See also:

• CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as " clod," a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the late 13th century; the Anglo-Saxon chid is only used in the sense of " a ma

CLOUD (from the same See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root, if not the same word, as " clod," a word See also:

• COMMON

common in various forms to See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages for a See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the See also:

• LATE

late 13th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century; the Anglo-Saxon chid is only used in the sense of " a ma  ss of See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock," wolcen being used for " See also:

• CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as " clod," a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the late 13th century; the Anglo-Saxon chid is only used in the sense of " a ma

cloud "), a See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of condensed vapour See also:

• HANGING

hanging in the See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air at some height from the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth . See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

Classification of Clouds.—The earliest serious See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to name the varieties of cloud was made by J . B . See also:

• LAMARCK,

Lamarck in 18o1, but he only used See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French terms, and those were not always happily chosen . The See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field was therefore still clear when in 1803 See also:

• LUKE
• LUKE, GOSPEL OF ST

Luke See also:

• HOWARD (FAMILY)
• HOWARD, CATHERINE (d. 1542)
• HOWARD, JOHN (1726-1790)
• HOWARD, LORD WILLIAM (1563–1640)
• HOWARD, OLIVER OTIS (1830-19o9)
• HOWARD, SIR ROBERT (1626–1698)

Howard published, in Tilloch's Philosophical See also:

• MAGAZINE

Magazine, an entirely See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme in which the terms were all Latin, and were applied with such excellent See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment that his See also:

• SYSTEM

system remains as the broad basis of those in use to-See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day . He recognized three See also:

• PRIMARY

primary types of cloud—Cirrus, Cumulus and Stratus —and four derivative or See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound forms,—Cirro-cumulus, Cirro-stratus, Cumulo-stratus and Cumulo-cirro-stratus or Nimbus . 558 His own See also:

• DEFINITIONS

definitions were: (1) Cirrus.—Parallel, flexuous or diverging See also:

• FIBRES
• FIBRES (or FIBERS, in American spelling; from Lat. fibra, apparently connected either with filum, thread, or findere, to split)

fibres, extensible in any or all directions . (2) Cumulus.—See also:

• CONVEX

Convex or conical heaps, increasing upward from a See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal See also:

• BASE

base . (3) Stratus.—A widely-extended continuous horizontal See also:

• SHEET

sheet, increasing from below . (4) Cirro-cumulus.—Small, well-defined, roundish masses, in See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close horizontal arrangement . (5) Cirro-stratus.—Horizontal or slightly inclined masses, attenuated towards a See also:

• PART

part or the whole of their circumferences, See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

bent downward, or undulated, See also:

• SEPARATE

separate or in See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups consisting of small clouds having these characters . (6) Cumulo-stratus.—The cirro-stratus blended with the cumulus, and either appearing intermixed with the heaps of the latter or superadding a widespread structure to its base .

(7) Cumulo-cirro-stratus, or nimbus.—The See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain-cloud: a cloud or system of clouds from which rain is falling . It is a horizontal sheet, above which the cirrus spreads, while the cumulus enters it laterally and from beneath . This system was universally adopted, and apart from some See also:

• AMBIGUITY (Fr. ambiguite, med. Lat. ambiguitas, from Lat. ambiguus, doubtful; ambi, both ways, agere, to drive)

ambiguity in the definitions of cumulo-stratus and nimbus, it was sufficiently detailed for many purposes, such as the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general relations between clouds and the movements of the See also:

• BAROMETER (from Gr. (3apoc, pressure, and µETpov, measure)

barometer . When, however, such questions as the mode of origin of particular forms of cloud came to be investigated, it was at once See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt that Howard's classes were too wide, and something much more detailed was required . The result has been the promulgation from See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time to time of revised schemes, most of these being based on Howard's See also:

• WORK

work, and differing from him by the introduction of new terms or of subdivisions of his types . Some of these new terms have come more or less into use, such as A . Poey's See also:

• GALLIUM (symbol Ga; atomic weight 69.9)

gallium to signify a See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform sheet, but as a general See also:

• RULE

rule the proposals were not accompanied by a clear enough exposition of their precise meaning for others to be quite sure of the author's intention . Other writers not appreciating how fully Howard's names had become established, boldly struck out on entirely new lines . The most important of these were probably those due respectively to (1) Poey, published in the Annuaire de la societe meteorologique de See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, 1865, (2) M . 1'See also:

• ABBE (Serbo-Croatian Rai))

Abbe See also:

• MAZE

Maze, published in the Memoires du congres meteorologique inter-See also:

• NATIONAL

national, 1889, and (3) See also:

• FREDERIC, HAROLD (1856-1898)

Frederic Gaster, Quart . Jour . R .

Meteorological Society, 1893 . In all of these Howard's terms are used, but the systems were much more elaborate, and the verbal descriptions sometimes diffitult to follow . In his See also:

• BOOK

book Cloudland (1894) See also:

• CLEMENT (Lat. Clemens, i.e. merciful; Gr. K)4gs)
• CLEMENT, FRANCOIS (1714-1793)
• CLEMENT, JACQUES (1567-1589)

Clement Ley published a novel system . He grouped all clouds under four heads, in accordance with the mode in which he believed them to be formed . I . Clouds of See also:

• RADIATION, THEORY OF

Radiation . Nebula See also:

• FOG

Fog . Nebula Stillans Wet fog . Nebula Pulverea Dust fog . II . Clouds of Interfret . IV .

Clouds of Inclination . Nubes Fulgens Cirrus Cirro-filum Cirro- velum Cirro-macula Cirro-velum Mammatum.' It will be seen that Ley's scheme is really an amplification of Howard's . The See also:

• TERM

term " Interfret " is defined as the interaction of horizontal currents of different velocities . See also:

• INVERSION (Lat. invertere, to turn about)

Inversion is a synonym for See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical convection, and Inclination is used to imply that such clouds consist of sloping lines of falling See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice particles . While Ley had been See also:

• FINISHING

finishing his work and seeing it through the See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press, H . See also:

• HILDEBRAND, LAY OF (Deis Hildebrandslied)

Hildebrand-Hildebrandsson and R . Abercromhy had devised another modification which differed from Howard's chiefly by the introduction of a new class, which they distinguished by the use of the prefix See also:

• ALTO (Ital. for " high ")

Alto . This scheme was formally adopted by the See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

International Meteorological See also:

• CONFERENCE

Conference held at See also:

• MUNICH (Ger. Munchen)

Munich in 1891, and a See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

committee was appointed to draw up an See also:

• ATLAS

atlas showing the exact forms typical of each variety considered . Finally in See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 1894 a small sub-committee consisting of Messrs H . Hildebrand-Hildebrandsson, A . Riggenbach-See also:

• BURCKHARDT, JAKOB (1818–1897)
• BURCKHARDT, JOHN LEWIS [JOHANN LUDWIG] (1784-1817)

Burckhardt and Teisserenc de See also:

• BORT, or BOART

Bort was charged with the task of producing the atlas . Their task was completed in 1896, and meteorologists were at last supplied with a fairly detailed scheme, and one which was adequately illustrated, so that there could be no doubt of the authors' meaning .

It is as follows: The International Classification . (a) Separate or globular masses (most frequently seen in dry See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather) . (b) Forms which are widely extended, or completely See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover the See also:

• SKY (M. Eng. skie, cloud; O. Eng. skua, shade; connected with an Indo-European root sku, cover, whence " scum," Lat. obscurus, dark, &c.)

sky (in wet weather) . A . Upper clouds, See also:

• AVERAGE

average See also:

• ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

altitude 9000 metres.' . a . 1 . Cirrus . b . 2 . Cirro-stratus . B .

Intermediate clouds, between 3000 M. and 7000 M . a . 3 . Cirro-cumulus . 4 . Alto-cumulus . b . 5 . Alto-stratus . C . See also:

• LOWER

Lower clouds, 2000 M . a .

6 . Strato-cumulus . b . 7 . Nimbus . D . Clouds of Diurnal Ascending Currents . a . 8 . Cumulus, See also:

• APEX

apex 1800 m., base 1400 M . b . 9 .

Cumulo-nimbus, apex 3000 M. to 8000 m., base 1400 M . E . High Fogs, under 1000 m . 1o . Stratus . Explanations . 1 . Cirrus (Ci.).—Detached clouds, delicate and fibrous-looking, taking the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of feathers, generally of a See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white cclour, sometimes arranged in belts which See also:

• CROSS

cross a portion of the sky in See also:

• GREAT

great circles and by an effect of See also:

• PERSPECTIVE (Lat. peespicere, to see through)

perspective, converge towards one or two points of the See also:

• HORIZON (Gr. 6pfTwv, dividing)

horizon (the Ci.-S. and the Ci.-Cu. often contribute to the formation of these belts) . See See also:

• PLATE

Plate, fig . 1 . 2 . Cirro-stratus (Ci.-S.).--A thin, whitish sheet, at times completely covering the sky, and only giving it a whitish See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance (it is then sometimes. called cirro-nebula), or at others presenting, more or less distinctly, a formation like a tangled See also:

• WEB (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Du. webbe, Dan. vaev, Ger. Gewebe, all from the Teutonic wabh—to weave)

web .

This sheet often produces halos around the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun and See also:

• MOON (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maan, Dan. maane, &c., and cognate with such Indo-Germanic forms as Gr. µlip, Sans. ma's, Irish mi, &c.; Lat. uses luna, i.e. lucna, the shining one, lucere, to shine, for the moon, but preserves the word i
• MOON, SIR RICHARD, 1ST BARONET (1814-1899)

moon . See fig . 2 . 3 . Cirro-cumulus (Ci.-Cu.).—Small globular masses, or white flakes without shadows, or having very slight shadows, arranged in groups and often in lines . See fig . 3 . 4 . Alto-cumulus (A.-Cu.).—Largish globular masses, white or greyish, partially shaded, arranged in groups or lines, and often so closely packed that their edges appear confused . The detached masses are generally larger and more compact (changing to S.-Cu.) at the centre of the See also:

• GROUP

group; at the margin they form into finer flakes (changing to Ci.-Cu.) . They often spread themselves out in lines in one or two directions . See fig .

4 . 5 . Alto-stratus (A.-S.).—A thick sheet of a See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey or bluish See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour, showing a brilliant patch in the neighbourhood of the sun or moon, and without causing halos, sometimes giving rise to coronae . This form goes through all the changes like Cirro-stratus, but according to measurements made at See also:

• UPSALA, or UPPSALA

Upsala, its altitude is one-See also:

• HALF

half as great . See fig . 5 . 6 . Strato-cumulus (S.-Cu.).—Large globular masses or rolls of dark cloud, frequently covering the whole sky, especially in See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter, and occasionally giving it a wavy appearance . The layer is not, as a rule, very thick, and patches of See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue sky are often seen through intervening spaces . All sorts of transitions between this form and Alto-cumulus are seen . It may be distinguished from nimbus by its globular or rolled appearance, and also because it does not bring rain . See fig .

6 . Scud . Quiet cloud . Lenticular cloud . See also:

• MACKEREL

Mackerel cloud . See also:

• TURRET (from O. Fr. tourette, diminutive of tour, tower, mod. Fr. tourelle)

Turret cloud . See also:

• PLANE

Plane shower . Clouds of Inversion . Rudiment . Heap cloud . See also:

• ANVIL (from Anglo-Saxon anfilt or onfilti, either that on which something is " welded " or " folded," cf. German falzen, to fold, or connected with other Teutonic forms of the word, cf. German amboss, in which case the final syllable is from " beat," and

Anvil cloud . Tubercled anvil cloud .

Shower cloud . See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

Snow shower . See also:

• HAIL (O. Eng. kcegl and hagol, 1 cf. the cognate Teutonic hagel, as in German, Dutch, Swedish, &c.; the Gr. K&XX17E, pebble, is probably allied)

Hail shower . Festooned shower cloud . Rainfall cloud . Snowfall . Hailfall . Nubes Informis . Stratus Quietus Stratus Lenticularis Stratus Maculosus Stratus Castellatus Stratus Precipitans Cumulo-rudimentum Cumulus Cumulo-stratus Cumulo-stratus Cumulo-nimbus Cumulo-nimbus Cumulo-nimbus Cumulo-nimbus Nimbus Nimbus nivosus Ninibus grandineus Mammatus Nivosus Grandineus Mammatus Luminous cloud . Curl cloud . See also:

• GOSSAMER

Gossamer cloud . See also:

• VEIL (O.Fr. veile, mod. voile, from Lat. velum, cloth, awning, sail)

Veil cloud .

Speckle cloud . Draped veil cloud . ' Varieties. See also:

• METRE ((terpuc?, sc. rFxvf, from Gr. Or poi', measure)

metre =3.28 ft . 7 . Nimbus (N.), Rain Cloud.—A thick layer of dark clouds, without shape and with ragged edges, from which continued rain or snow generally falls . Through openings in these clouds an upper layer of cirro-stratus or alto-stratus may almost invariably be seen . If the layer of nimbus separates up into shreds, or if small loose clouds are visible floating at a See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low level, underneath a large nimbus they may be described as fracto-nimbus (Scud of sailors) . See fig . 9 . 8 . Cumulus (Cu.) (See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

Wool-See also:

• PACK (apparently from the root pak-, paq-, seen in Lat. pangere, to fasten; cf. " compact ")
• PACK, OTTO VON (c. 1480-1537)

pack Clouds).—Thick clouds of which the upper See also:

• SURFACE

surface is See also:

• DOME (Lat domus, house; Ital. duomo, cathedral)

dome-shaped and exhibits protuberances while the base is horizontal . These clouds appear to be formed by a diurnal ascensional See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement which is almost always observable .

When the cloud is opposite the sun, the surfaces usually presented to the observer have a greater brilliance than the margins of the protuberances . When the See also:

• LIGHT

light falls aslant, these clouds give deep shadows, but if they are on the same See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side as the sun they appear dark, with See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

bright edges . See fig . 7 . The true cumulus has clear See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior and inferior limits . It is often broken up by strong winds, and the detached portions undergo continual changes . These altered forms may be distinguished by the name of Fracto-cumulus . 9 . Cumulo-nimbus (Cu.-N.); The See also:

• THUNDER

Thunder-cloud; Shower-cloud . —Heavy masses of clouds, rising in the form of mountains, turrets or anvils, generally having a sheet or See also:

• SCREEN (usually, but very doubtfully, connected with Lat. scrinium, a box for holding books, from scribere, to write; a connexion with Ger. Schranke, barrier, has been suggested)

screen of fibrous appearance above (false cirrus) and underneath, a mass of cloud similar to nimbus . From the base there generally fall See also:

• LOCAL

local showers of rain or snow (occasionally hail or soft hail) . Sometimes the upper edges have the compact form of cumulus, rising into massive peaks See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round which the delicate false cirrus floats, and sometimes the edges themselves separate into a fringe of filaments similar to that of cirrus .

This last form is particularly See also:

• COMMON

common in See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring showers . See fig. to . The front of thunderclouds of wide extent frequently presents the form of a large See also:

• BOW (pronounced " bo ")

bow spread over a portion of the sky which is uniformly brighter in colour . 1o . Stratus (S.).—A horizontal sheet of lifted fog . When this sheet is broken up into irregular shreds by the See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind, or by the summits of mountains, it may be distinguished by the name of Fracto-stratus . See fig . 8 . The scheme also provides that where a stratus or nimbus takes a lumpy form, this fact shall be described by the See also:

• ADJECTIVE (from the Lat. adjectives, added)

adjective cumuliformis, and if its base shows downward projecting bosses the word mammato is prefixed . Issued as it has been with the authority of an international See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

congress of specialists, this scheme has been generally accepted, and must be regarded as the orthodox system, and for the great See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of observations it is quite detailed enough . But it does not give universal See also:

• SATISFACTION (Lat. salisfacerc, to satisfy)

satisfaction . Cirrus clouds, for instance, exhibit many forms, and these so diverse that they must be due to very different causes .

Hence for the minuter study of cloud forms a more elaborate scheme is still needed . Hence in 1896 H . H . See also:

• CLAYTON, JOHN MIDDLETON (1796–1856)

Clayton of the Blue See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

Hill See also:

• OBSERVATORY

observatory, See also:

• MASSACHUSETTS (an Indian name, originally applied to a tribe of Indians)

Massachusetts, published in the See also:

• ANNALS (Annales, from annus, a year)

Annals of the astronomical observatory of Harvard See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

College a highly detailed scheme in which the International types and a number of subdivisions were grouped under four classes—stratiforms or sheet clouds; cumuliforms or woolpack clouds; flocciforms, including stratocumulus, alto-cumulus and cirro-cumulus; and cirriforrns or hairy clouds . The International terms are embodied and the See also:

• SPECIAL

special varieties are distinguished by the use of prefixes such as tracto-cirrus or cirrus bands, grano-cirro-cumulus or granular cirrus, &c . Again in 19o4 F . L . Obenbach of the See also:

• CLEVELAND
• CLEVELAND (or CLEIVELAND), JOHN (1613—1658)
• CLEVELAND, BARBARA VILLIERS, DUCHESS OF (1641-1709)
• CLEVELAND, STEPHEN GROVER (1837-1908)

Cleveland observatory devised a different system, published in the See also:

• ANNUAL

annual See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report, in which the International types are preserved, but each is sub-divided into a number of See also:

• SPECIES

species . In the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of any atlas to define the precise meaning of the descriptions given, neither of these See also:

• AMERICAN

American schemes has come into general use . Further proposals were put forward by A . W . Clayden in Cloud Studies (1905) .

His scheme accepts the whole of the International names which he regards as the cloud genera, and suggests specific Latin names for the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief varieties, accompanying the descriptions by photographs . The proposed scheme is as follows . Genus . Species . Cirrus Cirro-nebula Cirrus haze . Cirro-filum See also:

• THREAD (0. Eng. praed, literally, that which is twisted, prawan, to twist, to throw, cf. " throwster," a silk-winder, Ger. drehen, to twist, turn, Du. draad, Ger. Draht, thread, wire)

Thread cirrus . Cirrus Excelsus High Ventosus Windy „ Nebulosus Hazy Caudatus Tailed Vittatus Ribbon „ Inconstans See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

Change Communis Common Cirro-stratus Communis Nebulosus Vittatus Cumulosus Cirro-cumulus Cirro-macula Nebulosus Alto-clouds Alto-stratus maculosus fractus Alto-strato-cumulus Alto-cumulus informis nebulosus Alto-clouds Alto-cumulus castellatus „ glomeratus „ communis stratiformis Stratus Stratus maculosus See also:

• RADIUS

radius „ lenticularis Strato-cumulus Cumulus Cumulus See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

major Cumulo-nimbus The term nimbus is to be applied to any cloud from which rain is falling, but if the true form of the cloud is visible the term should be used as a qualifying adjective . The prefix fractoor the adjective fractus should be used when the cloud is under-going disintegration or appears ragged or broken . Mammatois used in the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary sense, and finally undatus or waved is to be added to the name of any cloud showing a See also:

• WAVE

wave-like or rippled structure . (A . W .