CICERO  , the name of two families of See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome . It may perhaps be derived from titer (See also:

• PULSE

pulse), in which See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case it would be analogous to such names as See also:

• LENTULUS

Lentulus, Tubero, See also:

• PISO

Piso . Of one See also:

• FAMILY

family, of the plebeian Claudian Bens, only a single member, See also:

• GAIUS

Gaius See also:

• CLAUDIUS
• CLAUDIUS [TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS DRUSUS NERO GERMANICUS]
• CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS
• CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS (174o-1815)

Claudius Cicero, See also:

• TRIBUNE (med. Lat. tribune, from classical Lat. tribunal)

tribune in 454 B.C., is known . The other family was a See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the Tullii, settled from an ancient See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period at Arpinum . This family, four of whose members are noticed VI . I2CICERO 353 specially below, did not achieve more than municipal See also:

• EMINENCE (Lat. eminentia)

eminence until the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of M . Tullius Cicero, the See also:

• GREAT

great orator . I . See also:

• MARCUS

MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO (106-43 B.C.), See also:

• ROMAN

Roman orator and politician, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born at Arpinum on the 3rd of See also:

• JANUARY

January 1o6 B.C . His See also:

• MOTHER

mother, Helvia, is said to have been of See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good family . His See also:

• FATHER

father was by some said to have been descended from Attius Tullius, the Volscian See also:

• HOST

host of See also:

• CORIOLANUS, GAIUS (or GNAEUS)14IARCIUS

Coriolanus, while spiteful persons declared him to have been a See also:

• FULLER, ANDREW (1954-1815)
• FULLER, GEORGE (1822—1884)
• FULLER, M
• FULLER, MARGARET, MARCHIONESS
• FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910)
• FULLER, THOMAS (16o8-1661)
• FULLER, WILLIAM (1670--c. 1717)

fuller; in any case he was a Roman See also:

• KNIGHT, CHARLES (1791-1873)
• KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY (1845– )
• KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON (1843–1908)

knight with See also:

• PROPERTY

property at Arpinum and a See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house in Rome . His See also:

• HEALTH

health was weak, and he generally lived at Arpinum, where he devoted himself to See also:

• LITERARY

literary pursuits .

Cicero spent his boyhood partly in his native See also:

• TOWN

town and partly at Rome . The poet See also:

• ARCHIAS, AULUS LICINJUS

Archias, he says, first inspired him with the love of literature . He was much impressed by the teaching of See also:

• PHAEDRUS

Phaedrus, the Epicurean, at a period before he assumed the toga virilis ; he studied See also:

• DIALECTIC, or DIALECTICS

dialectic under See also:

• DIODOTUS

Diodotus the Stoic, and in 88 B.c. attended the lectures of See also:

• PHILO
• PHILO, HERENNIUS

Philo, the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the See also:

• ACADEMIC

Academic school, whose devoted See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil he became . He studied See also:

• RHETORIC (Gr. psroperctj TEXvq, the art of the orator)

rhetoric under Molo (Molon) of See also:

• RHODES
• RHODES, CECIL JOHN (1853-1902)
• RHODES, JAMES FORD

Rhodes, and See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law under the guidance of Q . Mucius See also:

• SCAEVOLA

Scaevola, the augur and jurisconsult . After the See also:

• DEATH

death of the augur, he transferred himself to the care of Q . Mucius Scaevola, the See also:

• PONTIFEX

pontifex See also:

• MAXIMUS
• MAXIMUS, ST (c. 58o-662)

maximus, a still more famous jurisconsult, See also:

• NEPHEW

nephew of the augur . His literary See also:

• EDUCATION

education at this period consisted largely of See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse-See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing and making See also:

• TRANSLATIONS

translations from See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek authors . We hear of an See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early poem named Pontius See also:

• GLAUCUS (" bright ")

Glaucus the subject of which is uncertain, and of translations of See also:

• XENOPHON

Xenophon's Oeconomica and the Phenomena of See also:

• ARATUS

Aratus . Considerable fragments of the latter See also:

• WORK

work are still extant . To this period also belongs his de Inventione rhetorica, of which he afterwards spoke lightly (de Oral. i . 5), but which enjoyed a great See also:

• VOGUE, EUGENE MELCHIOR, COMTE DE (1848- )

vogue in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages .

Cicero also, according to Roman practice, received military training . At the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of seventeen he served in the social See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war successively under Pompeius See also:

• STRABO (born c. 63 n.c.)

Strabo and See also:

• SULLA, LUCIUS CORNELIUS (138–78 B.C.)

Sulla (89 B.C.) . In the war between See also:

• MARIUS, GAIUS (r55–86 B.c.)

Marius and Sulla has sympathies were with Sulla, but he did not take up arms (Sext . Rost . 136, 142) . His forensic See also:

• LIFE

life begins in 81 B.C., at the age of twenty-five . A speech delivered in this See also:

• YEAR

year, See also:

• PRO

pro Quinctio, is still extant; it is concerned with a technical point of law and has little literary merit . In the following year he made his celebrated See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence of Sextus Roscius on a See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of See also:

• PARRICIDE (probably for Lat. patricidia, from pater, father, and caedere, to slay); strictly the murder of a parent; the term however has been extended to include the murder of any relative or of an ascendant by a descendant. The first Roman law against p

parricide . He subsequently defended a woman of See also:

• ARRETIUM (mod. Arezzo)

Arretium, whose freedom was impugned on the ground that Sulla had confiscated the territory of that town . Cicero then See also:

• LEFT

left Rome on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of his health, and travelled for two years in the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East . He studied See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy at See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens under various teachers, notably See also:

• ANTIOCHUS

Antiochus of See also:

• ASCALON

Ascalon, founder of the Old See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy, a See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of Stoicism, See also:

• PLATONISM

Platonism and Peripateticism . In See also:

• ASIA

Asia he attended the courses of Xenocles, See also:

• DIONYSIUS
• DIONYSIUS (c. 432–367 B.C.)

Dionysius and See also:

• MENIPPUS

Menippus, and in Rhodes those of See also:

• POSIDONIUS (c. 130-50 B.C.)

Posidonius, the famous Stoic .

In Rhodes also he studied rhetoric once more under Molo, to whom he ascribes a decisive See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence upon the development of his literary See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style . He had previously affected the florid, or See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic, style of See also:

• ORATORY (Lat. oratorio, sc. ors; from orare, to speak or pray)

oratory then current in Rome . The See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief faults of this were excess of See also:

• ORNAMENT (Lat. ornare, to adorn)

ornament, See also:

• ANTITHESIS (the Greek for " setting opposite ")

antithesis, See also:

• ALLITERATION (from Lat. ad, to, and littera, letter)

alliteration and assonance, monotony of See also:

• RHYTHM (Greek pvBµds, from bap, to flow)

rhythm, and the insertion of words purely for rhythmical effect . Molo, he says, rebuked his youthful extravagance and he came back " a changed See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man."' He returned to Rome in 77 B.C., and appears to have married at this time Terentia, a See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich woman with a domineering See also:

• TEMPER (from Lat. temperare, to mingle or compound in due proportion, to qualify, rule, regulate, to be moderate, formed from tempos, time, fit or due season)

temper, to whom many of his subsequent embarrassments were due.' He engaged at once in forensic and See also:

• POLITICAL

political life . He was See also:

• QUAESTOR (from Lat. quaero, investigate)

quaestor in 75, and was sent to Lilybaeum to supervise the See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply . His connexion with See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily led him to come forward in 70 B.C., when See also:

• CURULE (Lat. currus, " chariot ")

curule-See also:

• AEDILE (Lat. aedilis)

aedile elect, to prosecute Gains See also:

• VERRES, GAIUS (c. 120-43 B.C.)

Verres, who had oppressed the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island for three years . Cicero seldom prosecuted, but it was the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom at Rome for a rising politician to 1 See also:

• BRUTUS (originally an adjective meaning " heavy," "stupid," kindred with Gr. aap(s, cf. Eng. " brute," " brutal")

Brutus, § 316 " (Molon) dedit operam . . . ut nimis redundantis nos et supra fluentis iuvenili quadam dicendi impunitate et licentia reprimeret et quasi extra ripas diffluentis coerceret." 2 According to See also:

• PLUTARCH
• PLUTARCH (Gr. llXoi rapxos) (c. A.D. 46–120)

Plutarch she urged her See also:

• HUSBAND

husband to take vigorous See also:

• ACTION

action against See also:

• CATILINE [Lucius SERGIUS CATILINA] (C. I08-62 B.C.)

Catiline, who had compromised her See also:

• HALF

half-See also:

• SISTER

sister Fabia, a vestal virgin; also to give See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence against See also:

• CLODIUS

Clodius, being jealous of his sister See also:

• CLODIA, VIA

Clodia . II win his spurs by attacking a notable offender (pro Caelio, 73). See also:

• LEAGUE

league of See also:

• GABINIUS, AULUS

Gabinius in 58 . We know from his letters that he In the following year he defended Marcus (or Manius) Fonteius accepted See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial aid from See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar, but that he repaid the See also:

• LOAN (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Swed. Mn, Icel. lan, Dut. leen; the O.E. laen appears in " lend," the ultimate source is seen in the root of Gr. Xeiaecv and Lat. linquere, to leave)

loan on a charge of See also:

• EXTORTION (Lat. extorsio, from extorquere, to twist out, to take away by force)

extortion in See also:

• GAUL
• GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855— )

Gaul, using various arguments which might equally well have been advanced on behalf of Verres himself . In 68 B.C. his letters begin, from which (and especially those to T . See also:

• POMPONIUS, LUCIUS

Pomponius See also:

• ATTICUS, TITUS POMPONIUS (109–32 B.c.)

Atticus, his " second self ") we obtain wholly unique knowledge of Roman life and See also:

• HISTORY

history .

In 66 B.c. he was See also:

• PRAETOR (Lat. prae-itor, " he who goes before," "a leader")

praetor, and was called upon to hear cases of extortion . In the same year he spoke on behalf of the proposal of Gaius See also:

• MANILIUS
• MANILIUS, GAIUS

Manilius to See also:

• TRANSFER (from Lat. transferre, to bear across, carry over)

transfer the command against See also:

• MITHRADATES

Mithradates from See also:

• LUCULLUS

Lucullus to See also:

• POMPEY

Pompey (de Lege Manilia), and delivered his See also:

• CLEVER

clever but disingenuous defence of Aulus Cluentius (pro Cluentio) . At this time he was a prospective See also:

• CANDIDATE

candidate for the consulship, and was obliged by the hostility of the nobles towards " new men " to look for help wherever it was to be found . In 65 B.C. he even thought of defending Catiline on a charge of extortion, and delivered two brilliant speeches on behalf of Gaius See also:

• CORNELIUS
• CORNELIUS, CARL AUGUST PETER (1824-1874)
• CORNELIUS, PETER VON (1784–1867)

Cornelius, tribune in 67 B.c., a See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader of the democratic party, In 64 B.C. he lost his father and his son Marcus was born . The optimates finally decided to support him for the consulship in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to keep out Catiline, and he eagerly embraced the " good cause," his See also:

• AFFECTION (Lat. ad, and facere, to do something to, sc. a person)

affection for which from this time onward never varied, though his actions were not always consistent . The public career of Cicero henceforth is largely covered by the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article on ROME: History, II . " The See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

Republic," ad fin . The year of his consulship (63) was one of amazing activity, both administrative and oratorical . Besides the three speeches against Publius See also:

• RULLUS, PUBLIUS SERVILIUS

Rullus and the four against Catiline, he delivered a number of others, among which that on behalf of Gaius See also:

• RABIRIUS
• RABIRIUS, GAIUS

Rabirius is especially notable . The charge was that Rabirius (q.v.) had killed See also:

• SATURNINUS, LUCIUS APPULEIUS

Saturninus in roo B.C., and by bringing it the democrats challenged the right of the See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate to declare a man a public enemy . Cicero, therefore, was fully aware of the danger which would threaten himself from his See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution of the Catilinarian conspirators . He trusted, however, to receive the support of the. nobles .

In this he was disappointed . They never forgot that he was a " new man," and were jealous of the great house upon the See also:

• PALATINE (from Lat. palatium, a palace,)

Palatine which he acquired at this time . Caesar had made every possible effort to conciliate Cicero,' but, when all overtures failed, allowed Publius Clodius to attack him . Cicero found himself deserted, and on the See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice of See also:

• CATO, DIONYSIUS
• CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS (234—149 B.c.)
• CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS (95-46 B.c.)
• CATO, PUBLIUS VALERIUS

Cato went into See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

exile to avoid bloodshed . He left Rome at the end of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 58, and arrived on the 23rd of May at Thessalonica, where he remained in the deepest dejection until the end of See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November, when he went to Dyrrhachium (Durazzo) awaiting his recall . He left for See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy on the 4th of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 57, and on arriving at See also:

• BRUNDISIUM (Gr. Bpevrkwv, mod. Brindisi)

Brundisium (See also:

• BRINDISI (anc. Brundisium, q.v.)

Brindisi) found that he had been recalled by a law passed by the See also:

• COMITIA

comitia on the very See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day of his departure . On his arrival at Rome he was received with See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm by all classes, but did not find the nobles at all eager to give him See also:

• COMPENSATION (from Lat. compensare, to weigh one thing against another)

compensation for the loss of his house and villas, which had been destroyed by Clodius . He was soon encouraged by the growing coolness between Pompey and Caesar to attack the acts of Caesar during his consulship, and after his successful defence of Publius Sestius on the loth of March he proposed on the 5th of See also:

• APRIL

April that the senate should on the '5th of May discuss Caesar's See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of the Campanian See also:

• LAND

land . This brought about the See also:

• CONFERENCE

conference of Luca (See also:

• LUCCA (anc. Luca)
• LUCCA, BAGNI DI (Baths of Lucca, formerly Bagno a Corsena)

Lucca) . Cicero was again deserted by his supporters and threatened with fresh exile . He was forced to publish a " recantation," probably the speech de Provinciis Consularibus, and in a private See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter says frankly, " I know that I have been a See also:

• REGULAR

regular See also:

• ASS (O.E. assa; Lat. asinus)
• ASS, FEAST OF THE

ass." His conduct for the next three years teems with inconsistencies which we may deplore but cannot pass over . He was obliged to defend in 54 Publius Vatinius, whom he had fiercely attacked during the trial of Sestius; also Aulus Gabinius, one of the consuls to whom his exile was due; and Rabirius Postumus, an See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent of Gabinius .

On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, he made a violent speech in the senate in 55 against See also:

• LUCIUS

Lucius Piso, the See also:

• COL
• COL (Fr. for " neck," Lat. collum)

col- Caesar, at one time, offered him a See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place on the See also:

• COALITION (Lat. coalitio, the verbal substantive of coalescere, to grow together)

coalition, which on his refusal became a triumvirate (AU. ii . 3 . 3; Prov . Cons . 41), and afterwards a See also:

• POST

post on his See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission for the See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of the Campanian land, or a legatio libera.before the outbreak of the See also:

• CIVIL

civil war.2 There is no doubt that he was easily deceived . He was always an optimist, and thought that he was bringing good influence to See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear upon Caesar as afterwards upon Octavian . His actions, however, when Caesar's projects became See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

manifest, sufficiently vindicated his honesty . During these unhappy years he took See also:

• REFUGE

refuge in literature . The de Oratore was written in 55 B.C., the de Republica in 54, and the de Legibus at any See also:

• RATE

rate begun in 52 . The latter year is famous for the See also:

• MURDER

murder of Clodius by T . Annius See also:

• MILO
• MILO, TITUS ANNIUS

Milo on the See also:

• APPIAN (Gr. 'Aairtavbs)

Appian Way (on the r8th of January), which brought about the See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment of Pompey as See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole See also:

• CONSUL
• CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. praetor maximus)

consul and the passing of the See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• LAWS

laws dealing with rioting and See also:

• BRIBERY (from the O. Fr. briberie, begging or vagrancy, bribe, Mid. Lat. briba, signifying a piece of bread given to beggars; the Eng. " bribe " has passed through the meanings of alms, blackmail and extortion, to gifts received or given in order to influ

bribery . Cicero took an active See also:

• PART

part in the trials which followed, both as a defender of Milo and his adherents and as a prosecutor of the opposite See also:

• FACTION (through the French, from Lat. factio, a company of persons combined for action, facere, to do; from the other French derivative facon comes " fashion ")

faction .

At the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of the year, greatly to his annoyance, he was sent to govern See also:

• CILICIA

Cilicia under the provisions of Pompey's law (see POMPEY and Rome: History) . His reluctance to leave Rome, already shown by his refusal to take a See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province, after his praetorship and consulship, was increased by the inclination of his daughter Tullia, then a widow, to marry again .3 During his See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence she married the profligate spendthrift, P . Cornelius See also:

• DOLABELLA, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS

Dolabella . The province of Cilicia was a large one . It included, in addition to Cilicia proper, See also:

• ISAURIA

Isauria, See also:

• LYCAONIA

Lycaonia, See also:

• PISIDIA

Pisidia, See also:

• PAMPHYLIA

Pamphylia and See also:

• CYPRUS
• CYPRUS, CHURCH OF

Cyprus, as well as a See also:

• PROTECTORATE

protectorate over the client kingdoms of See also:

• CAPPADOCIA

Cappadocia and See also:

• GALATIA

Galatia . There was also danger of a See also:

• PARTHIAN

Parthian inroad . Cicero's See also:

• LEGATE (Lat. legatus, past part. of legare, to send as deputy)
• LEGATE, BARTHOLOMEW (c. 1575-1612)

legate was his See also:

• BROTHER

brother Quintius Cicero (below), an experienced soldier who had gained great distinction under Caesar in Gaul . The fears of Parthian invasion were not realized, but Cicero, after suppressing a revolt in Cappadocia, undertook military operations against the See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill-tribes of the Amanus and captured the town of Pindenissus after a See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege of See also:

• FORTY

forty-six days . A supplicatio in his See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour was voted by the senate . The early months of 50 were occupied by the See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration of See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice, chiefly at See also:

• LAODICEA
• LAODICEA, SYNOD OF

Laodicea, and by various attempts to alleviate the See also:

• DISTRESS

distress in the province caused by the exactions of his predecessor, Appius Claudius . He had to withstand pressure from influential persons (e.g . M .

Brutus,who had business interests in his province), and refused to provide his See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends with See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild beasts for their See also:

• GAMES, CLASSICAL

games in Rome: Leaving his province on the earliest opportunity, he reached Brundisium on the 24th of November, and found civil war inevitable . He went to Rome on the 4th of January, but did not enter the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city, since he aspired to a See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph for his successes.' After the outbreak of war he was placed by Pompey in charge of the Campanian See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast . After much irresolution he refused Caesar's invitations and resolved to join Pompey's forces in See also:

• GREECE

Greece . He was shocked by the ferocious See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language of his party, and himself gave offence by his See also:

• BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867– )

bitter jests (Plut . Cic . 38) . Through illness he was not See also:

• PRESENT

present at the See also:

• BATTLE

battle of Pharsalus, but afterwards was offered the command by Cato the Younger at Corcyra, and was threatened with death by the See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young Cn . See also:

• POMPEII

Pompeii's when he refused to accept it . Thinking it useless to continue the struggle, he sailed to Brundisium, where he remained until the 12th of August 47, when, after receiving a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind letter from Caesar, he went to Rome . Under Caesar's dictatorship Cicero abstained from politics . His See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice was raised on three occasions only: once in the senate in 46 to praise Caesar's clemency to M . Claudius See also:

• MARCELLUS

Marcellus (pro See also:

• MARCELLO, BENEDETTO (1686-1739)

Marcello), to plead in the same year before Caesar for See also:

• QUINTUS

Quintus Ligarius, and in 45 on behalf of See also:

• DEIOTARUS

Deiotarus, See also:

• TETRARCH (TETp&pX1)S)

tetrarch of Galatia, also before Caesar .

He suffered greatly from family troubles at this period . In 46, his See also:

• PATIENCE

patience giving way, he divorced Terentia, and married his young and wealthy See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

ward Publilia . Then came the greatest grief 2 Au. vii . 8 . 5 "est enim aµop(tov arneroXLrevoµAvov xpesetecXkres esse." a She was married in 63 B.C. to C . See also:

• CALPURNIUS, TITUS

Calpurnius Piso Frugi, whom Cicero found a See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model son-in-law . He appears to have died before 56, since in that year Tullia was betrothed to See also:

• FURIES (Lat. Furiae, also called DIRAE)

Furies Crassipes (quaestor in See also:

• BITHYNIA (BtOvpta)

Bithynia in 51) . It is not known if this See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage actually took place . ' That the loss of his triumph rankled in his mind may be seen from Brutus, § 255: " hanc gloriam ... tuae quidem supplication non, sed triumphis multorum antepono." of his life, the death of Tullia, his beloved daughter . He shortly afterwards divorced Publilia, who had been jealous of Tullia's influence and proved unsympathetic . To solace his troubles he devoted himself wholly to literature . To this period belong several famous rhetorical and philosophical See also:

• WORKS

works, the Brutus, Orator, Partitiones Oratoriae, Paradoxa, Academica, de Finibus, Tusculan Disputations, together with other works now lost, such as his Laus See also:

• CATANIA (Gr. Katane, Rom. Catinal)

Catania, Consolatio and See also:

• HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS
• HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS (114—50 B.C.)

Hortensius .

His repose was broken by Caesar's murder on the r5th of March 44, to which he was not a party . On the 17th of March he delivered a speech in the senate urging a general See also:

• AMNESTY (from the Gr. &µvrly-ria, oblivion)

amnesty like that declared in Athens after the See also:

• EXPULSION (Lat. expulsio, from expellere)

expulsion of the See also:

• THIRTY

Thirty Tyrants . When it became apparent that the conspirators had only removed the See also:

• DESPOT (Gr. Sc-va6rgs, lord or master; the origin of the first part of the Gr. word is unknown, the second part is cognate with rbvcs, husband, Lat. potens, powerful)

despot and left the despotism, he again devoted himself to philosophy, and in an incredibly See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short space of time produced the de Nature; Deorum, de Divinatione, de See also:

• FATE

Fate, Cato maior (or de Senectute), See also:

• LAELIUS

Laelius (or de Amicitia), and began his See also:

• TREATISE

treatise de Officiis . To this period also belongs his lost work de Gloria . He then projected a See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey to Greece in order to see his son Marcus, then studying at Athens, of whose behaviour he heard unfavourable reports . He reached See also:

• SYRACUSE
• SYRACUSE (Gr. Mvpaaovoat; Lat. Syracusae, Ital. Siracusa)

Syracuse on the 1st of August, having during the voyage written from memory a See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation of See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle's Topica . He was driven back by unfavourable winds to Leucopetra, and then, See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

hearing better See also:

• NEWS

news, returned to Rome on the 21st of August . He was bitterly attacked by Marcus See also:

• ANTONIUS

Antonius (See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

Mark Antony) in the senate on the 1st of See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September for not being present there, and on the next day replied in his First Philippic . He then left Rome and devoted himself to the completion of the de Officiis, and to the See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition of his famous Second Philippic, which was never delivered, but was circulated, at first privately, after Antony's departure from Rome to Cisalpine Gaul on the 28th of November . Cicero returned to Rome on the 9th of See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December, and from that time forward led the republican party in the senate . His policy, stated briefly, was to make use of Octavian, whose name was all-powerful with the veterans, until new legions had been raised which would follow the republican commanders (Phil. xi . 39) .

Cicero pledged his See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit for the See also:

• LOYALTY

loyalty of Octavian, who styled him " father " and affected to take his advice on all occasions (Epp. ad See also:

• BRUT, BRUTE

Brut. i . 17 . 5) . Cicero, an incurable optimist in politics, may have convinced himself of Octavian's sincerity . The See also:

• BREACH (Mid. Eng. breche, derived from the common Teutonic root brec, which appears in " break," Ger. brechen, &c.)

breach, however, was See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound to come, and the saying, maliciously attributed to Cicero, that Octavian was an " excellent youth who must be praised and—sent to another place," neatly expresses the popular view of the situation.' Cicero was sharply criticized by M . See also:

• JUNIUS
• JUNIUS, FRANZ (in French, Francois du Jon)

Junius Brutus for truckling to Octavian while showing irreconcilable enmity to Antony and See also:

• LEPIDUS

Lepidus (ad Brut. i . 16 . 4, i . 15 . 9); but Brutus was safe in his province, and it is difficult to see what other course was open to a politician in Rome . Whether Cicero was right or wrong, none can question his amazing See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy . He delivered his See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of See also:

• PHILIPPICS

Philippics at Rome, and kept up a See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence with the various provincial See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors and commanders, all short-sighted and selfish, and several of them half-hearted, endeavouring to keep each man in his place and to elaborate a See also:

• COMMON

common See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan of operations .

He was naturally included in the See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of the proscribed, though it is said that Octavian fought long on his behalf, and was slain near Formiae on the 7th of December 43 . He had a See also:

• SHIP

ship near in which he had previously attempted to See also:

• FLY (formed on the root of the supposed original Tent. fleugan, to fly)

fly, but being See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast back by unfavourable winds he returned to his See also:

• VILLA

villa, saying, " Let me See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die in the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country which I have often saved." His head and hands were sent to Rome and nailed to the rostra, after Fulvia, wife of Antony and widow of Clodius, had thrust a hairpin through the See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue . Works.—The literary works of Cicero may be classed as (1) rhetorical; (2) oratorical; (3) philosophical and political; (4) epistolary . (i.) Rhetorical.2—His chief works of this kind are: (a) de 1 Fam. xi . 20 " laudandum adolescentem, ornandum, tollendum." 2 With these it is usual to include a treatise to Herennius by an See also:

• ANONYMOUS

anonymous author, a contemporary of Sulla, in See also:

• MODERN

modern times generally identified with a See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person named See also:

• CORNIFICIUS

Cornificius, quoted by See also:

• QUINTILIAN [MARCUS FABIUS QUINTILIANUS] (C. A.D. 35-95)

Quintilian Oratore, a treatise in three books dedicated to his brother Quintus . The discussion is conducted in the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of a See also:

• DIALOGUE

dialogue which is supposed to have occurred in 91 B.C. chiefly between the two orators L . Crassi4s and M . Antonius . The first See also:

• BOOK

book deals with the studies necessary for an orator; the second with the treatment of the subject See also:

• MATTER

matter; the third with the form and delivery of a speech . Cicero says of this work in a letter (See also:

• FAIN, AGATHON JEAN FRANCOIS (1778–1837)

Fain. i . 9 . 23) that it " does not See also:

• DEAL

deal in hackneyed rules and embraces the whole theory of oratory as laid down by Isocrates and Aristotle." (b) Brutus, or de Claris oratoribus, a history of Roman eloquence containing much valuable See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information about his predecessors, See also:

• DRAWN

drawn largely from the See also:

• CHRONICLE (from Gr. Xpovos, time)

Chronicle (See also:

• LIBER

liber annalis) of Atticus (§§ 14, r5) .

(c) Orator, dedicated to M . Brutus, sketching a portrait of the perfect and ideal orator, Cicero's last word on oratory . The sum of his conclusion is that the perfect orator must also be a perfect man . Cicero says of this work that he has " concentrated in it all his See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste " (See also:

• FARM

Farm vi . 18 . 4) . The three See also:

• TREATISES

treatises are intended to form a continuous, series containing a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• SYSTEM

system of rhetorical training It will be convenient to mention here a feature of Ciceronian See also:

• PROSE

prose on which singular See also:

• LIGHT

light has been thrown by See also:

• RECENT

recent inquiry . In the de Oratore, iii . 173 sqq., he considers the See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element of rhythm or See also:

• METRE ((terpuc?, sc. rFxvf, from Gr. Or poi', measure)

metre in prose, and in the Orator (174-226) he returns to the subject and discusses it at length . His See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main point is that prose should be metrical in See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, though it should not be entirely metrical, since this would be See also:

• POETRY

poetry (Orator, 220) . Greek writers relied for metrical effect in prose on those feet which were not much used in poetry . Aristotle recommended the paean v c, v - .

Cicero preferred the cretic -v-, which he says is the metrical See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent of the paean . See also:

• DEMOSTHENES

Demosthenes was especially fond of the cretic . Rhythm pervades the whole See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence but is most important at the end or clausula, where the swell of the period sinks to See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest . The ears of the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans were incredibly sensitive to such points . We are told that an See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly was stirred to wild See also:

• APPLAUSE (Lat. applaudere, to strike upon, clap)

applause by a See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double trochee -v - v .a If the order were changed, Cicero says, the effect would be lost . The same rhythm should be found in the membra which compose the sentence . He quotes a passage from one of his own speeches in which any See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change in the order would destroy the rhythm . Cicero gives various clausulae which his ears told him to be good or See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad, but his remarks are desultory, as also are those of Quintilian, whose examples were largely drawn from Cicero's writings . It was left for modern See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research to discover rules of See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony which the Romans obeyed unconsciously . Other investigators had shown that Cicero's clausulae are generally See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations of some three or four forms in which the rhythm is See also:

• TROCHAIC (from Gr. rpoxalos, rpoxaixos; Lat. trochaeus)

trochaic . Dr Thaddaeus Zielinski of St See also:

• PETERSBURG

Petersburg, after examining all the clausulae in Cicero's speeches, finds that they are governed by a law . In every clausula there is a basis followed by a See also:

• CADENCE (through the Fr. from the Lat. cadentia, from cadere, to fall)

cadence .

The basis consists of a cretic or its metrical equivalent.4 This is followed by a cadence trochaic in character, but varying in length . The three favourite forms are (i.) -v--~, (ii.) -v- (iii.) v-t,-sa . These he styles verae (V) . Other frequent clausulae, which he terms licitae (L), are those in which a long syllable is resolved, as in verse, into two shorts, e.g. esse vide¢tur . These two classes, V and L, include 86 % of the clausulae in the orations . Some rarer clausulae which he terms M (=malae) introduce no new principle . There remain two interesting forms, viz . S(=selectae), in which a spondee is substituted for a trochee in the cadence, e.g . -v , this being done for special emphasis, and P (= pessimae), where a See also:

• DACTYL (from Gr. S&crvXo , a finger)

dactyl is so used, e.g . -v--v ., -G, this being the heroica clausula condemned by Quintilian . Similar rules apply to the membra of the sentence, though in these the S and P forms are more frequent, harmony being restored in the clausula . These results apply not only to the speeches but also to the (iii .

1 . 21) . This is a See also:

• MANUAL

manual of rhetoric derived from Greek See also:

• SOURCES

sources with illustrations of figures drawn from Roman orators . Cicero's juvenile work de Invention appears to be drawn partly from this and partly from a treatise by See also:

• HERMAGORAS

Hermagoras . This is a slight See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production and does not require detailed See also:

• NOTICE

notice . Other See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor works written in later life, such as the Partitiones Oratoriae, a See also:

• CATECHISM (from Gr. Karnxeiv, teach by word of mouth)

catechism of rhetoric, in which instruction is given by Cicero to his son Marcus; the Topica, and an introduction to a translation of the speeches delivered by Demosthenes and See also:

• AESCHINES (389-314 B.C.)
• AESCHINES (5th century B.C.)

Aeschines for and against See also:

• CTESIPHON

Ctesiphon, styled de optimo genere oratorum, also need only be mentioned . 3 Orator, § 214 " patris dictum sapiens temeritas fill compr6-bavit—hoc dichoreo tantus clamor contionis excitatus est ut admirabile esset . Quaero, nonne id numerus efficerit ? Verborum ordinem immuta, fac sic: ' Comprobavit fili temeritas ' jam nihil erit." 4 This theory is partly anticipated by See also:

• TERENTIANUS

Terentianus Maurus (c . A.D . 290), who says of the cretic (v . 1440 sqq.) : Plurimum orantes decebit quando paene in ultimo Obtinet sedem beatani, terminet si clausulam Dactylus spondeus See also:

• IMAM

imam, nec