See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

CLASSIFICATION (See also:

• LAT

Lat. classis, a class, probably from the See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)  , a logical See also:

• PROCESS

process, See also:

• COMMON

common to all the See also:

• SPECIAL

special sciences and to knowledge in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general, consisting in the collection under a common name of a number of See also:

• OBJECTS

objects which are alike in one or more respects . The process consists in observing the objects and abstracting from their various qualities that characteristic which they have in common . This characteristic constitutes the See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition of the " class " to which they are regarded as belonging . It is this process by which we arrive first at "See also:

• SPECIES

species" and then at " genus," i.e. at all scientific generalization . Individual things, regarded as such, constitute a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere aggregate, unconnected with one another, and so far unexplained; scientific knowledge consists in systematic See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification . Thus if we observe the heavenly bodies individually we can See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state merely that they have been observed to have certain motions through the See also:

• SKY (M. Eng. skie, cloud; O. Eng. skua, shade; connected with an Indo-European root sku, cover, whence " scum," Lat. obscurus, dark, &c.)

sky, that they are luminous, and the like . If, however, we compare them one with another, we discover that, whereas all partake in the general See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement of the heavens, some have a movement of their own . Thus we arrive at a See also:

• SYSTEM

system of classification according to See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion, by which fixed stars are differentiated from See also:

• PLANETS, MINOR

planets . A further classification according to other criteria gives us stars of the first magnitude and stars of the second magnitude, and so forth . We thus arrive at a systematic understanding expressed in See also:

• LAWS

laws by the application of which accurate forecasts of See also:

• CELESTIAL, OR STELLAR

celestial phenomena can be made . Classification in the strict logical sense consists in discovering the casual interrelation of natural objects; it thus differs from what is often called " artificial " classification, which is the preparation, e.g. of See also:

• STATISTICS

statistics for particular purposes, administrative and the like . Of the systems of classification adopted in See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science, only one requires treatment here, namely, the classification of Latin See also:

• PRONUNCIATION (Lat. pronuntiatio, from pronuntiare, proclaim, announce, pronounce)

pronunciation .

the sciences as a whole, a problem which has from the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle attracted considerable See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention . Its See also:

• OBJECT

object is to delimit the See also:

• SPHERES, MUSIC OF THE

spheres of See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of the See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive sciences and show how they are mutually related . Of such attempts three are specially noteworthy, those of See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis See also:

• BACON
• BACON (through the O. Fr. bacon, Low Lat. baco, from a Teutonic word cognate with " back," e.g. O. H. Ger. pacho, M. H. Ger. backe, buttock, flitch of bacon)
• BACON, FRANCIS (BARON VERULAM, VISCOUNT ST ALBANS) (1561-1626)
• BACON, JOHN (1740–1799)
• BACON, LEONARD (1802–1881)
• BACON, ROGER (c. 1214-c. 1294)
• BACON, SIR NICHOLAS (1509-1579)

Bacon, Auguste See also:

• COMTE, AUGUSTE [ISIDORE AUGUSTE MARIE FRANCOIS XAVIER] (1798-1857)

Comte and See also:

• HERBERT (FAMILY)
• HERBERT, GEORGE (1593-1633)
• HERBERT, HENRY WILLIAM
• HERBERT, SIR THOMAS (1606-1682)

Herbert See also:

• SPENCER
• SPENCER, HERBERT (1820-1903)
• SPENCER, JOHN CHARLES SPENCER, 3RD EARL (1782-1845)
• SPENCER, JOHNPOYNTZ SPENCER
• SPENCER, WILLIAM ROBERT (1769-1834)

Spencer . Bacon's classification is based on the subjective criterion of the various faculties which are specially concerned . He thus distinguished See also:

• HISTORY

History (natural, See also:

• CIVIL

civil, See also:

• LITERARY

literary, ecclesiastical) as the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of memory, See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

Philosophy (including See also:

• THEOLOGY

Theology) as that of See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason, and See also:

• POETRY

Poetry, Fables and the like, as that of See also:

• IMAGINATION

imagination . This classification was made the basis of the Encyclopedie . Comte adopted an entirely different system based on an See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective criterion . Having first enunciated the theory that all science passes through three stages, theological, See also:

• META

meta-physical and positive, he neglects the two first, and divides the last according to the " things to be classified," in view of their real See also:

• AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from offinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary)
• AFFINITY, CHEMICAL

affinity and natural connexions, into six, in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of decreasing generality and increasing complexity—See also:

• MATHEMATICS (Gr. /saBnµar1Kil, Sc. vOcvn or E7rlQTt'µn; from p iN.La, "learning" or "science ")

mathematics, See also:

• ASTRONOMY (from Gr. &arpov, a star, and v ,usiv, to classify or arrange)

astronomy, physics, See also:

• CHEMISTRY
• CHEMISTRY (formerly "chymistry"; Gr. xvµela; for derivation see ALCHEMY)

chemistry, See also:

• PHYSIOLOGY (from Gr. 4 i s, nature, and koyos, discourse)

physiology and See also:

• BIOLOGY (Gr. Qios, life)

biology (including See also:

• PSYCHOLOGY
• PSYCHOLOGY (>Guxrl, the mind or soul, and X yos, theory)

psychology), and See also:

• SOCIOLOGY

sociology . This he conceives to be not only the logical, but also the See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical, order of development, from the abstract and purely deductive to the See also:

• CONCRETE
• CONCRETE (Lat. concretes, participle of concrescere, to grow together)

concrete and inductive) . Sociology is thus the highest, most complex, and. most positive of the sciences . Herbert Spencer, condemning this See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division as both incomplete and theoretically unsound, adopted a three-See also:

• FOLD

fold division into (1) abstract science (including See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

logic and mathematics) dealing with the universal forms under which all knowledge of phenomena is possible, (2) abstract-concrete science (including See also:

• MECHANICS

mechanics, chemistry, physics), dealing with the elements of phenomena themselves, i.e. laws of forces as deducible from the persistence of forces, and (3) concrete science (e.g. astronomy, biology, sociology), dealing with " phenomena themselves in their totalities," the universal laws of the continuous redistribution of See also:

• MATTER

Matter and Motion, See also:

• EVOLUTION

Evolution and See also:

• DISSOLUTION (from Lat. dissolvere, to break up into parts)

Dissolution . Beside the above three systems several others deserve brief mention .

In See also:

• GREECE

Greece at the See also:

• DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " Jawing " or " dawning," from an old verb " daw," O. Eng. dagian, to become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen)

dawn of systematic thought the physical sciences were few in number; none the less philosophers were not agreed as to their true relation . The Platonic school adopted a triple classification, physics, See also:

• ETHICS
• ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES

ethics and dialectics; Aristotle's system was more complicated, nor do we know precisely how he subdivided his three See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main classes, theoretical, See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical and poetical (i.e. technical, having to do with irotl7Qis, creative) . The second class covered ethics and politics, the latter of which was often regarded by Aristotle as including ethics; the third includes the useful and the imitative sciences; the first includes See also:

• METAPHYSICS
• METAPHYSICS, or METAPHYSIC (from Gr. /sera, after, d v med, things of nature, lots, i.e. the natural universe)

metaphysics and physics . As regards pure logic Aristotle sometimes seems to include it with metaphysics and physics, sometimes to regard it as See also:

• ANCILLARY (from the Lat. ancilla, a handmaid)

ancillary to all the sciences . See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas See also:

• HOBBES, THOMAS (1588–1679)

Hobbes (See also:

• LEVIATHAN

Leviathan) See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew up an elaborate paradigm of the sciences, the first See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of which was a See also:

• DICHOTOMY (Gr. bLya, apart, TEµvew, to cut)

dichotomy into " Naturall Philosophy " (" consequences from the accidents of bodies naturall ") and " Politiques and Civill Philosophy " (" consequences from accidents of Politique bodies ") . The former by successive subdivisions is reduced to eighteen special sciences; the latter is subdivided into the rights and duties of See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers, and those of the subject . See also:

• JEREMY, EPISTLE OF

Jeremy See also:

• BENTHAM, GEORGE (1800-1884)
• BENTHAM, JEREMY (1748-1832)

Bentham and A . M . See also:

• AMPERE, ANDRE MARIE (1775–1836)
• AMPERE, JEAN JACQUES (1800-1864)

Ampere both drew up elaborate systems based on the principle of dichotomy, and beginning from the distinction of mind and See also:

• BODY

body . Bentham invented an artificial terminology which is rather curious than valuable . The science of the body was Somatology, that of the mind Pneumatology . The former include Posology (science of quantity, mathematics) and Poiology (science of quality); Posology includes Morphoscopic (See also:

• GEOMETRY

geometry) and Alegomorphic(See also:

• ARITHMETIC (Gr. apeOµ7run7, sc. TEXVn, the art of counting, from (ipLBµos, number)

arithmetic) .

See further Bentham's Chrestomathia and See also:

• WORKS

works quoted under BENTHAM, JEREMY . Carl See also:

• WUNDT, WILHELM MAX (1832— )

Wundt criticized most of these systems as taking too little See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the real facts, and preferred a classification based on the standpoint of the various sciences towards their subject-matter . His system may, therefore, be described as conceptional . It distinguishes philosophy, which deals with facts in their widest-See also:

• CLAUDE, JEAN (1619-1687)

CLAUDE, J . universal relations, from the special sciences, which consider facts in the See also:

• LIGHT

light of a particular relation or set of relations . All these systems have a certain value, and are interesting as throwing light on the views of those who invented them . It will be seen, however, that none can See also:

• LAY

lay claim to unique validity . The fundamenta divisionis, though in themselves more or less logical, are quite arbitrarily chosen, generally as being germane to a preconceived philosophical or scientific theory .