COMITIA  and See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

SENATE) . But these See also:

• POLITICAL

political disabilities did not constitute the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main grievance of the See also:

• PLEBS (from the root seen in Lat. plenus, full; cf. Gr. 7rXit9os)

plebs in the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early years of the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

Republic . What they fought for was See also:

• PROTECTION

protection for their lives and liberties, and the See also:

• OBJECT

object of attack was the despotic authority of the 1 This is the view taken by the See also:

• PRESENT

present writer, as against See also:

• SCHWEGLER, ALBERT (1819-1857)

Schwegler and others . For Ridgeway's theory, see above . 'Cf. aedilis, aediltcius, &c.; Cic . De See also:

• REP, REPP, or REPS

Rep. ii . 12; See also:

• LIVY [Thus L1v1us] (59 B.C.—A.D: 17)

Livy i . 8; for a full discussion of other views, see Soltau 199 seq . ; Christensen, See also:

• HERMES
• HERMES, GEORG (1775-1831)

Hermes, ix . 196 . For. the clientela, see See also:

• MOMMSEN, THEODOR (1817–1903)

Mommsen (Forsch. i . 355 sqq.; Staatsr. iii .

54 sqq.); Schwegler (i . 638 sqq.); Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyklopadse, iv . 23 sqq . (von Premerstein) . 4 The offspring of such a See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union ranked as plebeians,patrician magistrates . The consuls wielded the full imperium of the See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings, and against this " consular authority " the plebeian, though a See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen, had no protection and no See also:

• APPEAL

appeal, nor were matters improved when for the two consuls was substituted in some emergency a single, all-powerful, irresponsible See also:

• DICTATOR (from the Lat. dictare, frequentative of dicere, to speak)

dictator . The See also:

• HISTORY

history of this struggle between the orders opens with a concession made to the plebs by one of the consuls themselves, a concession possibly due to a See also:

• DESIRE

desire to secure the Lex See also:

• ALLEGIANCE (Mid. Eng. ligeaunce; med. Lat. ligeantia, &c.; the al- was probably added through confusion with another legal term, allegeance, an allegation; the Fr. allegeance comes from the English; the word is formed from " liege," of which the derivatio

allegiance of the plebeian landholders, who formed See also:

• VALERIA, VIA

Valeria the backbone of the See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army . In the first See also:

• YEAR

year of de See also:

• PROVO

Provo. the Republic, according to the received See also:

• CHRONOLOGY (Gr. xpovo?oyfa, computation of time, xp6vos)

chronology, catlone . P . See also:

• VALERIUS, PUBLIUS

Valerius Publicola or Poplicola carried in the comitia centuriata his famous See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law of appeal.* It enacted that no See also:

• MAGISTRATE (Lat. magistratus, from magister, master, properly a public office, hence the person holding such an office)

magistrate, saving only a dictator, should execute a See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence upon any See also:

• ROMAN

Roman citizen unless the sentence had been confirmed on appeal by the See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly of the centuries . But, though the " right of appeal granted by this law was justly regarded in later times as the greatest safeguard of a Roman's liberties, it was by. no means at first so effective a protection as it after-wards became . For not only was the operation of the law limited to the See also:

• BOUNDS, BEATING THE

bounds of the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city, so that the See also:

• CONSUL
• CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. praetor maximus)

consul in the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field or on the See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

march was See also:

• LEFT

left as See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute as before, but no See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security was provided for its observance even within the city by. consuls resolved to disregard it.* It' was by their own efforts that the plebeians first obtained any real protection against magisterial despotism .

The traditional accounts of the first See also:

• SECESSION

secession are confused . The first and contradictoryj but its causes and results ' are secession tolerably clear . The seceders were the plebeian and the legionaries recently returned from a victorious See also:

• CAM (CAO), DIOGO (fl. 1480-1486)

cam- tdbuuate, paign . Indignant at the delay of the promised reforms, they ignored the See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order given them to march afresh against See also:

• VOLSCI

Volsci and See also:

• AEQUI

Aequi, and instead entrenched themselves on a See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill across the Anio, some 3 M. from See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, and known afterwards as the See also:

• MONS (Flemish Bergen)

Mons Sacer . The frightened See also:

• PATRICIANS (Lat. patricius, an adjectival form from pater, father; not, as some say, from pater and ciere, to call)

patricians came to terms, and a See also:

• SOLEMN (Lat. sollemnis, sollemnis, less correctly solennis, yearly, annual; from sollus = totus, whole, entire, Gr. Mos., and annus, year)

solemn agreement (See also:

• LEE
• LEE (or LEGIT) ROWLAND (d. 1543)
• LEE, ANN (1736–1784)
• LEE, ARTHUR (1740–1792)
• LEE, FITZHUGH (1835–1905)
• LEE, GEORGE ALEXANDER (1802-1851)
• LEE, HENRY (1756-1818)
• LEE, JAMES PRINCE (1804-1869)
• LEE, NATHANIEL (c. 1653-16g2)
• LEE, RICHARD HENRY (1732-1794)
• LEE, ROBERT EDWARD (1807–1870)
• LEE, SIDNEY (1859– )
• LEE, SOPHIA (1950-1824)
• LEE, STEPHEN DILL (1833-1908)

lee sacrata) s was concluded between the orders, by which it was provided that henceforth the plebeians should have See also:

• ANNUAL

annual magistrates of their own called tribunes (tribuni plebis), members of their own order, , who should be authorized to protect them against the consuls,* and a curse was invoked upon the See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man who should injure or impede the See also:

• TRIBUNE (med. Lat. tribune, from classical Lat. tribunal)

tribune in the performance of his duties.1° The number of tribunes was possibly at first two, then five; before 449 B.C. it had been raised to ten . The tribunate is an institution which has no parallel in history . The tribune was not, and, strictly speaking, never became, a magistrate of the Roman See also:

• PEOPLE

people . His one proper See also:

• PREROGATIVE

prerogative was that of granting protection to the oppressed plebeian against a patrician officer . This prerogative (See also:

• JUS

jus auxi'ii) was secured to him, not by the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary constitution, but by a See also:

• SPECIAL

special compact between the orders, and was protected by the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• OATH (0. Eng. ddh)

oath (vetus jusjurandum),li which invoked a curse upon: the violator of a tribune . This exceptional and anomalous right the tribunes could only exercise in See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person, within the limits of the " pomoerium," and against individual acts of magisterial oppression.12 It was only gradually that it See also:

• EXPANDED

expanded into a wide See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of interference with the whole machinery of See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government, and was supplemented by the legislative See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers which rendered the tribunate of the last See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.C. so formidable (see TRIBUNE) . But from the first the tribunes were for the plebs not only protectors but leaders, under whom they organized themselves in opposition to the patricians . The tribunes convened Lex assemblies of the plebs (concilia plebis), and carried Pubttlla .

resolutions on questions of See also:

• INTEREST

interest to the order . This incipient s Livy ii . 8, lex Valeria de provocatione; Cic . De Rep. ii . 31; cf . Livy iii . 20 . o Greenidge, Legal See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

Procedure of See also:

• CICERO

Cicero's See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

Time, pp . 344 sqq . ' Schwegler ii . 226 seq . 8 Ibid. ii .

251 n . ; Livy i.` 33, o Cic . De Rep. ii . 34, contra consulate imperium creati." 10 Li iii . 55 . 11 See also:

• FESTUS (? RuFUS or RUFIUS)
• FESTUS, SEXTUS POMPEIUS

Festus 318 . '2 See also:

• GELL, SIR WILLIAM (1777-1836)

Gell. xiii . 12, " ut injuria quae See also:

• CORAM, THOMAS (1668–1751)

coram fieret arceretur." plebeian organization was materially advanced by the Publilian 283 law of 471 B.C.,i which appears to have formally re- cognized as lawful the plebeian concilia, and established also. the tribune's right cum plebe agere, i.e. to propose and carry resolutions in them . These assemblies were See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute, or, in other words, the voting in them took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place not by curies or centuries but by tribes . In them, lastly, after the Publilian law, if not before, the tribunes were annually elected) By this law the See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations were laid both of the powerful concilia plebis of later days and also of the legislative and judicial prerogatives of the tribunes . The patricians maintained indeed that resolutions (See also:

• PLEBISCITE (Lat. plebiscitum, a decree of the plebs)

plebiscite) carried by tribunes in the concilia plebis were not binding on their order, but the moral See also:

• WEIGHT

weight of such resolutions, whether they affirmed a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general principleorpronounced sentence of condemnation on some single patrician, was no doubt considerable . The next See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage in the struggle is marked by the See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to substitute a public written law for unwritten usage .

292 The proposal of C . Terentilius Arse (462 B.C.) to ap- point a plebeian See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission to draw up See also:

• LAWS

laws restricting the powers of the consuls8 was resolutely opposed by the patricians, but after ten years of See also:

• BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867– )

bitter party strife a See also:

• COMPROMISE (pronounced compromize; through Fr. from Lat. compromittere)

compromise was effected . A commission of See also:

• TEA (Chinese cha, Amoy dialect t€)

tea patricians was appointed; who The should See also:

• FRAME

frame and publish a See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code of law binding equally Deceit- on both the orders . These See also:

• DECEMVIRI (" the ten men ")

decemviri were to be the virate. See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole and supreme magistrates for the year, and the law of appeal was suspended in their favour.' The code which they promulgated, the famous XII . Tables, owed little of its importance to ;any novelties or improvements contained m its provisions . For the most See also:

• PART

part it seems merely to have reaffirmed existing usages and laws (see ROMAN LAw) . But it imposed, as it;was intended to do, a check on the arbitrary See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration of See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice by the magistrates . With the publication of the code the proper See also:

• WORK

work of the decemvirs was finished; nevertheless, for the next year a fresh decemvirate was elected, and it is conceivable that the intention was permanently to substitute government by an irresponsible patrician " See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council of ten " for the old constitution.' However this may have been, the tyranny of the decemvirs themselves was fatal to the continuance of their power . We are told of a second secession of the plebs, this time to the Janiculum, and of negotiations with the senate, the result of which was the enforced See also:

• ABDICATION (Lat. abdicatio, disowning, renouncing, from ab, from, and dicare, to declare, to proclaim as not belonging to one)

abdication of the decemvirs . The plebs joyfully See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose for themselves tribunes, and in the comitia centuriata two consuls were created . But this restoration of the old regime was accompanied by legislation which Valera.- made it an important crisis in the history of the iioratiaa struggle between the orders . With the fall of the taWs. decemvirate this struggle enters upon a new phase .

The tribunes appear as at once more powerful and more strictly constitutional magistrates; the , plebeian concilia take their place by the See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the older assemblies;, and finally this improved machinery is used not simply in self-See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence against patrician oppression but to obtain See also:

• COMPLETE

complete, political equality . This See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change was no doubt due in part to circumstances outside legislation, above all to the expansion of the Roman See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, which swelled the See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers and added to the social importance of the plebs as compared with the dwindling forces of the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close See also:

• CORPORATION (from Lat. corporare, to form into a body, corpus, corporis)

corporation of patrician gentes . Still the legislation 3f 449 clearly involved more than a restoration of the old See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of government . The Valerio-Horatian laws, besides; reaffirming the right of appeal and the inviolability of the tribunes, improved the position of the plebeian assemblies by epacting that plebiscite passed in them, and, as seems probable, approved by the patres, should be, binding on patricians as well as plebeians) ' Livy ii . 56, 6o; Dionys. ix . 41; Schwegler ii . 541; Soltau 493 . For theories as to' the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original mode of appointing tribunes see Mommsen, Forsch. i . 185, Staatsr. ii . 274 sqq . Livy iii . 9 .

4 Ibid. iii . 32 . I On the disputed question of the date of the XII . Tables see Pals, Storia di See also:

• ROMA

Roma, vol. i. See also:

• CHAP

chap. iv., and Greenidge, Eng . Hist . See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review (1905), pp . I sqq . I Livy iii . 55, See also:

• QUERN

quern veluti in controverso jure esset, tenerenturneBy this law the tribunes obtained a recognized initiative in legislation . Henceforth the desired reforms were introduced and. carried by tribunes in what were now styled comitia tribute, and,. if sanctioned by the patres, became laws of the state . From this See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period, too, must be dated the legalization at any See also:

• RATE

rate of the tribune's right to impeach any citizen before the assembly of the tribes ? Henceforward there is no question of the tribune's right to propose to the plebs to impose a See also:

• FINE

fine, or of the validity of the sentence when passed .

The efficiency of these new weapons of attack was amply proved by the subsequent course of the struggle . Only a few years after the Valerio-Horatian legislation came the lex Canuleia, itself a plebiscitum (445 B.c), by which mixed marriages between patricians Lex and plebeians were declared lawful, and the social cattalos. exclusiveness of the patriciate broken down . In the . 309• same year with this measure, and-like-it in the interests primarily of the wealthier plebeians, a vigorous attack commenced on the patrician See also:

• MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

monopoly of the consulate, and See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round this stronghold of patrician ascendancy the conflict raged until the passing ,of the Licinian laws- in 367 . The original proposal of the tribune See also:

• GAIUS

Gaius Canuleius. in 445, that the people should be allowed to elect a plebeian consul wam evaded by a compromise . The senate resolved that for the next year, in the See also:

• STEAD, WILLIAM THOMAS (1849– )

stead of consuls, six military tribunes with, consular powers should be elepted,e and that the' new See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office should be open to patricians and plebeians alike . The consulship was thus for the time saved from pollution, as the patricians phrased it, but the growing strength of the plebs is shown by the fact that in fifty years out of the' seventy-eight betweeh 444 and 366 they succeeded in obtaining the S1Q-88 . See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election of consular tribunes rather than of consuls . Despite, however, these discouragements, the patricians fought on . Each year they strove to secure the creation of consuls rather than consular tribunes, and failing this strained every See also:

• NERVE (Lat. nervus, Gr. vevpov, a bowstring)

nerve' to secure for their own order at least a See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority among 'the latter . Even the institution of the censorship (435), though rendered desirable by the increasing importance and complexity of the See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census, was, it is probable, due in part to their desire to See also:

• DISCOUNT

discount beforehand the threatened loss of the consul-See also:

• SHIP

ship by diminishing its powers .° Other causes; too, helped to protract the struggle . Between the wealthier plebeians, who were ambitious of high office, and the poorer, whose minds were set rather on allotments of See also:

• LAND

land, there was a See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of interest of which the patricians were not slow to take See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage, and to this must be added the pressure of See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war .

The See also:

• DEATH

death struggle with See also:

• VEIL (O.Fr. veile, mod. voile, from Lat. velum, cloth, awning, sail)

Veil and the See also:

• SACK

sack of Rome by the Gauls absorbed for the time all the energies of the community . In 377, how-ever, two of the tribunes, C . See also:

• LICINIUS

Licinius Stolo (see LICINrus STOLO, GAMS) and L . Sextius, came forward with proposals which See also:

• UNITED

united all sections of the plebs in their support . Their proposals were as follows:10 (I) that' consuls and not consular tribunes be elected; (2) that one consul at least should be a plebeian; (3) that the priestly See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college, which had the See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of the Sibylline books, should consist of ten members instead of two, and that of these See also:

• HALF

half should be plebeians; (4) that no - single citizen should hold in occupation more than 500 acres of the See also:

• COMMON

common lands, or pasture upon them more than too See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle and 500 See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep; (5) that all landowners should employ a certain amount of See also:

• FREE

free as well as slave labour on their estates; (6) that interest already paid on debts should be deducted from the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal, and the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder paid off in three' years . The three last proposals were obviously intended to meet the patres plebisci€is legem comities centuriafis tulere, ut quod ttibuti'm plebs jussisset populum teneret, qua lege tribuniciis rogationibus telum acerrimum datum est." What were the precise conditions under which a plebiscitum became. law can only be conjectured . The See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of the patres over legislation certainly remained effective until 287 B.c .. (See below.) After the decemvirate, the tribunes no longer pronounce capital sentences . ; They propose fines, which are confirmed by the eemstsa tribute . 8 Livy iv . 6; cf . Mommsen, Staetsrecht, ii .

181 . Mommsen, Staatsrecht, ii., 331 . to Livy vi . 35, 42 ; See also:

• APPIAN (Gr. 'Aairtavbs)

Appian, B.C. i . 8 . Leges 4Icieiae Sextiae . 38X demands of the poorer plebeians, and to secure their support for the first half of the See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme . Ten years of bitter conflict 387 followed, but at last, in 367 B.C., the Licinian rogations became law, and one of their authors, L . Sextius, was created the first plebeian consul . For the moment it was. some See also:

• CONSOLATION (Fr. consolation, Lat. consolatio, from consolari, to assuage, comfort, console)

consolation to the patricians that they not only succeeded in detaching from the consulship the administration of See also:

• CIVIL

civil law, which was entrusted to a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate officer, See also:

• PRAETOR (Lat. prae-itor, " he who goes before," "a leader")

praetor urbanus, to be elected by the comitia of the centuries, with. an understanding apparently that he should be a patrician, but also obtained the institution of two additional aediles (aediles curules), who were in like manner to be members of their own order.' With the opening of the consulship, however, the issue of the See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long See also:

• CON

con-test was virtually decided, and the next eighty years witnessed a rapid See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession of plebeian victories . Now that a plebeian consul might preside at the elections, the main difficulty in the way of the nomination and election of plebeian candidates was removed . The proposed patrician monopoly of the new See also:

• CURULE (Lat. currus, " chariot ")

curule aedileship was almost instantly abandoned .

In 356 the first plebeian was made dictator; in 350 the censorship, and in 337 the praetorship were filled for the. first tithe by plebeians; and lastly, in 300, by the lex Ogulnia, even the sacred colleges of the pontiffs and See also:

• AUGURS

augurs, the old strongholds of patrician supremacy, were thrown open to the plebs ? The patricians lost also the control they had exercised so long over the See also:

• ACTION

action of the people in assembly . The pairum auctoritas, the See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

sanction given or refused by the patrician senators to laws and to elections, had hitherto been a powerful 4/s. weapon, in their hands . But in 339 a law of Q . See also:

• PUBLILIUS (less correctly PUBLIUS) SYRUS

Publilius nurnlian See also:

• PHILO
• PHILO, HERENNIUS

Philo, a plebeian dictator, enacted that this sanction laws. should be given beforehand to laws enacted in the comitia centuriata,3 and a lex Maenia of uncertain date extended the See also:

• RULE

rule to elections in the same assembly . Livy ascribes to the same Publilius a law emancipating the concilium plebis Lex from the control of the patres; but this seems in reality Hortensia, to have been effected by the famous lex Hortensia, 467. carried by another plebeian dictator.* Henceforward the patrum auctoritas sank into a meaningless form, though as such it still survived in the time of Livy . From 287 onwards it is certain that See also:

• MEASURES

measures passed by the plebs, voting by their tribes, had the full force of laws without any further conditions whatsoever . The legislative See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence of the plebeian assembly was secured, and with this crowning victory ended the long struggle between the orders . (b) See also:

• CONQUEST

Conquest of See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy.—Twelve years after the passing of the lex Hortensia, See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King See also:

• PYRRHUS (c. 318–272 B.C.)

Pyrrhus, beaten at Beneventum, withdrew from Italy; and Rome was left See also:

• MISTRESS

mistress of the See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula . The steps by which this supremacy had been won have now to be traced.s The See also:

• EXPULSION (Lat. expulsio, from expellere)

expulsion of the Tarquins from Rome, followed as it seems to have been by the emancipation from See also:

• ETRUSCAN

Etruscan supremacy of all the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country between the See also:

• TIBER (anc. Tiberis; Ital. Tevere)

Tiber and the Liris, entirely altered the aspect of affairs . See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North of the Tiber the powerful Etruscan city of See also:

• VEII

Veii, after a vain attempt to restore the Tarquins, relapsed into an attitude of sullen hostility towards Rome, 347. which, down to the outbreak of the final struggle in 407, found vent in See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant and harassing border forays . The Sabines, recommenced their raids across the Anio; from their hills to the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east the Aequi pressed forward as far as the eastern spurs of the See also:

• ALBAN, SAINT

Alban range, and ravaged the See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low country between that range and the See also:

• SABINE, SIR EDWARD (1788-1883)

Sabine mountains; the Volsci overran the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast-lands as far as See also:

• ANTIUM (mod. Anzio)

Antium, established them- ' Livy vi .

42 . 2 Ibid. vii . 17, 22 ; viii . 15; x . 6 . s Ibid. viii . 12, " ut .. . ante initum suffragium patres auctores fierent," cf . Livy. i . 17 . For the lex Maenia, see Cic . See also:

• BRUT, BRUTE

Brut .

14, 55 ; Soltau 112 . * Plin . N.H. xvi. lo; Gell. xv . 27; Gaius i . 3, " plebiscite lege Hortensia non minus valere quam leges." s For details of these See also:

• WARS

wars see articles on the various cities, districts and tribes . For ethnographic and philological See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence see ITALY, Ancient Peoples.selves at Velitrae and even wasted the 'See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields within a few See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles of Rome . But the See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-188o)

fortune of Rome did not leave her to See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face these foes single-handed, and it is a significant See also:

• LEAGUE

League fact that the history of the Roman advance begins, with the not with a brilliant victory, but with a timely See also:

• ALLIANCE

alliance . LatinH According to Livy, it was in 493, only a few years after and er• nicans . the defeat of the See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince of See also:

• TUSCULUM

Tusculum at See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake See also:

• REGILLUS

Regillus, 261. that a treaty was concluded between Rome and the Latin communities of the Campagna.6 The alliance was in every respect natural . The Latins were the near neighbours and kinsmen of the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans, and both Romans and Latins were just freed from Etruscan rule to find themselves as lowlanders and dwellers in towns face to face with a common foe in the ruder hill tribes on their See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders . The exact terms of the treaty cannot, any more than the precise circumstances under which it was concluded, be stated with certainty (see See also:

• LATIUM

LATIUM), but two points seem clear . There was at first a genuine equality in the relations between the See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies; Romans and Latins, though combining for defence and offence, did so without sacrificing their separate freedom of action, even in the See also:

• MATTER

matter of waging wars independently of each other .?

But, secondly, Rome enjoyed from the first one inestimable advantage . The Latins See also:

• LAY

lay between her and the most active of her foes, the Aequi and Volsci, and served to protect her territories at the expense of their own . Behind this barrier Rome See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew strong, and the close of the Aequian and Volscian wars left the Latins her dependents rather than her allies . Beyond the limits of the Campagna Rome found a second ally, hardly less useful than the Latins, in the tribe of the See also:

• HERNICI

Hernici (" the men of the rocks "), in the valley of the Trerus, who had equal See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason with the Romans and Latins to dread the Volsci and Aequi, while their position midway between the two latter peoples made them valuable auxiliaries to the lowlanders of the Campagna . The treaty with the Hernici is said to have been concluded in 486,8 and the confederacy of the three peoples Romans, Latins and Hernicans—lasted down to the 268 . See also:

• GREAT

great Latin war in 340 . Confused and untrustworthy 414 . as are the See also:

• CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF

chronicles of the early wars of Rome, it is clear that, notwithstanding the acquisition of these allies, Rome made but little way against her foes during the first fifty years of the existence of the Republic . In 474, it is true, an end was put for a time to the harassing border See also:

• FEUD

feud 280 . with Veii by a See also:

• FORTY

forty years' See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace, an advantage due not so much to Roman valour as to " the increasing dangers from other quarters which were threatening the Etruscan states ? But this partial success stands alone, and down to 449 the raids of Sabines, Aequi and Volsci continue without intermission, and are occasionally carried up to the very wa3"lls' of Rome . Very different is the impression left by the See also:

• ANNALS (Annales, from annus, a year)

annals of the next sixty years (449-39o) .

During this period there is an unmistakable development of Roman power on all 305-6¢' sides . In See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern See also:

• ETRURIA

Etruria the See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of Veii (396) capture virtually gave Rome the mastery as far as the Ciminian of veil See also:

• FOREST

forest . Sutrium and Nepete, " the See also:

• GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806)

gates of Etruria,", became her allies and guarded her interests against any attack from the Etruscan communities to the north, while along the Tiber valley her See also:

• SUZERAINTY

suzerainty was acknowledged as far as See also:

• CAPENA

Capena and See also:

• FALERII [mod. Civitd Castellana (q.v.)]

Falerii . On the Anio frontier we hear of no disturbances from 449 until some ten years after the sack of Rome by the Gauls . In 446 the Aequi appear for the last' time before the gates of Rome . After 418 308• they disappear from 'See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount Algidus, and in the same 386 year the communications of Rome and Latium with the Hernici in the Trerus valley were secured by the capture and colonization of Labicum . Successive invasions, too, See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke the strength of the Volsci, and in 393 a Latin See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony was 361. improved founded as far south as Circeii: In part, no doubt, these Roman successes were due to the 8 Livy ii . 33 ; Cic . See also:

• PRO

Pro See also:

• BALBO, CESARE, COUNT (1789–1853)

Balbo, 23 . Livy viii . 2 . 8 From the Celts in the north especially .

Opening of the magistracies . 398 . 404 . 417 . 454 . 8 Ibid. ii . 41 . affairs in Rome itself, consequent upon the great reforms carried 304-J12 . between 450 and 442; but it is equally. certain that now, as often afterwards, fortune befriended Rome by weakening, or by diverting the See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention of, her opponents . In particular, her rapid advance in southern Etruria was Dec*" of facilitated by the heavy blows inflicted upon the Etruscan Etruscans during the 5th century B.C. by Celts, Greeks paver and See also:

• SAMNITES

Samnites . By the close of this century the Celts had expelled them from the See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich plains of what was afterwards known as Cisalpine See also:

• GAUL
• GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855— )

Gaul, and were even threatening to advance across the See also:

• APENNINES (Gr. 'A1T- vvLvos, Lat. Appenninus—in both cases used in the singular)

Apennines into Etruria proper . The Sicilian Greeks, headed by the tyrants of See also:

• SYRACUSE
• SYRACUSE (Gr. Mvpaaovoat; Lat. Syracusae, Ital. Siracusa)

Syracuse, wrested from them their mastery of the seas, and finally, on the capture of See also:

• CAPUA (anc. Casilinum;, a town and archiepiscopal see of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, 7 M. W. by rail from the town oI Caserta. Pop. (1901) 14
• CAPUA (mod. S. Maria di Capua Vetere)

Capua by the 331 .

Samnites in 423, they lost their possessions in the fertile Campanian See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain . These conquests of the Samnites were part of a great southward See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement of the highland Sabellian peoples, the immediate effects of which upon the fortunes of Rome were not confined to the weakening of the Etruscan power . It is probable that the cessation of the Sabine raids across the Anio was partly due to the new outlets which were opened southwards for the restless and populous hill tribes which had so long disturbed the peace of the Latin lowlands . We may conjecture, also, that the growing feebleness exhibited by Volsci and Aequi was in some measure caused by the pressure upon their See also:

• REAR

rear of the Sabellian clans which at this time established themselves near the Fucine lake and along the course of the Liris . But in 390,1y six years after the great victory over her ancient See also:

• RIVAL

rival Veil, the Roman advance was for a moment sack of checked by a disaster which threatened to alter the Rome by course of history in Italy, and which left a lasting the °sins. impress on the Roman mind . In 391 a See also:

• CELTIC

Celtic See also:

• HORDE

horde 363. left their newly won lands on the Adriatic, and, See also:

• CROSSING

crossing the Apennines into Etruria, laid See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege to the Etruscan city of See also:

• CLUSIUM (mod. Chiusi, q.v.)

Clusium (See also:

• CHIUSI (anc. Clusium)

Chiusi) . Thence, provoked, it is said, by the conduct of. the Roman ambassadors, who, forgetting their sacred See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, had fought in the ranks of Clusium and slain a Celtic See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief, the barbarians marched upon Rome . On See also:

• JULY

July the 18th of 390 B.C., only a few miles from Rome, was 364 . fought the disastrous See also:

• BATTLE

battle of the See also:

• ALLIA (mod. Fosso Bettina)
• ALLIA, PIERRE (1641-1717)

Allia . The defeat of the Romans was complete, and Rome lay at the See also:

• MERCY (adapted from Fr. merci, Lat. merces, reward)
• MERCY (or MERCI), FRANZ, FREIHERR VON

mercy of her foe . But in characteristic See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion the Celts halted three days to enjoy the fruits of victory, and time was thus given to put the Capitol at least in a state of defence . The arrival of the barbarians was followed by the sack of the city, but the Capitol remained impregnable .

For seven months they besieged it, and then in as sudden a fashion as they had come they disappeared . The Roman chroniclers explain their See also:

• RETREAT (O. Fr. retrete, mod. retraite, from Lat. retrahere, to draw back)

retreat in their own way, by the fortunate See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of M . Furius See also:

• CAMILLUS
• CAMILLUS, MARCUS FURIUS

Camillus with the troops which he had collected, at the very moment when See also:

• FAMINE (Lat. fames, hunger)

famine had forced the See also:

• GARRISON
• GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879)

garrison on the Capitol to accept terms . More probably the See also:

• NEWS

news that their lands across the Apennines were threatened by. the See also:

• VENETI

Veneti, coupled with the unaccustomed tedium of a long siege and the difficulty of obtaining supplies, inclined the Celts to accept readily a heavy See also:

• RANSOM (from Lat. redemptio, through Fr. rancon)

ransom as the See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price of their withdrawal . But, whatever the reason, it .is certain that they retreated, and, though during the next fifty years marauding bands appeared at intervals in the neighbourhood of Rome, and even once penetrated as far south as 393 94 . See also:

• CAMPANIA

Campania (361-6o), the Celts never obtained any footing in Italy outside the plains in the north which they had made their own . Nor, in spite of the defeat on the Allia and the sack of the city, was Rome weakened except, for the moment by the Celtic Annexa- attack . The See also:

• STORM (in O. Eng..storm, and so in Du. and Low Ger.; in O. H. Ger. and mod. Ger. Sturm; the root is probably that seen in " stir," to rouse, move, disturb, cf. Ger. storen)
• STORM, THEODOR WOLDSEN (1817-1888)

storm passed away as rapidly as it had tioa of come on . The city was hastily rebuilt, and Rome dissouthern mayed the enemies who hastened to take advantage Etrr,ria' of her misfortunes by her undiminishedvigour . Her conquests in southern Etruria were successfully defended against repeated attacks from the Etruscans to the north . The 367 creation in 387 of four new tribes (Stellatina, Sabatina, Tromentina, Arnensis) marked the final See also:

• ANNEXATION (Lat. ad, to, and nexus, joining)

annexation of the territory of Veii and of the lands lying along the Tiber valley . A few years later Latin,. colonies were ;established at Sutrium and Nepete forthe more effectual defence of the frontier, and finally, in 353, the subjugation of South Etruria was completed by the submission of See also:

• CAERE (mod. Cerveteri, i.e. Caere vetus, see below)

Caere (q.v.) and its 401' partial See also:

• INCORPORATION (from Lat. incorporare, to form into a body)

incorporation with the Roman state as a " See also:

• MUNICIPIUM (Lat. munus, a duty or privilege, capere, to take)

municipium sine suffragio "--the first, it is said, of its See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind.' Next to the See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement of southern Etruria, the most important of the successes gained by Rome between 390 and 343 B.C. were those won against her old foes the Aequi and Volsci, and her old allies the Latins and Hernicans .

The Aequi indeed, already weakened by their long feud with Rome, and hard pressed by the Sabellian tribes in their rear, were easily dealt with, and after the See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign of 389 we have no further mention of an Aequian war until the last Aequian rising in 304 . The Volsci, who in 389 had advanced to See also:

• LANUVIUM (more frequently Lanivium in imperial times, mod. Civita Lavinia)

Lanuvium, were met and utterly defeated by Camillus, the conqueror of Veil, and this victory was followed up by the See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual subjugation to Rome of all the See also:

• LOWLAND

lowland country lying between the hills and the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea as. far south as Tarracina . Latin colonies were established at See also:

• SATRICUM (mod. Conca)

Satricum (385), at See also:

• SETIA (mod. Sezze, 52 M. by rail S.E. of Rome)

Setia (379), and 369, 375. at See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

Anti= and Tarracina some time before 348 . In 306' 396 . 358 two fresh, Roman tribes (Pomptina and Publilia) were formed in the same See also:

• DISTRICT

district,2 Rome had now nothing more to fear from the foes who a century ago had threatened her very existence . The lowland country, of which she was the natural centre, from . Re_ the Cinlinian forest to Tarracina, was quiet, and organist's within its limits Rome was by far the strongest power. tion of But she had now to reckon with the old and faithful the Latin allies to whose loyal aid her present position was league . , largely due . The See also:

• LATINI, BRUNETTO (c. 1210-C. 1294)

Latini and Hernici had suffered severely in the Aequian and Volscian wars; it is probable that not a few of the smaller communities included in the league had either been destroyed or been absorbed by larger states, and the independence of all alike was threatened by the growing power of Rome . The sack of Rome by the Celts gave them an opportunity of reasserting their independence, and we are consequently told that this disaster was immediately. followed by the temporary See also:

• DISSOLUTION (from Lat. dissolvere, to break up into parts)

dissolution of the confederacy, and this again a few years later by a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of actual conflicts between Rome and her former allies . Between 383 and 358 we hear of wars with See also:

• TIBUR (mod. Tivoli, q.v.)

Tibur, See also:

• PRAENESTE (mod. Palestrina)

Praeneste, Tusculum, Lanuvium, 371-96 . Circeii and the Hernici .

But in all Rome was successful . In 382 Tusculum was fully incorporated with the Roman 372 . state by the bestowal of the full See also:

• FRANCHISE (from 0. Fr. franchise, freedom, franc, free)

franchise; 3 in .358, X96. according to both Livy and See also:

• POLYBIUS (c. 204–122 B.C.)

Polybius, the old alliance was formally renewed with Latini and Hernici . We cannot, however, be wrong in assuming that the position of the allies under the new league was far inferior to that accorded them by the treaty of Spurius See also:

• CASSIUS
• CASSIUS, AVIDIUS (d. A.D. 175)
• CASSIUS, GAIUS

Cassius.4 Henceforth they were the subjects rather than the equals of• Rome, a position which it is evident that they accepted much against their will, and from which they were yet to make one last effort to See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape . We have now reached the close of the first stage in Rome's advance towards supremacy in Italy . By 343 B.C. she was already mistress both of the low country stretching .. . '4t: from the Clminian forest to Tarracina and Circeii and of the bordering See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

highlands . Her own territory had. largely increased . Across the Tiber the lands of Veii, Capena and Caere were nearly all Roman, while in Latium she had carried her frontiers to Tusculum on the Alban' range and to the southernmost limits of the Pomptine district . And this territory was protected by a circle of dependent allies and colonies reaching northward to Sutrium and Nepete, and southward to See also:

• SORA

Sora on the upper Liris, and to Circeii on the coast . Already, too, she was beginning to be recognized as a power outside the ' For the status of 'Caere and the " Caerite franchise," see See also:

• MARQUARDT, JOACHIM (1812–1882)

Marquardt, Staatsverw. i . 28•seq, See also:

• MADVIG, JOHAN NICOLAI (1804-1886)

Madvig, R .

Verf. i . 39; Beloch, Ital . Bund, 120; Mommsen, Staatsr. iii . 583 sqq . 2 Livy vii . 15 . ' 3 Ibid. vi . 26 . 4 Mommsen, R.G. i . 347• n . ; Beloch, Ital . Bund, cap. ix .

Successes against Aequi and Volsci . limits of the Latin lowlands . The fame of the capture of Rome by the Celts had reached See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens, and her subsequent victories over marauding Celtic bands had given her See also:

• PRESTIGE

prestige in South Italy as a See also:

• BULWARK (a word probably of Scandinavian origin, from bol or bole, a tree-trunk, and werk, work, in Ger. Bollwerk, which has also been derived from an old German bolen, to throw, and so a machine for throwing missiles)

bulwark against See also:

• NORTHERN

northern barbarians . In eoo . 354 she had formed her first connexions beyond the dO6 . Liris by a treaty with the Samnites, and in 348 followed a far more important treaty with the great maritime state of See also:

• CARTHAGE
• CARTHAGE (Phoenician Kart-hadshat, " New City "; Gr. Kapxn5c; v, Lat. Carthago or Carchedon)
• CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF

Carthage.' Rome had won her supremacy from the Ciminian forest to the Liris as the See also:

• CHAMPION (Fr. champion, Late Lat. campio from campus; a field or open space, i.e. one " who takes the field " or fights; cf. Ger. Kampf, battle, and Kampfer, fighter)

champion of the comparatively civilized See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn-advance. munities of the lowlands against the See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude highland beyond tribes which threatened to overrun them, and so, when the Lids, her legions first crossed the Liris, it was in See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer to and the sawnite an appeal from a lowland city against invaders from Wes• the hills . While she was engaged in clearing Latium of Volsci and Aequi, the Sabellian tribes of the central Apennines had rapidly spread over the southern half of the peninsula . Foremost among these tribes were the Samnites, a portion of whom had captured the Etruscan city of Capua in 334 334 . 423, the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek See also:

• CUMAE (Gr. Kb/.m)

Cumae in 420, and had since' then ruled as masters over the fertile Campanian' territory . But in their new homes the conquerors soon lost all sense of relationship and sympathy with their highland brethren: They dwelt in cities, amassed See also:

• WEALTH

wealth; and inherited the See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization of the Greeks and Etruscans whom they had dispossessed;2 above all, they had before long to defend themselves in their turn against the attacks of their ruder kinsmen from the hills, and it was for aid against these that the Samnites of Campania appealed to the rising state which had already made herself known as the bulwark of the lowlands north of the Liris, and which with her Latin and Hernican allies had scarcely less interest than the Campanian cities themselves in checking the raids of the highland Samnite tribes . The Campanian appeal was listened to . Rome with her confederates entered into alliance with Capua and the neigh-First bouring Campanian towns, and war was formally &.make declared (343) against the Samnites.3 While to the war .

Latins and Hernicans was entrusted apparently the ~i• defence of Latium and the Hernican valley against the northerly members of the Samnite confederacy, the Romans themselves undertook the task of See also:

• DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages)

driving the invaders out of Campania . After two See also:

• CAMPAIGNS

campaigns the war was ended - in 41.t . 341 by a treaty, and the Samnites withdrew from the lowlands, leaving Rome the recognized suserain of the Campanian cities which had sought her aid.4 There is no doubt that the check thus given by Rome to the adv