlix., lx.) . Some of the prophets associated the restoration of the Kingdom with the coming of the See also:

• MESSIAH (Dan. x. 25, 26)

Messiah, the anointed one, who should re-establish the See also:

• LINE

line of David (Isa. ix . 6 f., xi. r f.; Micah v . 2; Ezek. xxxiv . 23, xxxvii . 24; Zech. ix . 9; Ps. ii .

72) . Others said nothing of such a one, but seemed to expect the regeneration of Israel through the labours, sufferings and triumphs of the righteous remnant (Isa. liii., Ezek. xxxvi.-xxxvii.) . By the strong emphasis upon righteousness, the tribal Lord of Israel was revealed as the universal God, of one relationship to all men . This monotheism was not primarily cosmological nor See also:

• META

meta-See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical, but ethical . The See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews showed little capacity for abstract reasoning and never pursued their inquiries to the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery of ultimate principles . Thus they did not develop a systematic cosmology, nor formulate a See also:

• SYSTEM

system of See also:

• METAPHYSICS
• METAPHYSICS, or METAPHYSIC (from Gr. /sera, after, d v med, things of nature, lots, i.e. the natural universe)

metaphysics . Their religion was pre-eminently " theocratic "; God was thought of as See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King, enthroned in See also:

• HEAVEN (0. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel, Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the sugges

heaven and supreme . In the beginning as a tribal deity his See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers were limited and he was involved in the fortunes of his people . But as the conception of Yahweh was deepened and broadened, and, especially after the development of ethical monotheism, not only was he believed to possess See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power sufficient to ensure the See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph of his chosen people, but to be the creator and ruler of all things in heaven and on See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth, the God whom all peoples should worship and obey . But the prophetic teaching was obscured in part by the nationalism of the prophets themselves, who exalted Israel as at once God's See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument and the See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar See also:

• OBJECT

object of his love; and in part by the triumph of a legal-ritualistic sacrificial system . In the downfall of See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem, the experiences of the See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

exile in See also:

• BABYLON (mod. Hillah)

Babylon, and the return to See also:

• JUDAEA

Judaea, the nation was transformed into a church . Apart from the brief Maccabaean period, the intense patriotism of the people centred in the ecclesiastical organization .

As a result, cult and organization and See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code hardened, forming a See also:

• SHELL
• SHELL (O. Eng. scell, scyll, cf. Du. sceel, shell, Goth. skalja, tile; the word means originally a thin flake,. cf. Swed. skalja, to peel off; it is allied to " scale " and " skill," from a root meaning to cleave, divide, separate)

shell which proved strong enough to resist all disintegrating tendencies . Inevitably the freedom, spirituality and universality of the prophetic teaching were obscured . In the 1st century A.D. the national and priestly elements controlled; doubtless many individuals still were faithful to the purer prophetic See also:

• MESSAGE (a word occurring in slightly different forms in several languages, e.g. Fr. message, Span. mensaje, Ital. messagio; adapted from the Low Lat. missaticum, from mittere)

message, though also zealous for the system of ritual and sacrifice, but for the ruling See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority ritualistic service was the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief thing, See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice, purity and See also:

• MERCY (adapted from Fr. merci, Lat. merces, reward)
• MERCY (or MERCI), FRANZ, FREIHERR VON

mercy being subordinate . Hence in their view all who did not participate in the national worship and conform to the national usages were outcasts . The triumph of Israel was to be accomplished by the miraculous power of a Messiah who should descend out of heaven . His coming was delayed, in part by the opposition of demons, in part by the failure of the people to obey the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law . This law embraced both moral and ceremonial elements derived from varied See also:

• SOURCES

sources, but in the See also:

• APPREHENSION (Lat. ad, to; prehendere, to seize)

apprehension of the people it was all alike regarded as of divine origin . It was to be obeyed without question and without inquiry as to its meaning, because established by God . It was contained in the Sacred Scriptures (see BIBLE: Old Testament), which had been revealed by God supernaturally, and its meaning was set forth by See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools of learned men whose interpretations were authoritative . The conception of salvation was mingled with ideas derived from the East during and after the period of captivity . The priesthood held still the ancient ideas . Salvation was for the nation, and the individual was not necessarily participant in it .

Life after See also:

• DEATH

death was disbelieved or held as the existence of shades . There could be no resurrection of the See also:

• BODY

body and no See also:

• IMMORTALITY (Lat. in-, not, mortalis, mortal, from mors, death)

immortality (in the Greek sense) . With these beliefs were associated a certain worldliness and want of fervour . The more actively and aggressively religious party, on the other hand, adopted the belief in the resurrection of the body, and in the individual's participation in the Messiah's kingdom; all the pious would have their See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in it, while the wicked would be outcast . But these doctrines were variously conceived . By some the Messianic kingdom was thought of as permanent, by others as intermediary, the See also:

• EXTERNAL

external kingdom being transcendent . So too some thought of a literal resurrection of the body of flesh and See also:

• BLOOD

blood, while others thought that it would be transformed . The rudiments of some of these ideas can be found in the prophets, but their development took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place after the exile, and indeed for the most part after the conclusion of the writings accounted canonical . Thus too the belief in a kingdom of demons held a large place in the mind of the people, though the references to such evil beings are almost absent from the sacred writings of the Old Testament . Again it is to the East that we must look for the origin of these ideas . Jesus completed the prophetic teachings . He employed the old phraseology and imagery, but he was conscious that he used them in a new sense, and that he preached a new gospel of great joy .

Jesus was not a historian, a critic or a The theologian . He used the words of common men in the teaching of Jesus, sense in which common men understood them . He did not employ the Old Testament as now reconstructed by See also:

• SCHOLAR, SCHOLARSHIP

scholar-See also:

• SHIP

ship or judged by See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism, but in its See also:

• SIMPLE

simple and obvious and traditional sense . And his background is the intellectual and religious thinking of his See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . The ideas of demons and of the future, of the Bible and many other traditional conceptions, are taken over without criticism . So the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of God which he sets forth is not that of a theologian or a metaphysician, but that of the unlearned man which even the See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

child could understand . Yet though thus speaking in untechnical See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, he revolutionized his terms and filled them with new meaning . His emphasis is his own, and the traditional material affords merely the setting for his thought . He was not concerned with speculative questions about God, nor with abstract theories of his relation-ship to the soul and to the world . God's continual presence, his fatherly love, his transcendent righteousness, his mercy, his goodness, were the facts of immediate experience . Not in proofs by formal See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

logic but in the reality of consciousness was the certainty of God . Thus religion was freed from all particular and national elements in the simplest way .

For Jesus did not denounce these elements, nor argue against them, nor did he seek converts outside of Israel, but he set forth communion with God as the most certain fact of man's experience and as simple reality made it accessible to every one . Thus his teaching contains the See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note of universality—not in terms and proclamations but as See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain See also:

• MATTER

matter of fact . His way for others to this reality is likewise plain and level to the comprehension of the unlearned and of See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children . For him repentance is put first, for how vastly changed is the conception of the religious life ! The intricacies of ritual and See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology are ignored, and ancient See also:

• LAWS

laws which contradict the fundamental beliefs are unhesitatingly abrogated or denied . He seizes upon the most spiritual passages of the prophets, and revives and deepens them . He sums up his teaching in supreme love to God and a love for See also:

• FELLOW

fellow-man like that we hold for ourselves (See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

Mark xii . 29-31) . This supreme love to God is a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete oneness with him in will, a will which is expressed in service to our fellow-men in the simplest and most natural relationship (See also:

• LUKE
• LUKE, GOSPEL OF ST

Luke x . 25-37) . Thus religion is ethical through and through, as God's inner nature, expressed in forgiveness, mercy, righteousness and truth, is not something transcendental, but belongs to the See also:

• REALM

realm of daily life . We become children of God and he our Father in virtue of a moral likeness (Matt. v .

43-48), while of any metaphysical, or (so to speak) physical relationship to God Jesus says nothing . With this clearly understood, man is to live in implicit See also:

• TRUST

trust in the divine love, power, knowledge and forgiveness . Hence he attains salvation, being delivered from See also:

• SIN
• SIN (O. Eng. syn: a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zonde, Ger. Siinde)

sin and fear and death, for the divine attributes are not ontological entities to be discussed and defined in the schools, but they are realities, entering into the See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical daily life . Indeed they are to be repeated in us also, so that we are to forgive our brethren as we ask to be forgiven (Matt. vi . 12; Luke xi . 4) . As religion thus becomes thoroughly. ethical, so is the notion of the Messianic kingdom transformed . Its essential characteristic is the doing of the Father's will on earth as in heaven . Jesus uses See also:

• PARABLE (Gr. 7apa(3oXi7, a comparison or similitude)

parable after parable to establish its meaning . It is a See also:

• SEED (from the root seen in Lat. serere, to sow)

seed See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast into the ground which grows and prospers (Matt. xiii . 31-32) . It is a seed sown in See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good ground and bringing forth See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit, or in See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad ground and fruitless (Luke viii .

5-8; Mark iv . 1-32) . It is a See also:

• PEARL
• PEARL, THE

pearl of great See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price for which a man should sell all that he possesses (Matt. xiii . 44-46) . It is not come " with observation," so that men shall say " to here and lo there " (Luke xvii . 20-21) . It is not of this world, and does not possess the characteristics or the See also:

• GLORY (through the O. Fr. glorie, modern gloire, from Lat. gloria, cognate with Gr. KXebs, abets)

glory of the kingdom of the earth (Luke xxii . 24-26; Mark x . 13-16) . It is already See also:

• PRESENT

present among men (Luke xvii . 21) . Together with these statements in our sources are still mingled fragments of the more ordinary cataclysmic, apocalyptic conceptions, which in spite of much ingenious exegesis, cannot be brought into harmony with Christ's predominant teaching, but remain as foreign elements in the words of the Master, possibly brought back through his disciples, or, more probably, used by Jesus uncritically—a part of the current religious imagery in which he shared .

It is often declared that in these teachings there is nothing new, and indeed analogies can be found for many sayings; yet His origin- nowhere else do we gain so strong an impression of ality. originality . The See also:

• NET

net result is not only new but re- volutionary; so was it understood by the See also:

• PHARISEES

Pharisees . They and Jesus spoke indeed the same words and appealed to the same authorities, but they rightly saw in him a revolutionist who threatened the existence of their most cherished hopes . The Messianic kingdom which they sought was opposed point by point to the kingdom of which he spoke, and their God and his Father—though called by the same sacred name—were different . Hence almost from the beginning of his public ministry they constantly opposed him, the conflict deepening into complete antagonism . Jesus has already been termed unique, one of the common people yet separated from them, and this description applies to the breadth, See also:

• DEPTH

depth and reality of his sympathy . In the meagre records of his life there is See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence that he deemed no form of suffering humanity foreign to himself . This was not a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere sentiment, nor was his sympathy superficial, for it constituted the essential characteristic of his personality—" He went about doing good." In him the will of the Father for the redemption of the race was incarnate . This led him into the society of those outcasts who were condemned and rejected by the respectable and righteous classes . In contemptuous condemnation he was called the friend of the outcasts (Matt. xi . 19; Mark ii . 16-17), and on his part he proclaimed that these sinners would enter into the Kingdom of Heaven before the self-righteous See also:

• SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE

saints (Matt. xxi .

31) . Even the most repulsive forms of disease and sin See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew from him only loving aid, while he recognized in all other men who laboured for the welfare of their See also:

• FELLOWS, SIR CHARLES (1799-1860)

fellows the most intimate relationship to himself . These constituted his family, and these were they whom his Father will bless . Jesus recognized his unique position; he could not be ignorant of his powers . Even the prophets had spoken in the name of God; they accepted neither See also:

• BOOK

book nor priesthood as authoritative, but uttered their truth as they were inspired to speak, and commanded men to listen and obey . As in Jesus the whole prophetic line culminates, so does its consciousness . Reverent toward the See also:

• HOLY

Holy Scriptures, he spoke not as their expositor but with a divine power which invests his words with immediate and full authority . The prophets use the See also:

• FORMULA
• FORMULA (Lat. diminutive of forma, shape, pattern, &c., especially used of rules of judicial procedure)

formula, " Thus saith the Lord," but he goes beyond them and speaks in his own name, " See also:

• AMEN

Amen, I say unto you." He knew himself as greater than the prophets, indeed as him of whom the prophets spoke—the Messiah . Only through this self-consciousness can we explain his See also:

• MISSION

mission and the career of his disciples . The prophets up to See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John foretold the coming of the kingdom (Matt. xi . 11-13; Luke xvi . 16), but Jesus opened its doors and made possible entrance into it .

Where he is there it is, and hence those who follow him are God's children, and those who refuse his message are left out-See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side in darkness . He is to sit as enthroned, See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge and king, and by him is men's future to be determined (Matt. See also:

• XXV

xxv . 31 f.; Mark xiii . 26) . Indeed it was his presence more than his teaching which created his church . Great as were his words, greater was his personality . His disciples misunderstood what he said, but they trusted and followed him . By him they felt themselves freed from sin and fear—and under the influence of a divine power . Though his claims to authoritative pre-See also:

• EMINENCE (Lat. eminentia)

eminence thus took him out of the class of prophets and put him even above See also:

• ELIJAH (a Hebrew name meaning " Yah[weh] is God ")

Elijah and See also:

• MOSES (Gr. Mwvo c, Mcoo-i3s)
• MOSES, ASSUMPTION OF

Moses (Mark ix . 2-7; Luke vii . 28; Luke x . 23-24), and though naturally this self-assertion seemed blasphemous to those who did not accept him, yet as he had transformed the traditional notion of the kingdom, so did he the current thought of the Messiah .

The pre-eminence was not to be of See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank and glory but of service and self-sacrifice . In his kingdom there can be no strife for See also:

• PRECEDENCE (from Lat. praecedere, to go before, precede)

precedence, since its King comes not to be ministered unto but to See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister and to give his life in the service of others (Mark ix . 33 f., x . 42-45) . The formal See also:

• ACKNOWLEDGMENT (from the old acknow, a compound of on- and know, to know by the senses, which passed through the forms oknow, aknow and acknow; acknowledge is formed on analogy of " knowledge ")

acknowledgment of the Messiah's See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth and position matters little, for to call him Lord does not ensure entrance into his kingdom (Matt. vii . 21-23) . It is those who fail to recognize the spirit of sympathy and self-sacrificing service as divine and blaspheme redeeming love, who are in danger of eternal sin (Mark iii . 28-29) . All who do the will of the Father, i.e. who serve their fellows, are the brethren of Christ, even though they do not call him Lord (Mark iii . 31-35; Matt . vii . 21) : and those are blessed who minister to the needy even though ignorant of any relation to himself (Matt. xxv .

37-40) . Finally, membership in his own selected See also:

• COMPANY

company, or a place in the chosen people, is not of See also:

• PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING

prime importance (Mark ix . 38-40; Luke xiii . 24-30) . Jesus also refuses to conform to the current ideas as to the establishment of the kingdom . He wrought miracles, it is true, because of his divine sympathy and compassion, but he refused to show miraculous signs as a See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof of his Messianic character (Mark viii . 12) . The tradition of the people implied a sudden See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of the Messiah, but Jesus made no claims to a supernatural origin and was content to be known as the son of Joseph and Mary (Mark vi . 3-4) . His kingdom is not to be set up by wonders and miraculous powers, nor is it to be established by force (Matt. See also:

• XXVI

xxvi . 52) . Such. means would contradict its fundamental character, for as the kingdom of loving service it can be established only by loving service .

And as God is love, he can be revealed not by prodigies of power but only by a love which is faithful unto- death . Even the disciples of Jesus could not grasp the simplicity and profundity of his message; still less could his opponents . When the crisis came, he alone remained unshaken in his faith . He was accused of See also:

• BLASPHEMY (through the Fr. from Gr. PXaa4o ta, profane language, slander, probably derived from root of )3X

blasphemy to the ecclesiastical authorities and of insurrection to the See also:

• CIVIL

civil rulers . He was condemned and crucified . His followers were scattered every man to his own place as See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep without a shepherd . Of his work nothing remained, not a written word, nor more than the rudiments of an organization . The decisive event, which turned defeat into victory and re-established courage and faith, was the resurrection of Jesus from the dead and his reappearance to his disciples . Our sources will not permit the precise determination of the See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order or the nature of these appearances, but in any case from them arose the faith which was the basis of the Christian Church and the starting-point of its theology . The death of Jesus as a criminal, and his resurrection, profoundly aroused the belief and hopes of the little See also:

• GROUP

group of Jews who were his followers . His See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person and mission assumed the first place in their affections and their thinking . He had been to them a prophet, mighty in word and See also:

• DEED (in O. Eng. dead, from the stem of the verb " to do ")

deed, but he now becomes to them the Messiah, Christ .

It is not his word but his person which assumes first place, and faith is acceptance of him—crucified and risen—as Messiah . Hence his followers early acquire the name Christians from the Greek form of the word . With this emphasis upon the Messiah the Jewish element would seem to be predominant, but as a matter of fact it was not so . The earlier group of disciples, it is true, did not appreciate the universality of the teaching of Jesus, and they continued zealous for the older forms, but St See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul through his prophetic consciousness grasped the fundamental fact and became Jesus' true interpreter . As a result Christianity was rejected by the Jews and became the conquering religion of the Roman empire . In this it underwent another modification of far-reaching consequence . In our earliest sources—the epistles of St Paul—Christ is the pre-existent man from heaven, who had there existed in the form of God, and had come to earth by a voluntary act of airman. self-humiliation . He is before and above all things. ity and By him all things exist . In the Johannine writings he Greek is the Son of God—the See also:

• LOGOS (X4os)

Logos who in the beginning was th°sight with God—of whom are all things—who lightens every man—and who was incarnate in Jesus . Here the cosmological element is His Messianic claims . again made prominent though not yet supreme, and the meta-physical problems are so See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close at hand that their discussion is imperative . Even in Paul the term Messiah thus had lost its definite meaning and became almost a proper name .

Among the Greek Christians this See also:

• PROCESS

process was complete . Jesus is the " Son of God "; and the great problem of theology becomes explicit . Religion is in our emotions of reverence and dependence, and theology is the intellectual See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to describe the object of worship . Doubtless the two do not exactly coincide, not only because accuracy is difficult or even impossible, but also because elements are admitted into the See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition of God which are derived from various sources quite distinct from the religious experience . Like all concepts the meaning of religious terms is changed with a changing experience and a changing world-view . Transplanted into the Greek world-view, inevitably the Christian teaching was modified—indeed transformed . Questions which had never been asked came into the foreground, and the Jewish presuppositions tended to disappear . Especially were the Messianic hopes forgotten or transferred to a transcendent See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere beyond death . When the empire became Christian in the 4th century, the notion of a kingdom of Christ on earth to be introduced by a great struggle all but disappeared, remaining only as the faith of obscure See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups . Immortality—the philosophical conception—took the place of the resurrection of the body . Nevertheless the latter continues because of its presence in the See also:

• PRIMARY

primary sources, but it is no longer a determining factor, since its presupposition—the Messianic kingdom on earth—has been obscured . As thus the background is changed from Jewish to Greek, so are the fundamental religious conceptions .

The Semitic peoples were essentially theocratic in their religion; they used the forms of the sensuous See also:

• IMAGINATION

imagination in setting forth the realities of the unseen world . They were not given to metaphysical See also:

• SPECULATION

speculation, nor long insistent in their inquiries as to the meaning and origin of things . With the Greeks it was far otherwise . For them ideas and not images set forth fundamental reality, and their restless intellectual activity would be content with nothing else than the ultimate truth . Their speculation as to the nature of God had led them gradually to separate him by an See also:

• INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere, to deave)

infinite distance from all creation, and to feel keenly the opposition of the finite and the infinite, the perfect and the imperfect, the eternal and the temporal . To them, therefore, Christianity presented itself not primarily as the religion of a redemption through the indwelling power of a risen saviour, as with Paul, nor even as the See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution of the problem how the sins of men could be forgiven, but as the reconciliation of the See also:

• ANTINOMY (Gr. avri, against, v6uos, law)

antinomy of the See also:

• INTELLECT (Lat. intellectus, from intelligere, to understand)

intellect, indicated above . The incarnation became the great truth: God is no longer separated by a measure-less distance from the human race, but by his entering into humanity he redeems it and makes possible its ultimate unity with himself . Such lines of thought provoke discussion as to the relationship of Jesus to God the Father, and, at a later period, of the nature of the Holy Spirit who enters into and transforms believers . Greek philosophy in the second century A.D. had sunk for the most part into See also:

• SCEPTICISM (o-Kesrroµai, I consider, reflect, hesitate, doubt)

scepticism and See also:

• IMPOTENCE (Lat. impotentia, want of power)

impotence; its original impulse had been lost, and no new intellectual power took its place; only in See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria was there a genuine effort make to solve the fundamental problems of God and the world . See also:

• PLATO

Plato had made God accessible to the highest knowledge as the transcendent idea, remote from the world . For See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle, too, God in his essence is far above the world and at most its first mover . The See also:

• STOICS

stoics, on the other hand, taught his See also:

• IMMANENCE (from Lat. in-manere to dwell in, remain)

immanence, while the eclectics sought truth by the mingling of the two ideas .

They accomplished their purpose in various ways, by distinguishing between God and his power—or by the notion of a See also:

• HIERARCHY (Gr. iepos, holy, and apxe.v, to rule)

hierarchy of super-sensible beings, or in a See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine which taught that the operations of nature are the See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement of pure spirit; or by the use of the " Word " of " See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

Wisdom," See also:

• HALF

half personified as intermediate between God and the world . While these monotheistic, pantheistic doctrines were taught in the schools, the people were left to a debased polytheism and to new superstitions imported from the Orient; the philosophers themselves were by no means unaffected by the popularbeliefs . Mingled with all these were the ancient legends of gods and heroes, accepted as inspired scripture by the people, and by philosophers in part explained away by an allegorical exegesis and in part felt increasingly as a See also:

• BURDEN, or BURTHEN

burden to the intelligence . In this period of degeneracy there were none the less an awakening to religious needs and a profound longing for a new revelation of truth, which should satisfy at once the intellect and the religious emotions . Christianity came as supplying a new power; it freed philosophy from scepticism by giving a definite object to its efforts and a renewed confidence in its mission . Monotheism henceforth was to be the belief not of philosophers only but even of the ignorant, and in Jesus Christ the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union of the divine and the human was effected . The Old Testament, allegorically explained, became the substitute for the outgrown See also:

• MYTHOLOGY

mythology; intellectual activity revived; the new facts gained predominant influence in philosophy, and in turn were shaped according to its canons . In theology the fundamental problems of ontological philosophy were faced; the relationship of unity to multiplicity, of See also:

• NOUMENON (Gr. voouµevov, a thing known, from voeiv)

noumenon to phenomena, of God to man . The new element is the See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical Jesus, at once the representative of humanity and of God . As in philosophy, so now in theology, the easiest solution of the problem was the denial of one of its factors: and successively these efforts were made, until a solution was found in the doctrine of the Trinity, which satisfied both terms of the See also:

• EQUATION (from Lat. aequatio, aequare, to equalize)

equation and became the fundamental creed of the church . Its moulds of thought are those of Greek philosophy, and into these were run the Jewish teachings . We have thus a peculiar See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination—the religious doctrines of the Bible, as culminating in the person of Jesus, run through the forms of an See also:

• ALIEN (Lat. alienus)

alien philosophy .

The Jewish sources furnished the terms Father, Messiah, Son and Spirit . Jesus seldom employed the last term and St Paul's use of it is not altogether clear . Already in The Jewish literature it had been all but personified (cf. doctrine the Wisdom of See also:

• SOLOMON, ODES OF
• SOLOMON, PSALMS OF

Solomon) . Thus the material is Jewish, of the though already modified doubtless by Greek influence . Trinity . But the problem is Greek . It is not primarily ethical nor even religious, but it is metaphysical . What is the ontological relation-ship between these three factors ? The See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer is given in the Nicene formula, which is characteristically Greek . By it we perceive how God, the infinite, the absolute, the eternal, is yet not separated from the finite, the temporal, the relative, but, through the incarnation, enters into humanity . We further see how this entering into humanity is not an isolated act but continues in all the children of God by the indwelling spirit . Thus, according to the canons of the ancient philosophy, justice is done to all the factors of our problem—God remains as Father, the infinitely remote and absolute source of all; as Son, the Word who is revealed to man and incarnate in him; as Spirit, who dwells even in our own souls and by his substance unites us to God .

While thus the Greek philosophy furnished the See also:

• DIALECTIC, or DIALECTICS

dialectic and the See also:

• MOULD

mould for the characteristic Christian teaching, the doctrine of the Trinity preserved religious values . By Jesus the disciples had been led to God, and he was the central fact of faith . After the resurrection he was the object of praise, and soon prayers were offered in his name and to him . Already to the apostle Paul he dominates the world and is above all created things, visible and invisible, so that he has the religious value of God . It is not God as abstract, infinite and eternal, as the far-away creator of the universe, or even as the ruler of the world, which Paul worships, but it is God revealed in Jesus Christ, the Father of Jesus Christ, the See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

grace and mercy in Jesus Christ which deliver from evil . Metaphysics and speculative theories were valueless for Paul; he was conscious of a mighty power transforming his own life and filling him with joy, and that this power was identical with Jesus of Nazareth he knew . In all this Paul is the representative of that which is highest and best in early Christianity . Speculation and hyperspiritualization were ever tending to obscure this fundamental religious fact: in the interest of a higher doctrine of God his true presence in Jesus was denied, and by exaggeration of Paul's doctrine of " Christ in us " the significance of the historic Jesus was given up . The Johannine writings, which presupposed the Pauline movement, are a protest against the hyperspiritualizing tendency . They insist that the Son of God has been incarnate in Jesus of Nazareth, and that our hands have handled and our eyes have seen the word of life . This same purpose, namely, to hold fast to the historic Jesus, triumphed in the doctrine of the Trinity; Jesus was not to be resolved into an See also:

• AEON

aeon or into some mystericus tertium quid, neither God nor man, but to be recognized as very God who redeemed the soul . Through him men were to understand the Father and to understand themselves as God's children .

Thus the doctrine of the Trinity satisfied at once the philosophic intelligence of scholars and the religious needs of Christians . Only thus can its See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption and ultimate acceptance be explained . Its doctrinal form is the philosophic statement of beliefs held by the common people, who had little interest in theology, but whose faith centred in Jesus . It marks the See also:

• NATURALIZATION

naturalization of Christianity in the Greek world for the common people who believed in Christ, and for the philosophers who justified the faith to See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason . The historic and religious values of the doctrine of the Trinity may be illustrated by way of contrast . The Mahayana systems are the union of Buddha's teaching with the forms of the See also: