COLOMBIA  , a See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic of See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• AMERICA

America occupying the N.W. See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle of that See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent and bounded N. by the Caribbean See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea and See also:

• VENEZUELA

Venezuela, E. by Venezuela and See also:

• BRAZIL
• BRAZIL, or BRASIL

Brazil, S. by Brazil, See also:

• PERU
• PERU (apparently from Biru, a small river on the west coast of Colombia, where Pizarro landed)

Peru and See also:

• ECUADOR (officially La Republica del Ecuador)

Ecuador, and W. by Ecuador, the Pacific Ocean, See also:

• PANAMA

Panama and the Caribbean Sea . The republic is very irregular in outline and has an extreme length from See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north to south of 1050 m., exclusive of territory occupied by Peru on the north See also:

• BANK

bank of the upper See also:

• AMAZON

Amazon, and an extreme width of 86o m . The approximate See also:

• AREA

area of this territory, according to See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official calculations, is 481,979 sq. m., which is reduced to 465,733 sq. m. by See also:

• GOTHA

Gotha planimetrical measurements . This makes Colombia See also:

• FOURTH

fourth in area among the South See also:

• AMERICAN

American states . The loss of the See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of Panama See also:

• LEFT

left the republic with unsettled frontiers on every See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side, and some of the boundary disputes still unsolved in 1909 concern immense areas of territory . The boundary with See also:

• COSTA, GIOVANNI (1826–1903)
• COSTA, LORENZO (146o-r535)
• COSTA, SIR MICHAEL ANDREW AGNUS (1808-1884)

Costa Rica was settled in 1900 by an See also:

• AWARD (from O. Fr. ewart, or esguart, cf. " reward ")

award of the See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

President of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, but the See also:

• SECESSION

secession of Panama in 1903 gave Colombia another unsettled See also:

• LINE

line on the north-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west . If the line which formerly separated the Colombian departments of See also:

• CAUCA

Cauca and Panama is taken as forming the See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

international-COLOMBIA boundary, this line follows the See also:

• WATER

water-parting between the streams which flow eastward to the Atrato, and those which flow westward to the Gulf of See also:

• SAN

San See also:

• MIGUEL, MARIA EVARIST (1802–1866)

Miguel, the terminal points being near Cape Tiburon on the Caribbean See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast, and at about 7° ro' N. See also:

• LAT

lat. on the Pacific coast . The boundary dispute with Venezuela was referred in 1883 to the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain, and the award was made in 1891 . Venezuela, however, refused to accept the decision . The line decided upon, and accepted by Colombia, starts from the north See also:

• SHORE

shore of See also:

• CALABOZO, or CALABOSO

Calabozo See also:

• BAY

Bay on the west side of the Gulf of See also:

• MARACAIBO (sometimes MARACAYBO)

Maracaibo, and runs west and south-west to and along the water-parting (Sierra de Perija) between the drainage basins of the Magdalena and See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake Maracaibo as far as the source in lat . 8° 50' N. of a small See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the Catatumbo See also:

• RIVER

river, thence in a south-easterly direction across the Catatumbo and Zulia See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers to a point in 72° 30' W. See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long., 8° 12' N. lat., thence in an irregular southerly direction across the See also:

• CORDILLERA

Cordillera de See also:

• MERIDA
• MERIDA (anc. Augusta Emerita, capital of Lusitania)

Merida to the source of the Sarare, whence it runs eastward along that river, the Arauca, and the See also:

• META

Meta to the See also:

• ORINOCO

Orinoco . Thence the line runs south and south-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east along the Orinoco, Atabapo and Guainia to the Pedra de Cucuhy, which serves as a boundary See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark for three republics .

Of the eastern See also:

• PART

part of the territory lying between the Meta and the Brazilian frontier, Venezuela claims as far west as the See also:

• MERIDIAN
• MERIDIAN (from the Lat. meridianus, pertaining to the south or mid-day)

meridian of 69° so' . Negotiations for the See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement of the boundary with Brazil (q.v.) were resumed in 1906, and were advanced in the following See also:

• YEAR

year to an agreement providing for the settlement of conflicting claims by a mixed See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission . With Ecuador and Peru the boundary disputes are extremely complicated, certain parts of the disputed territory being claimed by all three republics . Colombia holds See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession as far south as the Napo in lat . 2° 47' S., and claims territory occupied by Peru as far south as the Amazon . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand Peru claims as far north as La Chorrera in o° 49' S. lat., including territory occupied by Colombia, and the eastern See also:

• HALF

half of the Ecuadorean department of See also:

• ORIENTE, OR LA REGION ORIENTALE

Oriente, and Ecuador would extend her See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern boundary line to the Putumayo, in long . 71° 1' S., and make that river her See also:

• NORTHERN

northern boundary as far north as the Peruvian claim extends . The provisional line starts from the Japura river (known as the Caqueta in Colombia) in lat . 1° 3o' S., long . 69° 24' W., and runs south-west to the 70th meridian, thence slightly north of west to the Igaraparana river, thence up that stream to the Peruvian military See also:

• POST

post of La Chorrera, in o° 49' S. lat., thence west of south to Huiririmachico, on the Napo . Thence the line runs north-west along the Napo, See also:

• COCA, or CUCA (Erythroxylon coca)

Coca and San Francisco rivers to the Andean See also:

• WATERSHED

watershed, which becomes the dividing line northward for a distance of nearly 8o m., where the line turns westward and reaches the Pacific at the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of Panguapi Bay, into which the southern outlet of the Mira river discharges (about 1° 34' N. lat.) . See also:

• PHYSICAL

Physical See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

Geography.—Colombia is usually described as an extremely mountainous See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country, which is true of much less than half its See also:

• TOTAL

total area .

Nearly one half its area lies south-east of the See also:

• ANDES

Andes and consists of extensive llanos and forested plains, traversed by several of the western tributaries of the Amazon and Orinoco . These plains slope gently toward the east, those of the Amazon See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin apparently lying in See also:

• GREAT

great terraces whose escarpments have the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low, detached ranges of hills forming successive rims to the great basin which they partly enclose . The See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation and slope of this immense region, which has an approximate length of 64o m. and See also:

• AVERAGE

average width of 32o m., may be inferred from the elevations of the Caqueta, or Japura river, which was explored by Crevaux in 1878–1879 . At See also:

• SANTA

Santa Maria, near the Cordillera (about 75° 30' W. long.), the elevation is 613 ft. above sea-level, on the 73rd meridian it is 538 ft., and near the 70th meridian 426 ft.—a fall of 187 ft. in a distance of about 400 m . The northern part of this great region has a somewhat See also:

• LOWER

lower elevation and gentler slope, and consists of open grassy plains, which are within the See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone of alternating wet and dry seasons . In the south and toward the great lower basin of the Amazon, where the rainfall is continuous throughout the year, the plains are heavily forested . The larger part of this territory is unexplored except along the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal rivers, and is inhabited by scattered tribes of See also:

• INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN

Indians . Near the Cordilleras and along some of the larger rivers there are a few small settlements of whites and mestizos, but their aggregate number is small and their economic value to the republic is inconsiderable . There are some See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle ranges on the open plains, however, but they are too isolated to have much importance . A small part of the northern Colombia, on the lower courses of the Atrato and Magdalena, extending across paramo, or range, north-east of See also:

• BOGOTA, or SANTA FE DE BOGOTA

Bogota (16,700 ft.) . Between the 5th and 6th See also:

• PARALLELS

parallels the range divides into two branches, the eastern passing into Venezuela, where it is called the Cordillera de Merida, and the northern continuing north and north-east as the Sierra de Perija and the Sierra de Oca, to terminate at the north-eastern extremity of the Goajira See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula . The culminating point in the first-mentioned range is the Cerro Pintado (11,800 ft.) .

West of this range, and lying between the loth parallel and the Caribbean coast, is a remarkable See also:

• GROUP

group of lofty peaks and knotted ranges known as the Sierra See also:

• NEVADA
• NEVADA (a Spanish word meaning " snow-clad " or " snowy land," originally applied to a snow-capped mountain range on the Pacific slope)

Nevada de Santa Marta, the highest See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow-crowned See also:

• SUMMIT

summit of which rises 17,389 ft. above the sea according to some, and 16,728 according to other authorities . This group of the country from. the Eastern to the Western Cordilleras with a varying width of See also:

• ITO, HIROBUMI, PRINCE (1841-1909)

Ito to 15o m., not including the lower river basins which penetrate much farther inland, also consists of low, alluvial plains, partly covered with swamps and intricate watercourses, densely overgrown with vegetation, but in places admirably adapted to different kinds of tropical See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture . These plains are broken in places by low ranges of hills which are usually occupied by the principal See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial settlements of this part of the republic, the lower levels being for the most part swampy and unsuited for See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white occupation . The other part of the republic, which may be roughly estimated at two-fifths of its total area, consists of an extremely rugged mountainous country, traversed from south to north by the parallel river valleys of the Magdalena, Cauca and Atrato . The See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain chains which See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover this part of Colombia are the northern terminal ranges of the great Andean See also:

• SYSTEM

system . In northern Ecuador the Andes narrows into a single massive range which has the character of a confused See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of peaks and ridges on the southern frontier of Colombia . There are several lofty plateaus in this region which See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form a huge central watershed for rivers flowing east to the Amazon, west to the Pacific, and north to the Caribbean Sea . The higher plateaus are called paramos, See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold, windswept, mist-drenched deserts, lying between the elevations of Io,000 and 15,000 ft., which are often the only passes over the Cordilleras, and yet are almost impassable because of their morasses, heavy mists, and cold, piercin winds . The paramos of Cruz Verde (11,695 ft and See also:

• PASTO

Pasto, and the volcanoes of Chiles (15,900 ft.), Chumbul (15,715 ft.), and Pasto (13,990 ft.) are prominent landmarks of this desolate region . North of this great See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau the Andes divides into three great ranges, the Western, Central and Eastern Cordilleras . The Central is the See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis of the system, is distinguished by a line of lofty volcanoes and paramos, some of which show their white mantles 2000 to 3000 ft. above the line of perpetual snow (approx . 15,000 ft. in this See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude), and is sometimes distinguished with the name See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne by the republic for the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time being .

This range runs in a north-north-east direction and separates the valleys of the Magdalena and Cauca, terminating in some low hills south-west of El Banco, a small See also:

• TOWN

town on the lower Magdalena . The principal summits of this range areTajumbina (13534 ft.), See also:

• PAN (" pasturer ")
• PAN (common in various forms to many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Pfanne; it is generally taken to be an early adaptation in a shortened form of Lat. patina, shallow bowl or dish, from patere, to lie open)

Pan de Azucar (15,978 ft.), Purace (15,420 ft.), Sotara (15,420 ft.), Huila over 18,000 ft.}), Tolima (18,432 ft.), Santa See also:

• ISABEL

Isabel (16,700 ft.), See also:

• RUIZ, JUAN (c. 1283-c. 1350)

Ruiz (18,373 ft.), and See also:

• MESA (Span. mesa, from Lat. mensa, a table)

Mesa de Herveo (18,300 ft.) . The last named affords a magnificent spectacle from Bogota, its level See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top which is 5 or 6 m. across, and is formed by the rim of an immense See also:

• CRATER

crater, having the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of a table, down the sides of which for more than 3000 ft. hangs a spotless white drapery of perpetual snow . The Western Cordillera branches from the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main range first and follows the coast very closely as far north as the 4th parallel, where the San Juan and Atrato rivers, though flowing in opposite directions and separated near the 5th parallel by a low transverse See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge, combine to interpose valleys between it and the Cordillera de Baudo, which thereafter becomes the true coast range . It then forms the See also:

• DIVIDE

divide between the Cauca and Atrato valleys, and terminates near the Caribbean coast . See also:

• LONGITUDE (from Lat. longitudo, " length ")

Longitude W . 75 of See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

Green .. The See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general elevation of this range is lower than A that of the others, its culminating points being the volcanoMunchique(11,850ft.)andCerro See also:

• LEON
• LEON, LUIS PONCE DE (1527-1591)
• LEON, MOSES BEN SI
• LEON, or LEON DE LAS ALDAMAS

Leon (10,847ft.) . Therange is covered with vegetation and its Pacific slopes are precipitous and humid . The Cordillera de Baudo, which becomes the coast range above lat . 4° N., is the southern See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of the low mountainous See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain forming the backbone of the See also:

• ISTHMUS (Gr.io0pbs, neck)

Isthmus of Panama, and may be considered the southern termination of the great North American system . Its elevations are low and heavily wooded .

It divides on the Panama frontier, the easterly branch forming the watershed between the Atrato and the rivers of eastern Panama, and serving as the frontier between the two republics . The passes across these ranges are comparatively low, but they are difficult because of the precipitous character of their Pacific slopes and the See also:

• DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick)

density of the vegetation on them . The Eastern Cordillera is in some respects the most important of the three branches of the Colombian Andes . Its general elevation is below that of the Central Cordillera, and it has few summits rising above the line of perpetual snow, the highest being the Sierra Nevada de Cocui, in lat . 6° 30' N . Between Cocui and the southern frontier of Colombia there are no noteworthy elevations except the so-called Paramo de Suma Paz near Bogota, the highest point of which is 14,146 ft. above sea-level, and the See also:

• CHITA

Chita mountains, covering an approximate area of 6500 sq. m., lies immediately on the coast, and its highest summits were long considered inaccessible . It stands detached from the lower ranges of the Eastern Cordillera, and gives the impression that it is essentially See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent . The eastern Cordillera region is noteworthy for its large areas of plateau and elevated valley within the limits of the See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical temperate zone . In this region is to be found the greater part of the white See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population, the best products of Colombian See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization, and the greatest industrial development . The " sabana " of Bogota is a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration of the higher of these plateaus (8563 ft., according to Stieler's Hand-See also:

• ATLAS

Atlas), with its mild temperature, inexhaustible fertility and numerous productions of the temperate zone . It has an area of about 2000 sq. m . The lower valleys, plateaus and mountain slopes of this range are celebrated for their See also:

• COFFEE (Fr: cafe, Ger. Kaffee)

coffee, which, with better means of transportation, would be a greater source of prosperity for the republic than the See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold-mines of Antioquia .

The mountainous region of Colombia is subject to volcanic disturbances and See also:

• EARTHQUAKE

earthquake shocks are frequent, especially in the south . These shocks, however, are less severe than in Venezuela or in Ecuador . 702 There are few islands on the coast of Colombia, and the great See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of these are too small to appear on the maps in general use. islands . Gorgona is one of the larger islands on the Pacific coast, and is situated about 25 M. from the mainland in lat . 3° N . It is 51 m. long by m. wide, and rises to an extreme elevation of 1296 ft. above sea-level . It is a beautiful See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island, and is celebrated as one of See also:

• PIZARRO, FRANCISCO (c. 1471 or 1475-1541)

Pizarro's stopping places . It has been used by the Colombian See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government for See also:

• POLITICAL

political offenders . Malpelo island, 282 M. west by south of Charambira point, in lat . 3° 40' N., long . 81 ° 24' W., nominally belongs to Colombia . It is a small, rocky, uninhabited island, rising to an elevation of 846 ft. above the sea, and has no ascertained value .

The famous See also:

• PEARL
• PEARL, THE

Pearl islands of the Gulf of Panama are claimed by Colombia, and their pearl See also:

• OYSTER

oyster See also:

• FISHERIES

fisheries are considered a rentable asset by the government . The group covers an area of about 450 sq. m., and consists of 16 islands and several rocks . The largest is Rey Island, which is about 17 m. long, north to south, and 8 in. broad, with an extreme elevation of 600 ft . The other larger islands are San Jose, Pedro Gonzales, Casaya, Saboga and Pacheca . There are several fishing villages whose inhabitants are largely engaged in the pearl fisheries, and a number of See also:

• COCOA

cocoa-See also:

• NUT
• NUT (0. Eng. knutu, cf. Dutch noot, Ger. Nuss; allied with Gael. cno; it is not of the same form as Lat. nux)

nut plantations . The islands belong chiefly to Panama merchants . There are several See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups of small islands on the northern coast, and a few small islands so near the mainland as to form sheltered harbours, as at See also:

• CARTAGENA, or CARTHAGENA

Cartagena . The largest of these islands is Baru, lying immediately south of the entrance to Cartagena See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

harbour . North-west of Colombia in the Caribbean Sea are several small islands belonging to the republic, two of which (Great and Little See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

Corn Is.) See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie very near the coast of See also:

• NICARAGUA

Nicaragua . The largest and most important of these islands is Vieja Providencia (Old See also:

• PROVIDENCE

Providence), 120 M. off the See also:

• MOSQUITO (Span. mosquito, a gnat, diminutive of mosca, a fly)

Mosquito Coast, 41 M. long, which supports a small population . The rivers of Colombia may be divided, for convenience of description, into three general classes according to the destination of their Rivers. See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters, the Pacific, Caribbean and See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic—the last reaching their destination through the Amazon and Orinoco . Of these, the Caribbean rivers are of the greatest economic importance to the country, though those of the eastern plains may at some time become nearly as important as transportation routes in a region possessing See also:

• FOREST

forest products of great importance and See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in agricultural and See also:

• PASTORAL (from Lat. pastor, a shepherd)

pastoral possibilities .

It is worthy of See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note that the principal rivers of these three classes—the Patia, Cauca, Magdalena, Caqueta and Putumayo—all have their See also:

• SOURCES

sources on the high plateaus of southern Colombia and within a comparatively limited area . The Pacific coast rivers are numerous, and See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge a very large See also:

• VOLUME

volume of water into the ocean in proportion to the area of their drainage basins, because of the heavy rainfall on the western slopes of the Coast range . The proximity of this range to the coast limits them to See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short, precipitous courses, with comparatively short navigable channels . The principal rivers of this group, starting from the southern frontier, are the Mira, Patia, Iscuande, Micai, See also:

• BUENAVENTURA

Buenaventura or Dagua, San Juan and Baudo . The Mira has its principal sources in Ecuador, and for a short distance forms the boundary line between the two republics, but its outlets and navigable channel are within Colombia . It has a large See also:

• DELTA (from the shape of the Gr. letter A, delta, originally used of the mouth of the Nile)

delta in proportion to the length of the river, which is visible See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of the very large quantity of material brought down from the neighbouring mountain slopes . The Patia is the longest river of the Pacific group, and is the only one having its sources on the eastern side of the Western Cordillera . It is formed by the confluence of the Sotara and Guaitara at the point where the See also:

• UNITED

united streams turn westward to cut their way through the mountains to the sea . The Sotara or upper Patia rises on the southern slope of a transverse ridge or dyke, between the Central and Western Cordilleras, in the vicinity of See also:

• POPAYAN

Popayan, and flows southward about 120 M. to the point of confluence with the Guaitara . The latter has its sources on the elevated plateau of Tuquerres and flows north-west to meet the Sotara . The See also:

• CANYON (Anglicized form of Span. canon, a tube, pipe or cannon; the Spanish form being also frequently written)

canyon of the Patia through the Western Cordillera is known as the " Minima See also:

• GORGE

gorge," and has been cut to a See also:

• DEPTH

depth of 1676 ft., above which the perpendicular mountain sides rise like a See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall some thousands of feet more . The upper course of the Guaitara is known as the Carchi, which for a short distance forms the boundary line between Colombia and Ecuador .

At one point in its course it is crossed by the Rumichaca See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

arch, a natural arch of See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone, popularly known as the " Inca's See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge," which with the Minima gorge should be classed among the natural wonders of the See also:

• WORLD

world . There is a narrow See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

belt of low, swampy country between the Cordillera and the coast, traversed at intervals by mountain spurs, and across this the river channels are usually navigable . The San Juan has built a large delta at its mouth, and is navigable for a distance of 140 M. inland, the river flowing parallel with the coast for a long distance instead of See also:

• CROSSING

crossing the coastal See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain . It rises in the angle between the Western Cordillera and a low transverse ridge connecting it with the Baudo coast range, and flows westward down to the valley between the two ranges, and then southward through this valley to about lat . 4° 15' N., where it turns sharply westward and crosses a narrow belt of See also:

• LOWLAND

lowland to the coast . It probably has the largest discharge of water of the Pacific group, and has about 300 M. of navigable channels, including its tributaries, although the river itself is only 190 M. long and the See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand-bars at its mouth have only 7 or 8 ft. of water on them . The San Juan is distinguished for having been one of the proposed[GEOGRAPHY routes for a See also:

• SHIP

ship See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal between the Caribbean and Pacific . At one point in its upper course it is so near the Atrato that, according to a survey by See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

Captain C . S . Cochrane, R.N., in 1824, a canal 400 yds. long with a maximum cutting of 70 ft., together with some improvements in the two streams, would give See also:

• FREE

free communication . His calculations were made, of course, for the smaller See also:

• CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf. Ger. Kraft)

craft of that time . The rivers belonging to the Caribbean system, all of which flow in a northerly direction, are the Atrato, Bacuba, Sinu, Magdalena and Zulia .

The Bacuba, Suriquilla or Leon, is a small stream rising on the western slopes of the Cordillera and flowing into the upper end of the Gulf of Uraba . Like the Atrato it brings down much silt, which is rapidly filling that depression . There are many small streams and one important river, the Sinu, flowing into the sea between this gulf and the mouth of the Magdalena . The Sinu rises on the northern slopes of the See also:

• ALTO (Ital. for " high ")

Alto del Viento near the 7th parallel, and flows almost due north across the coastal plain for a distance of about 286 m. to the Gulf of Morosquillo . It has a very sinuous channel which is navigable for small steamers for some distance, but there is no good See also:

• PORT

port at its outlet, and a considerable part of the region through which it flows is malarial and sparsely settled . The most important rivers of Colombia, however, are the Magdalena and its principal tributary, the Cauca . They both rise on the high table-See also:

• LAND

land of southern Colombia about 14,000 ft. above sea-level—the Magdalena in the See also:

• LAGUNA, or LA LAGUNA

Laguna del Buey (Ox Lake) on the See also:

• LAS

Las Papas plateau, and the Cauca a short distance westward in the Laguna de See also:

• SANTIAGO, or SANTIAGO DE CHILE

Santiago on the Paramo de Guanacas—and flow northward in parallel courses with the great Central Cordillera, forming the water-parting between their drainage basins . The principal tributaries of the Magdalena are the Suaza, Neiva, See also:

• CABRERA, RAMON (1806-1877)

Cabrera, Prado, Fusagasaga, Funza or Bogota, Carare, See also:

• OPON

Opon, Sogamoso, See also:

• LEBRIJA, or LEBRIXA

Lebrija and Cesar, and the western the La See also:

• PLATA, RIO DE LA, or RIVER PLATE

Plata, See also:

• PAEZ, JOSE ANTONIO (1790-1873)
• PAEZ, P
• PAEZ, PEDRO (1564-1622)

Paez, Saldafla, Cuello, Guali, Samana or Miel, Nare or See also:

• NEGRO (from Lat. eager, black)

Negro and Cauca . There are also many smaller streams flowing into the Magdalena from both sides of the valley . Of those named, the Funza drains the " sabana " of Bogota and is celebrated for the great fall of Tequendama, about 48o ft. in height; the Sogamoso passes through some of the richest districts of the republic; and the Cesar rises on the elevated slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and flows southward across a low plain, in which are many lakes, to join the Magdalena where it bends westward to meet the Cauca . The course of the Magdalena traverses nine degrees of latitude and is nearly loon in. long . It is navigable for steamers up to La Dorada, near Honda, 561 m. above its mouth, which is closed by sand-bars to all but See also:

• LIGHT

light-See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught vessels, and for 93 in. above the rapids at Honda, to Girardot .

The river is also navigable at high water for small steamers up to Neiva, See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo m. farther and 1535 ft. above sea-level, beyond which point it descends precipitously from the plateaus of southern Colombia . The Honda rapids have a fall of only 20 ft. in a distance of 2 m., but the current is See also:

• SWIFT
• SWIFT, JONATHAN (1667—1745)

swift and the channel tortuous for a distance of 20 in., which make it impossible for the light-draught, See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat-bottomed steamers of the lower river to ascend them . The Cauca differs much from the Magdalena, although its principal features are the same . The latter descends 12,500 ft. before it becomes navigable, but at 10,000 ft. below its source the Cauca enters a long narrow valley with an average elevation of 3500 ft., where it is navigable for over 200 in., and then descends 2500 ft. through a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of impetuous rapids for a distance of about 250 m., between See also:

• CARTAGO

Cartago and See also:

• CACERES

Caceres, with a break of 6o m. above Antioquia, where smooth water permits isolated See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation . While, therefore, the Magdalena is navigable throughout the greater part of its course, or from Girardot to the coast, with an abrupt break of only 20 ft. at Honda which could easily be overcome, the Cauca has only 200 m, of navigable water in the upper valley and another 200 M. on its lower course before it joins the Magdalena in lat . 9° 3o', the two being separated by 250 in. of canyon and rapids . So difficult is the country through which the Cauca has cut its tortuous course that the fertile upper valley is completely isolated from the Caribbean, and has no other practicable outlet than the overland route from See also:

• CALI

Cali to Buenaventura, on the Pacific . The upper sources of the Cauca flow through a highly volcanic region, and are so impregnated with sulphuric and other acids that See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish cannot live in them . This is especially true of the Rio Vinagre, which rises on the Purace See also:

• VOLCANO

volcano . The principal tributaries are the Piendam6, Ovejas, Palo, Amaime and Nechi, from the central Cordillera, of which the last named is the most important, and the Jamundi and a large number of small streams from the Western . The largest branch of the Cauca on its western side, however, is the San Jorge, which, though rising in the Western Cordillera on the northern slopes of the Alto del Viento, in about lat . 7° N., and not far from the sources of the Sinu and Bacuba, is essentially a river of the plain, flowing north-east across a level country filled with small lakes and subject to inundations to a junction with the Cauca just before it joins the Magdalena .

Both the San Jorge and Nechi are navigable for considerable distances . The valley of the Cauca is much narrower than that of the Magdalena, and between Cartago and Caceres the mountain ranges on both sides See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press down upon the river and confine it to a narrow canyon . The Cauca unites with the Magdalena about 200 M. from the sea through several widely separated channels, which are continually changing through the wearing away of the alluvial See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks . These changes in the channel are also at See also:

• WORK

work in the Lower Magdalena . The remaining rivers of the Caribbean system, exclusive of the smaller ones rising in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, are the Zulia and Catatumbo, which rise in the mountains of northern See also:

• SANTANDER
• SANTANDER (ancient Portus Blendium or Fanum S. Andreae)

Santander and flow across the low plains of the Venezuelan See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of Zulia into Lake Maracaibo . Of the rivers of the great eastern plains, whose waters pass through the Orinoco and Amazon to the Atlantic, little can be said beyond the barest See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical description . The See also:

• SIZE

size and courses of many of their affluents are still unknown, as this great region has been only partially explored . The largest of these rivers flow across the plains in an easterly direction, those of the Orinoco system inclining north-See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

ward, and those of the Amazon system southward . The first include the Guaviare or Guayabero, the Vichada, the Meta, and the upper course of the Arauca . The Guaviare was explored by Crevaux in 188 r . It rises on the easternslopes of the Eastern Cordillera between the 3rd and 4th parallels, about 75 M. south of Bogota, and flows with a slight southward See also:

• CURVE (Lat. curvus, bent)

curve across the Ilanos to the Orinoco, into which it discharges at San Fernando de Atabapo in lat . 4° N .

Its largest tributary is the Inirida, which enters from the south . The Guaviare has about 600 m. of navigable channel . The Meta rises on the opposite side of the Cordillera from Bogota, and flows with a sluggish current east-north-east across the llanos to the Orinoco, into which it discharges below the Atures rapids, in lat . 6° 22' N . It is navigable throughout almost its whole length, small steamers ascending it to a point within 100 m. of Bogota . Its principal tributaries, so far as known, are the 'Fuca, Chire and Casanare . The principal rivers of the Amazon system are the Napo, the upper part of which forms the provisional boundary line with Ecuador, the Putumayo or See also:

• ICA (YCA, or ECCA)

Ica, and the Caqueta or Japura (Yapura), which flow from the Andes entirely across the eastern plains, and the Guainia, which rises on the northern slopes of the Serra Tunaji near the provisional Brazilian frontier, and flows with a great north-ward curve to the Venezuelan and Brazilian frontiers, and is thereafter known as the Rio Negro, one of the largest tributaries of the Amazon . There are many large tributaries of these rivers in the unexplored regions of south-eastern Colombia, but their names as well as their courses are still unsettled . The coast of Colombia faces on the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, and is divided by the Isthmus of Panama into two completely separated parts . The Pacific coast-line, omitting See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor Coasts. convolutions, has a length of about 500 m., while that of the Caribbean is about 700 M . The former has been of slight service in the development of the country because of the unsettled and unhealthy character of the coast region, and the high mountain barriers between its natural ports and the settled parts of the re-public . There are only two commercial ports on the coast, Tumaco and Buenaventura, though there are several natural harbours which would be of great service were there any demand for them .

The rivers Mira, Patia and San Juan permit the entrance of small steamers, as also some of the smaller rivers . The larger bays on this coast are Tumaco, Choco, Magdalena, Cabita, Coqui, Puerto Utria, Solano, Cupica and See also:

• OCTAVIA

Octavia—some of them affording exceptionally safe and well-sheltered harbours . The Caribbean coast of Colombia has only four ports engaged in international See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade—See also:

• BARRANQUILLA

Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta and Rio Hacha . There are some smaller ports on the coast, but they are open only to vessels of light draft and have no trade See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth mention . Barranquilla, the principal port of the republic, is situated on the Magdalena, and its seaport, or landing-See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, is Puerto Colombia at the inner end of Savanilla Bay, where a See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel See also:

• PIER (older forms per or Pere, from Med. Lat. pera; the word for piers out of water. For river piers, where a firm, watertight is of obscure origin, and the connexion with Fr. Pierre, Lat. stratum is found at a moderate depth below the river-bed, the pctr

pier 4000 ft. long has been built out to deep water, alongside which ocean-going vessels can receive and discharge See also:

• CARGO (Span. for " loading," from Lat. carries, car)

cargo . The bay is slowly filling up, however, and two other landing-places—Salgar and Savanilla—had to be abandoned before Puerto Colombia was selected . The pier-head had 24 ft. of water alongside in 1907, but the silt brought down by the Magdalena is turned westward by the current along this coast, and may at any time fill the bay with dangerous shoals . The See also:

• OLDEST

oldest and best port on the coast is Cartagena, 65 m. south-west of Barranquilla, which has a well-sheltered harbour protected by islands, and is connected with the Magdalena at Calamar by railway . The next best port is that of Santa Marta, about 46 m. east-north-east of Barranquilla (in a straight line), with which it is connected by 23 M. of railway and 5o m. of inland navigation on the Cienaga de Santa Marta and eastern outlets of the Magdalena . Santa Marta is situated on a small, almost landlocked bay, well protected from prevailing winds by high land on the north and north-east, affording excellent anchorage in waters free from shoaling through the See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit of silt . The depth of the bay ranges from 4 to 19 fathoms . The town stands at the See also:

• FOOT

foot of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, which restricts the area of cultivatable land in its immediate vicinity, and the enclosing high lands make the See also:

• CLIMATE

climate hot and somewhat dangerous for foreigners .

Since the development of the See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit trade on the shores of the Caribbean sea and Gulf of See also:

• MEXICO
• MEXICO (Span. Mejico, or Mexico,)
• MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF
• MEXICO, GULF OF

Mexico by an important American See also:

• COMPANY

company, which owns a large See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract of land near Santa Marta devoted to See also:

• BANANA

banana cultivation, and has built a railway 50 M. inland principally for the transportation of fruit, the trade of the port has greatly increased . The population of this region, however, is sparse, and its growth is slow . The fourth port on this coast is Rio Hacha, an open roadstead, about 93 M. east of Santa Marta, at the mouth of the small river Rancheira descending fromthe eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta . It has little trade, and the undeveloped, unpopulated state of the country behind it affords no promise of immediate growth . There are other small towns on the coast which are ports for the small vessels engaged in the See also:

• COASTING

coasting and river trade, but they have no international importance because of their inaccessibility to ocean-going steamers, or the extremely small volume of their trade . The Gulf of Uraba is a large See also:

• BIGHT (O. Eng. bight, bend; cf. Ger. Bucht, a bay, and beugen, to bend)

bight or southerly extension of the Gulf of See also:

• DARIEN

Darien . It receives the waters of the Atrato, Bacuba, and a number of small rivers, and penetrates the land about 50 m., but has very little commercial importance because of the unhealthy and unsettled character of the neighbouring country, and because of the See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

bar across its entrance formed by silt from the Atrato . The Gulf of Morosquillo, a broad shallow indentation of the coast south of Cartagena, receives the waters of the Rio See also:

• SIND

Sind, at the mouth of which is the small port of Cispata . Between the mouth of the Magdalena and Santa 'Marta is the Cienaga de Santa Marta, a large marshy See also:

• LAGOON (Fr. lagune, Lat. lacuna, a pool)

lagoon separated from the sea by a narrow sand See also:

• SPIT

spit, having its " boca " or outlet at its eastern side . There is some See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic in small steamers on its shallow waters, which is increasing with the development of fruit cultivation on its eastern and southern sides . It extends inland about 31 m., and marks a deep indentation of the coast like the Gulf of Uraba . See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology.—The geology of Colombia is very imperfectly known, and it is only by a comparison with the neighbouring regions that it is possible to form any clear See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of the See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological structure and See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession .

The oldest rocks are gneisses and See also:

• SCHISTS (Gr. vxq'ecv, to split)

schists, together with See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite and other eruptive rocks . These are overlaid by sandstones, slates and limestones, alternating with porphyries and porphyrites. sometimes in the form of sheets, sometimes as breccias and conglomerates . Cretaceous fossils have been found abundantly in this series, but it is still possible that earlier systems may be represented . See also:

• COAL

Coal-bearing beds, possibly of See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, occur in Antioquia and elsewhere . Structurally, the four main chains of Colombia differ considerably from one another in geological constitution . The low Cordilleras of the Chocos, on the west coast, are covered by soft See also:

• QUATERNARY

Quaternary sandstones and marls containing shells of extant See also:

• SPECIES

species, such as still inhabit the neighbouring ocean . The Western Cordillera is the See also:

• DIRECT

direct continuation of the Western Cordillera of Ecuador, and, like the latter, to See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge from the scattered observations which are all that are available, consists chiefly of sandstones and porphyritic rocks of the Cretaceous series . Between the Western and the Central Cordilleras is a See also:

• LONGITUDINAL

longitudinal depression along which the river Cauca finds its way towards the sea . On the western side of this depression there are red sandstones with coal-seams, possibly Tertiary; the See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor and the eastern side consist chiefly of See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient crystalline and schistose rocks . The Central Cordillera is the direct continuation of the Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador, and is formed chiefly of See also:

• GNEISS

gneiss and other crystalline rocks, but sedimentary deposits of Cretaceous age also occur . Finally the Eastern branch, known as the Cordillera of Bogota, is composed almost entirely of Cretaceous beds thrown into a series of See also:

• REGULAR

regular anticlinals and synclinals similar to those of the See also:

• JURA
• JURA (" deer island ")

Jura Mountains . The older rocks occasionally appear in the centre of the anticlinals .

In all these branches of the Andes the folds run approximately in the direction of the chains, but the Sierra de Santa Marta appears to belong to a totally distinct system of folding, the direction of the folds being from west to east, bending gradually towards the south-east . Although volcanoes are by no means absent, they are much less important than in Ecuador, and their products take a far smaller See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in the formation of the Andes . In Ecuador the depression between the Eastern and Western Cordilleras is almost entirely filled with See also:

• MODERN

modern lavas and agglomerates; in Colombia the corresponding Cauca depression is almost free from such deposits . In the Central Cordillera volcanoes extend to about 5° N.; in the Western Cordillera they barely enter within the limits of Colombia; in the Cordillera of Bogota they are entirely absent.' Climate.—Were it not for the high altitudes of western Colombia, high temperatures would prevail over the whole country, except where modified by the north-east trade winds and the cold ocean current which sweeps up the western coast . The elevated plateaus and summits of the Andes are responsible, however, for many important and profound modifications in climate, not only in respect to the lower temperatures of the higher elevations, but also in respect to the higher temperatures of the sheltered lowland valleys and the varying See also:

• CLIMATIC

climatic conditions of the neighbouring plains . The republic lies almost wholly within the north torrid zone, a comparatively small part of the forested Amazonian plain extending beyond ' See A . See also:

• HETTNER, HERMANN THEODOR (1821-1882)

Hettner and G . Linck, " Beitrage zur Geologie and Petrographie der columbianischen Anden," Zeits. See also:

• DEUTSCH, IMMANUEL OSCAR MENAHEM (1829-1873)

deutsch. geol . Ges. vol. xl . (1888), pp . 204-230; W . Sievers, " See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and die Sierra de Perija," Zeits .

Ges . Erdk . See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, vol. See also:

• XXIII

xxiii . (1888), pp . 1-158 and p . 442, PIs. i. and iii.; A . Hettner, " Die Kordillere von Bogota," Peterm . Mitt., Erganzungsheft 104 (1892), and " Die Andes' See also:

• DES

des westlichen Columbiens," Peterm . Mitt . (1893), pp . 129-136; W . Reiss and A .

Stubel, Reisen in Siid America . Geologische Studien in der Republik Colombia (Berlin, 1892-1899),-a good geological bibliography will be found in part ii. of this work . the See also:

• EQUATOR (Late Lat. aequator, from aequare, to make equal)

equator into the south torrid zone . The great Andean barrier which crosses the republic from the south to north acts as a See also:

• CONDENSER

condenser to the prevailing easterly winds from the Atlantic, and causes a very heavy rainfall on their eastern slopes and over the forested Amazon plain . High temperatures as well as excessive humidity prevail throughout this region . Farther north, on the open llanos of the Orinoco tributaries, the year is divided into equal parts, an alternating wet and dry See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season, the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun temperatures being high followed by cool nights, and the temperatures of the See also:

• RAINY, ROBERT (1826-1906)

rainy season being even higher . The rainfall is heavy in the wet season, causing many of the rivers to spread over extensive areas, but in the dry season the in-undated plains become dry, the large rivers fed by the snows and rainfall of the Andes return within their banks, the shallow lagoons and smaller streams dry up, vegetation disappears, and the level plain becomes a See also:

• DESERT

desert . The northern plains of the republic are swept by the north-east trades, and here, too, the mountain barriers exercise a strongly modifying See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence . The low ridges of the Sierra de Perija do not wholly shut out these moisture-laden winds, but they cause a heavy rainfall on their eastern slopes, and create a dry area on their western flanks, of which the Vale of Upar is an example . The higher masses of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta cover a very limited area, leaving the trade winds a comparatively unbroken sweep across the northern plains until checked by the Western Cordillera, the Panama ranges and the Sierra de Bands), where a heavy precipitation follows . Farther south the coast ranges cause a very heavy rainfall on their western slopes, which are quite as uninhabitable because of See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)