See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root cognate with the See also:

• LAT

Lat. gelu, gelidus, and See also:

• COMMON

common in the See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the See also:

• ADJECTIVE (from the Lat. adjectives, added)

adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude  , koud) ,subjectively the sensation which is excited by contact with a substance whose temperature is See also:

• LOWER

lower than the normal; objectively a quality or See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of material bodies which gives rise to that sensation . Whether See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold, in the See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective sense, was to be regarded as a See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive quality or merely as See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat was See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long a debated question . Thus See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

Robert See also:

• BOYLE
• BOYLE, JOHN J
• BOYLE, ROBERT (1627-1691)

Boyle, who does not commit himself definitely to either view, says, in his New Experiments and Observations touching Cold, that " the dispute which is the primum frigidum is very well known among naturalists, some contending for the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth, others for See also:

• WATER

water, others for the See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air, and some of the moderns for See also:

• NITRE

nitre, but all seeming to agree that there is some See also:

• BODY

body or other that is of its own nature supremely cold and by participation of which all other bodies obtain that quality." But with the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance of the dynamical theory of heat, cold naturally came to be regarded as a negative condition, depending on decrease in the amount of the molecular vibration that constitutes heat . The question whether there is a limit to the degree of cold possible, and, if so, where the zero must be placed, was first attacked by the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French physicist, G . See also:

• AMONTONS, GUILLAUME (1663–17o5)

Amontons, in 1702–1703, in connexion with his improvements in the air-thermometer . In his See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument temperatures were indicated by the height at which a See also:

• COLUMN (Lat. columna)

column of See also:

• MERCURY
• MERCURY (MERCU1uus)
• MERCURY (symbol Hg, atomic weight = 2oo)

mercury was sustained by a certain See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of air, the See also:

• VOLUME

volume or " See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring " of which of course varied with the heat to which it was exposed . Amontons therefore argued that the zero of his thermometer would be that temperature at which the spring of the air in it was reduced to nothing . On the See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale he used the boiling-point of water was marked at 73 and the melting-point of See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice at 512, so that the zero of his scale was See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to about -240° on the centigrade scale . This remark-ably See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close approximation to the See also:

• MODERN

modern value of -273° for the zero of the air-thermometer was further improved on by J . H . See also:

• LAMBERT [alias NICHOLSON], JOHN (d. 1538)
• LAMBERT, DANIEL (1770-1809)
• LAMBERT, FRANCIS (c 1486-153o)
• LAMBERT, JOHANN HEINRICH (1728–1777)
• LAMBERT, JOHN (1619-1694)

Lambert (Pyrometrie, 1779), who gave the value -270° and observed that this temperature might be regarded as See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute cold . Values of this See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order for the absolute zero were not, however, universally accepted about this See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period .

See also:

• LAPLACE, PIERRE SIMON, MARQUIS DE (1749—1827)

Laplace and See also:

• LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT (1743-1794)

Lavoisier, for instance, in their See also:

• TREATISE

treatise on heat (178o), arrived at values ranging from 1500° to 3000° below the freezing-point of water, and thought that in any See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case it must be at least 600° below, while See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• DALTON
• DALTON, JOHN (1766-1844)

Dalton in his Chemical See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

Philosophy gave ten calculations of this value, and finally adopted -3000° C. as the natural zero of temperature . After J . P . See also:

• JOULE, JAMES PRESCOTT (1818–1889)

Joule had determined the See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical equivalent of heat, See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord See also:

• KELVIN, WILLIAM THOMSON, BARON (1824-1907)

Kelvin approached the question from an entirely different point of view, and in 1848 devised a scale of absolute temperature which was inde-pendent of the properties of any particular substance and was based solely on the fundamental See also:

• LAWS

laws of See also:

• THERMODYNAMICS (from Gr. Bepµos, hot, Siva trs, force)

thermodynamics (see HEAT and THERMODYNAMICS) . It followed from the principles on which this scale was constructed that its zero was placed at -273°, at almost precisely the same point as the zero of the air-thermometer . In nature the realms of space, on the probable See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption that the interstellar See also:

• MEDIUM

medium is perfectly transparent and diathermanous, must, as was pointed out by W . J . Macquorn See also:

• RANKINE, WILLIAM JOHN MACQUORN (182o-1872)

Rankine, be incapable of acquiring any temperature, and must therefore be at the absolute zero . That, however, is not to say that if a suitable thermometer could be projected into space it would give a See also:

• READING

reading of – 273° . On the contrary, not being a trans-See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent and diathermanous body, it would absorb See also:

• RADIATION, THEORY OF

radiation from the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun and other stars, and would thus become warmed . See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor J . H .

Poynting (" Radiation in the See also:

• SOLAR, SOLLER (Lat. solarium, Fr.• galetas, Ital. solaio)

Solar See also:

• SYSTEM

System," Phil . Trans., A, 1903, 202, p . 525) showed that as regards bodies in the solar system the effects of radiation from the stars are negligible, and calculated that by solar radiation alone a small absorbing See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere at the distance of Mercury from the sun would have its temperature raised to 483° Abs . (21o° C.), at the distance of See also:

• VENUS

Venus to 358° Abs . (85° C.), of the earth to 300° Abs . (27° C.), of See also:

• MARS
• MARS (MAYORS, MARMAR, MARSPITER GA MASPITER)
• MARS, MLLE [ANNE FRANCOISE HYPPOLYTE BOUTET] (1779-1847)

Mars to 243° Abs . (– 3o° C.), and of See also:

• NEPTUNE
• NEPTUNE (Lat. NEPTUNUS)

Neptune to only 54° Abs . (– 219°C.) . The French physicists of the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• PART

part of the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century held a different view, and rejected the See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis of the absolute cold of space . See also:

• FOURIER, F
• FOURIER, FRANCOIS CHARLES MARIE (1772-1837)
• FOURIER, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH (1768-1830)

Fourier, for instance, postulated a fundamental temperature of space as necessary for the explanation of the heat-effects observed on the See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the earth, and estimated that in the interplanetary regions it was little less than that of the terrestrial poles and below the freezing-point of mercury, though it was different in other parts of space (See also:

• ANN

Ann. chim. phys., 1824, 27, pp . 141, 150) . C .

S . M . Pouillet, again, calculated the temperature of interplanetary space as – 142° C . (Comptes rendus, 1838, 7, p . 61), and See also:

• SIR

Sir John See also:

• HERSCHEL, CAROLINE LUCRETIA (1750-1848)
• HERSCHEL, SIR F
• HERSCHEL, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM (1738-1822)
• HERSCHEL, SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM, BART

Herschel as -150° (Ency . Brit., 8th ed., See also:

• ART

art . " See also:

• METEOROLOGY (Gr. JerEwpa, and hb'yos, i.e. the science of things in the air)

Meteorology," p . 643) . To attain the absolute zero in the laboratory, that is, to deprive a substance entirely of its heat, is a thermodynamical impossibility, and the most that the physicist can See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope for is an indefinitely close approach to that point . The lowest steady temperature obtainable by the exhaustion of liquid See also:

• HYDROGEN [symbol H, atomic weight x-oo8 (0=16)]

hydrogen is about – 262° C . (I I° Abs.), and the liquefaction of See also:

• HELIUM (from Gr. i)Xcor, the sun)

helium by Professor Kamerlingh Onnes in 1908 yielded a liquid having a boiling-point of about 4.3° Abs., which on exhaustion must bring us to within about 22 degrees of the absolute zero . (See LIQUID GASES.) For a "cold," in the medical sense, see See also:

• CATARRH (from the Gr. Karappeiv, to flow down)

CATARRH and See also:

• RESPIRATORY

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: See also:

• PATHOLOGY (from Gr. raBos, suffering)

Pathology .