See also:

• CHRONICLE (from Gr. Xpovos, time)

CHRONICLE (from Gr. Xpovos, See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time)  . The See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical See also:

• WORKS

works written in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages are variously designated by the terms " histories," " See also:

• ANNALS (Annales, from annus, a year)

annals," or " See also:

• CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF

chronicles "; it is difficult, however,. to give an exact See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition of each of these terms, since they do not correspond to determinate classes of writings . The See also:

• DEFINITIONS

definitions proposed by A . See also:

• GIRY (JEAN MARIE JOSEPH), ARTHUR (1848-1899)

Giry (in La Grande Encyclopedie), by Ch . V . See also:

• LANGLOIS, HIPPOLYTE (1839— )

Langlois (in the See also:

• MANUEL, EUGENE (1823–1901)
• MANUEL, JACQUES ANTOINE (1775-1827)
• MANUEL, LOUIS PIERRE (1751-1793)

Manuel de bibliographie historique), and by E . Bernheim (in the Lehrbuch der historischen Methode), are manifestly insufficient . Perhaps the most reasonable is that propounded by H . F . See also:

• DELABORDE, HENRI FRANCOIS, COUNT (1764-1833)

Delaborde at the Ecole See also:

• DES

des Chartes, that chronicles are accounts of a universal See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, while annals relate either to a locality, or to a religious community, or even to a whole, See also:

• PEOPLE

people, but without attempting to treat of all periods or all peoples . The See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive type, he says, was furnished by See also:

• EUSEBIUS
• EUSEBIUS (Gr. EuOi/3tos, from ebaegils, pious, cf. the Latin name Pius)
• EUSEBIUS [OF CAESAREA] (c. 260-c. 340)
• EUSEBIUS [OF EMESA] (d. c. "36o)

Eusebius of Caesarea, who wrote (c . 303), a See also:

• CHRONICLE (from Gr. Xpovos, time)

chronicle in See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek, which was soon translated into Latin and frequently recopied throughout the middle ages; in the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of synoptic and synchronistic tables it embraced the See also:

• HISTORY

history of the See also:

• WORLD

world, both Jewish and See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian, since the Creation .

This ingenious See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion, however, is only partially exact, for it is certain that the See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval authors or See also:

• SCRIBES

scribes were not conscious of any well-marked distinction between annals and chronicles; indeed, they of ten apparently employed the terms indiscriminately . Whether or not a distinction can be made, chronicles and annals (q.v.) have points of See also:

• GREAT

great similarity . Chronicles are accounts generally of an impersonal character, and often See also:

• ANONYMOUS

anonymous, composed in varying proportions of passages reproduced textually from See also:

• SOURCES

sources which the chronicler is seldom at pains to indicate, and of See also:

• PERSONAL

personal recollections the veracity of which remains to be determined . Some of them are written with so little intelligence and spirit that one is led to regard the See also:

• WORK

work of See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition as a piece of drudgery imposed on the See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy and monks by their superiors . To distinguish what is See also:

• ORIGINAL

original from what is borrowed, to See also:

• SEPARATE

separate fact from falsehood, and to establish the value of each piece of See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence, are in such circumstances a difficult undertaking, and one which has exercised the sagacity of scholars, especially since the 17th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century . The work, more-over, is immense, by See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason of the enormous number of medieval chronicles, both Christian and See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

Mahommedan . The Christian chronicles were first written in the two learned See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages, Greek and Latin . At an See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage we have See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof of the employment of See also:

• NATIONAL

national languages, the most famous instances being found at the two extremities of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (q.v.), the most See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient form of which goes back to the loth century, and the so-called Chronicle of See also:

• NESTOR
• NESTOR (c. 1056-c. 1114)

Nestor, in Palaeo-See also:

• SLAVONIC, OLD

Slavonic, written in the 11th and 12th centuries . 298 Analogous See also:

• BROMINE (symbol Br, atomic weight 79-96)

bromine and See also:

• IODINE (symbol I, atomic weight '26.92)

iodine compounds are unknown, since bromides and iodides on See also:

• HEATING

heating with See also:

• POTASSIUM [symbol K (from kalium), atomic weight 39.114 0=16)]

potassium bichromate and concentrated sulphuric See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid give See also:

• FREE

free bromine or free iodine . The oxyfluoride, CrO2Fs, is obtained in a similar manner to the oxychoride by using fluorspar in See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of See also:

• COMMON

common See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt . It may be condensed to a dark red liquid which is decomposed by moist See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air into chromic acid and chromic fluoride . The semi-acid chloride, CrO2•Cl•OH, chlorochromic acid, is only known in the form of its salts, the chlorochromates .

Potassium chlorochromate, CrO2•Cl•OK, is produced when potassium bichromate is heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid and a little See also:

• WATER

water, or from See also:

• CHROMIUM (symbol Cr. atomic weight 52.1)

chromium oxychloride and saturated potassium chloride See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution, when it separates as a red crystalline salt . By suspending it in See also:

• ETHER, (C2H5)2O

ether and passing See also:

• AMMONIA (NH3)

ammonia, potassium amidochromate, CrO2.See also:

• NH2

NH2.0K, is obtained; on evaporating the ether solution, after it has stood for 24 See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours, red prisms of the amidochromate separate; it is slowly decomposed by boiling water, and also by nitrous acid, with liberation of See also:

• NITROGEN [symbol N., atomic weight 14.01, 0=16]

nitrogen . Chromic sulphide, Cr2S3, results on heating chromium and See also:

• SULPHUR

sulphur or on strongly heating the trioxide in a current of sulphuretted See also:

• HYDROGEN [symbol H, atomic weight x-oo8 (0=16)]

hydrogen ; it forms a dark See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green crystalline See also:

• POWDER (through O. Fr. puldre, modern poudre, from Lat. pulvis, pulveris, dust)

powder, and on ignition gives the sesquioxide . Chromic sulphate, Cr2(SO4)a, is prepared by mixing the hydroxide with concentrated sulphuric acid and allowing the mixture to stand, a green solution is first formed which gradually changes to See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue, and deposits See also:

• VIOLET

violet-blue crystals, which are purified by dissolving in water and then precipitating with See also:

• ALCOHOL

alcohol . It is soluble in See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold water, giving a violet solution,, which turns green on boiling . If the violet solution is allowed to evaporate slowly at See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary temperatures the sulphate crystallizes out as Crs(SO4)a•15H2O, but the green solution on evaporation leaves only an amorphous See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass . Investigation has shown that the See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change is due to the splitting off of sulphuric acid during the See also:

• PROCESS

process, and that green-coloured chromsulphuric acids are formed thus 2Cr2(SO4)a+H20 = H2SO4+[Cr4O• (SO4) (violet) (green) since, on adding See also:

• BARIUM (symbol Ba, atomic weight 137'37 [0=16])

barium chloride to the green solution, only one-third of the See also:

• TOTAL

total sulphuric acid is precipitated as barium sulphate, whence it follows that only one-third of the original SO4 ions are See also:

• PRESENT

present in the green solution . The green salt in aqueous solution, on See also:

• STANDING

standing, gradually passes back to the violet form . Several other complex chrom-sulphuric acids are known, e.g . [Cr2(SO4)4]H2; [Cr2(SO4)s]See also:

• H4(Sr, Ba, Ca)Al2(SiOa)6+31420. H 4CaAl2(SiO3)

H4; [Cr2 (SO4)6]He (see A . Recoura, Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1895 (7), 4, p . 505.) Chromic sulphate combines with the sulphates of the See also:

• ALKALI

alkali metals to form See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double sulphates, which correspond to the alums .

Chrome See also:

• ALUM

alum, K2SO4•Cr2(SO4)a•24H20, is best prepared by passing sulphur dioxide through a solution of potassium bichromate containing the calculated quantity of sulphuric acid, K2Cr207 +3S02 +H2SOa = H20+K2SO4 +Cr2 (SO4) a . On evaporating the solution dark See also:

• PURPLE

purple octahedra of the alum are obtained . It is easily soluble in warm water, the solution being of a dull blue tint, and is used in See also:

• CALICO

calico-See also:

• PRINTING (from Lat. imprimere, O. Fr. empreindre)

printing, See also:

• DYEING (0. Eng. dedgian, dealt ; Mid. Eng. deyen)

dyeing Jeing and tanning . Chromium ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4•Cr2(SO4)a•24H2O, results on mixing See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent quantities of chromic sulphate and ammonium sulphate in aqueous solution and allowing the mixture to crystallize . It forms red octahedra and is less soluble in water than the corresponding potassium See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound . The salt CrClSO4.8H2O has been described . By passing ammonia over heated chromic chloride, the nitride, CrN, is formed as a brownish powder . By the See also:

• ACTION

action of concentrated sulphuric acid it is transformed into chromium ammonium sulphate . The nitrate, Cr(NOa) 3.91-12O, crystallizes in purple prisms and results on dissolving the hydroxide in nitric acid, its solution turns green on boiling . A phosphide, PCr, is known ; it See also:

• BURNS, JOHN (1858– )
• BURNS, ROBERT (1759-1796)
• BURNS, SIR GEORGE

burns in See also:

• OXYGEN (symbol 0, atomic weight 16)

oxygen forming the phosphate . By adding See also:

• SODIUM [symbol Na, from Lat. natrium; atomic weight 23.00 (0=16)]

sodium phosphate to an excess of chrome alum the violet phosphate, CrPO4.6H2O, is precipitated; on heating to See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo° C. it loses water and turns green . A green precipitate, perhaps CrPO4.3H2O, is obtained on adding an excess of sodium phosphate to chromic chloride solution .

Carbides of chromium are known ; when the See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal is heated in an electric See also:

• FURNACE

furnace with excess of See also:

• CARBON (symbol C, atomic weight 12)

carbon, crystalline, C2Cr3, is formed; this scratches See also:

• QUARTZ

quartz and See also:

• TOPAZ

topaz, and the crystals are very resistant to the action of acids; CCr4 has also been described (H . See also:

• MOISSAN, HENRI (1852-1907)

Moissan, Comptes rendus, 1894, 119; p . 185) . See also:

• CYANOGEN (Gr. ebavos, blue 'yevvav, to produce), C2N2

Cyanogen compounds of chromium, analogous to those of See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron, have been prepared; thus potassium chromocyanide, K4Cr(CN)s.2H20, is formed from potassium See also:

• CYANIDE

cyanide and chromous acetate; on exposure to air it is converted into the chromicyanide, K2Cr(CN)6, which can also be prepared by adding chromic acetate solution to boiling potassium cyanidesolution . Chromic thiocyanate, Cr(SCN)a, an amorphous deliquescent mass, is formed by dissolving the hydroxide in thiocyanic acid and drying over sulphuric acid . The double thiocyanate, Cr(SCN)a•3KCNS•4H2O, is also known . Chromium salts readily combine with ammonia to form complex salts in which the ammonia See also:

• MOLECULE (from mod. Lat. molecula, the diminutive of moles, a mass)

molecule is in See also:

• DIRECT

direct See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination with the chromium See also:

• ATOM (Gr. &rows, indivisible, from a- privative, and TE,aPfw, to cut)

atom . In many of these salts one finds that the elements of water are frequently found in combination with the In the 13th and 14th centuries the number of chronicles written in the vulgar See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue continued to increase, at least in See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental Europe, which far outpaced See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England in this respect . From the 15th century, with the revived study of Greek and See also:

• ROMAN

Roman literature, the traditional form of chronicles, as well as of annals, tended to disappear and to be replaced by another and more scientific form, based on the See also:

• MODELS

models of antiquity—that of the historical composition combining skilful arrangement with elegance of See also:

• LITERARY

literary See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style . The transition, however, was very See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual, and it was not until the 17th century that the traditional form became practically See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct . See E . Bernheim, Lehrbuch der historischen Methode (4th ed., 1903) ; H .

See also:

• BLOCH, MARK ELIEZER (c. 1723–1799)

Bloch, " Geschichte der deutschen Geschichtsschreibung See also:

• IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

im Mittelalter " in the Handbuch of G. von Below and F . Meinecke (See also:

• MUNICH (Ger. Munchen)

Munich, 1903 seq.) ; Max See also:

• JANSEN, CORNELIUS (1585-1638)

Jansen, " Historiograpphie mtd Quellen der deutschen Geschichte bis 1500," in Alois Meister's Grundris (See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, 1906); and the Introduction (1904.) to A . See also:

• MOLINIER, AUGUSTE (1851-1904)

Molinier's See also:

• LES

Les Sources de l'histoire de See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France . (C .