See also:

• COMPASS (Fr. corn pas, ultimately from Lat. cum, with, and passus, step)

COMPASS (Fr. See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn pas, ultimately from See also:

• LAT

Lat. cum, with, and passus, step)  , a See also:

• TERM

term of which the See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution of the various meanings is obscure; the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general sense is " measure " or " measurement," and the word is used thus in various derived meanings—See also:

• AREA

area, boundary, See also:

• CIRCUIT (Lat. circuitus, from circum, round, and ire, to go)

circuit . It is also more particularly applied to a mathematical See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument (" pair of compasses") for measuring or for describing a circle, and to the mariner's See also:

• COMPASS (Fr. corn pas, ultimately from Lat. cum, with, and passus, step)

compass . The mariner's compass, with which this See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article is concerned, is an instrument by means of which the directive force of that See also:

• GREAT

great magnet, the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

Earth, upon a freely-suspended See also:

• NEEDLE (O. Eng. ncedl; the word appears in various forms in Teutonic languages, Ger. Nadel, Dutch naal, the root being ne-, to sew, cf. Ger. nahen, and probably Lat. nere, to spin, Gr. vi)ats, spinning)

needle, is utilized for a purpose essential to See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation . The needle is so mounted that it only moves freely in the See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal See also:

• PLANE

plane, and therefore the horizontal component of the earth's force alone directs it . The direction assumed by the needle is not generally towards the See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north, but diverges towards the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east or See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west of it, making a horizontal See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle with the true See also:

• MERIDIAN
• MERIDIAN (from the Lat. meridianus, pertaining to the south or mid-day)

meridian, called the magnetic variation or See also:

• DECLINATION (from Lat. declinare, to decline)

declination; amongst mariners this angle is known as the variation of the compass . In the usual navigable See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters of the See also:

• WORLD

world the variation alters from 30° to the east to 45° to the west of the geographical meridian, being See also:

• WESTERLY

westerly in the See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic and See also:

• INDIAN

Indian oceans, easterly in the Pacific . The See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical plane passing through the See also:

• LONGITUDINAL

longitudinal See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis of such a needle is known as the magnetic meridian . Following the first See also:

• CHART (from Lat. carta, charta, a map)

chart of lines of equal variation compiled by See also:

• EDMUND
• EDMUND, or EADMUND (c. 980-1016)
• EDMUND, SAINT [EDMUND RICE] (d. 1240)

Edmund See also:

• HALLEY, EDMUND (1656–1742)

Halley in 1700, charts of similar type have been published from See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time to time embodying See also:

• RECENT

recent observations and corrected for the See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change, thus providing See also:

• SEAMEN, LAWS RELATING TO

seamen with values of the variation accurate to about 30' of arc . Possessing these data, it is easy to ascertain by observation the effects of the See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron in a See also:

• SHIP

ship in disturbing the compass, and it will be found for the most See also:

• PART

part in every See also:

• VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel that the needle is deflected from the magnetic meridian by a horizontal angle called the deviation of the compass; in some directions of the ship's See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head adding to the known variation of the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, in other directions subtracting from it . See also:

• LOCAL

Local magnetic disturbance of the needle due to magnetic rocks is observed on See also:

• LAND

land in all parts of the world, and in certain places extends to the land under the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea, affecting the compasses on See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

board the See also:

• SHIPS

ships passing over it . The general direction of these disturbances in the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern hemisphere is an attraction of the north-seeking end of the needle; in the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern hemisphere, its repulsion . The approaches to Cossack, North See also:

• AUSTRALIA

Australia; Cape St See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis, Labrador; the coasts of See also:

• MADAGASCAR

Madagascar and See also:

• ICELAND (Dan. Island)

Iceland, are remarkable for such disturbance of the compass .

The compass as we know it is the result of the necessities of navigation, which have increased from See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century to century . It consists of five See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal parts—the card, the needles, the bowl, a jewelled cap and the See also:

• PIVOT (Fr. pivot; probably connected with Ital. pivolo, peg, pin, diminutive of piva, pipa, pipe)

pivot . The card or " See also:

• FLY (formed on the root of the supposed original Tent. fleugan, to fly)

fly," formerly made of cardboard, now consists of a disk either of See also:

• MICA

mica covered with See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper or of paper alone, but in all cases the card is divided into points and degrees as shown in fig. x . The See also:

• OUTER

outer margin is divided into degrees with o° at north and See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south, and 90° at east A F and west; the 32 points with See also:

• HALF

half and See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter points are seen immediately within the degrees . The north point is marked with a fleur de lis, and the principal points, N.E., E., S.E., &c., with their respective names, whilst the intermediate points in the figure have also their names engraved for See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information . The arc contained between any two points is 11° 15' . The mica card is generally mounted on a See also:

• BRASS
• BRASS (O. Eng. braes)

brass framework, F F, with a brass cap, C, fitted with a See also:

• SAPPHIRE

sapphire centre and carrying four magnetized needles, N, N, N, N, as in fig . 2 . The more See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of card consists of a broad See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring of paper marked with degrees and points, as in fig. x, attached to a See also:

• FRAME

frame like that in fig . 3, where an outer See also:

• ALUMINIUM (symbol Al; atomic weight 27.0)

aluminium ring, A A, is connected by 32 radial with sapphire centre; N, N', needles; P, pivot See also:

• STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stain, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to " staff ")

stem with pivot . See also:

• SILK

silk threads to a central disk of aluminium, in the centre of which is a See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round hole designed to receive an aluminium cap with a highly polished sapphire centre worked to the form of an open See also:

• CONE (Gr. Kwvos)

cone . To See also:

• DIRECT

direct the card eight See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short See also:

• LIGHT

light needles, N N, are suspended by silk threads from the outer ring .

The magnetic axis of any See also:

• SYSTEM

system of needles must exactly coincide with the axis passing through the north and south points of the card . Single needles are never used, two being the least number, and these so arranged that the moment of inertia about every See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter of the card shall be the same . The See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of card, needles and cap is generally termed " the card "; on the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe it is called the " See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose." The See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section of a compass bowl in fig . 4 shows the mounting of a See also:

• THOMSON, JAMES (1822-1892)
• THOMSON, JAMES (1834-1882)
• THOMSON, JAMES (r700-1748)
• THOMSON, JOHN (1778-184o)
• THOMSON, JOSEPH (1858-1895)
• THOMSON, SIR CHARLES WYVILLE (1830-1882)
• THOMSON, THOMAS (1773-1852)
• THOMSON, WILLIAM (1819-189o)

Thomson card on its pivot, which in See also:

• COMMON

common with the pivots of most other compasses is made of brass, tipped with See also:

• OSMIUM [symbol Os., atomic weight 190.9 (0= r6)]

osmium-See also:

• IRIDIUM (symbol Ir.; atomic weight 193.1)

iridium, which although very hard can be sharply pointed and does not corrode . i, ,uuudiiluuuun:mmmuun:nnmur nuu,umun,~uunannuuni:nourimm~num Fig . 4 shows the general arrangement of mounting all compass See also:

• CARDS, PLAYING

cards in the bowl . In fig . 5 another form of compass called a liquid or spirit compass is shown partly in section . The card nearly floats in a bowl filled with distilled See also:

• WATER

water, to which 35% of See also:

• ALCOHOL

alcohol is added to prevent freezing; the bowl is hermetically sealed with pure See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

india-See also:

• RUBBER, INDIARUBBER

rubber, and a corrugated expansion chamber is attached to the bottom to allow for the expansion and contraction of the liquid . The card is a mica disk, either painted as in fig. r, or covered with See also:

• LINEN

linen upon which the degrees and points are printed, the needles being enclosed in brass . Great steadiness of card under severe shocks and vibrations, combined with a minimum of See also:

• FRICTION (from Lat. fricare, to rub)

friction in the cap and pivot, is obtained with this compass . All compasses are fitted with a See also:

• GIMBAL

gimbal ring to keep the bowl and card level under every circumstance of a ship's See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion in a seaway, the ring being connected with the See also:

• BINNACLE (before 18th century bittacle, through Span. bitacula, from Lat. habitaculum, a little dwelling)

binnacle or See also:

• PEDESTAL (Fr. piedestal, Ital. piedestallo, foot of a stall)

pedestal by means of See also:

• JOURNALS

journals or See also:

• KNIFE (0. E. cuff, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. knijf, Ger. Kneif, a shoe-maker's knife, Swed. knif; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the root of " nip," formerly " knip "; Fr. canif is a

knife edges .

On the inside of every compass bowl a vertical See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black See also:

• LINE

line is See also:

• DRAWN

drawn, called the " lubber's point," and it is imperative - ----------------------- A, Bowl, partly in section . N, Hole for filling, with See also:

• SCREW (O.E. scrue, from O. Fr. escroue, mod. ecrou; ultimate origin uncertain; the word, or a similar one, appears in Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Schraube, Dan. skrue, but Skeat, following Diaz, finds the origin in Lat. scrobs, a ditch, hole, particularl

screw B, Expansion chamber. plug . D, The See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass . 0, 0, Magnetic needles . G, Gimbal ring . P, Buoyant chamber . L, See also:

• NUT
• NUT (0. Eng. knutu, cf. Dutch noot, Ger. Nuss; allied with Gael. cno; it is not of the same form as Lat. nux)

Nut to expand chamber when Q, Iridium pivot . filling bowl . R, Sapphire cap . M, Screw connector . S, Mica card . that when the compass is placed in the binnacle the line joining the pivot and the lubber's point be parallel to the See also:

• KEEL

keel of the vessel .

Thus, when a degree on the card is observed opposite the lubber's point, the angle between the direction in which the ship is steering and the north point of the compass or course is at once seen; and if the magnetic variation and the disturbing effects of the ship's iron are known, the desired angle between the ships's course and the geographical meridian can be computed . In every ship a position is selected for the navigating or See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard compass as See also:

• FREE

free from neighbouring iron as possible, and by this compass all courses are shaped and See also:

• BEARINGS

bearings taken . It is also provided with an See also:

• AZIMUTH (from the Arabic)

azimuth circle or See also:

• MIRROR (through O. Fr. mirour, mod. miroir, from a sup-posed Late Lat. miratorium, from mirari, to admire)

mirror and a See also:

• SHADOW (0. Eng. Schadewe, sceadu; a form of " shade "; connected with Gr. 6-Ore's, darkness)

shadow See also:

• PIN (a doublet with " pen " from Lat. pinna, feather, pinnacle, which is said to contain the same root as irirvs, pine tree, and properly to mean a sharp point or end)

pin or See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style placed in the centre of the glass See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover, by either of which the variable angle between the compass north and true north, called the " See also:

• TOTAL

total See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error," or variation and deviation combined, can be observed . The binnacles or pedestals for compasses are generally constructed of See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood about 45 in. high, and fitted to receive and alter at See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure the several magnet and soft iron correctors . They are also fitted with different forms of suspension in which the compass is mounted to obviate the See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical disturbance of the card caused by the vibration of the See also:

• HULL
• HULL (in O.Eng. hulu, from helan, to cover, cf. Ger. Hiille, covering)
• HULL (officially KINGSTON-UPON-HULL)
• HULL, ISAAC (1775-1843)

hull in ships driven by powerful engines . The effects of the iron and See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel used in the construction of ships upon the compass occupied the See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention of the ablest physicists of the loth century, with results which enable navigators to conduct their ships with perfect safety . The hull of an iron or steel ship is a magnet, and the See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of its See also:

• MAGNETISM
• MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

magnetism depends upon the direction of the ship's head when See also:

• BUILDING

building, this result being produced by See also:

• INDUCTION (from Lat. inducere, to lead into; cf. Gr. ilrayu yli)

induction from the earth's magnetism, See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed and impressed by the hammering of the plates and frames during the See also:

• PROCESS

process of building . The disturbance of the compass by the magnetism of the hull is generally modified, sometimes favourably, more often un-favourably, by the magnetized fittings of the ship, such as masts, conning towers, See also:

• DECK

deck houses, engines and boilers . Thus in every ship the compass needle is more or less subject to deviationdiffering in amount and direction for every azimuth of the ship's head . This was first demonstrated by See also:

• COMMANDER

Commander See also:

• MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF ST
• MATTHEW, ST (MaOOaior or MarOaIos, probably a shortened form of the Hebrew equivalent to Theodorus)
• MATTHEW, TOBIAS

Matthew See also:

• FLINDERS, MATTHEW (1774-1814)

Flinders by experiments made in H.M.S . " Investigator" in 1800-1803, and in 18ro led that officer to introduce the practice of placing the ship's head on each point of the compass, and noting the amount of deviation whether to the east or west of the magnetic north, a process which is in full exercise at the present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, and is called " swinging ship." When speaking of the magnetic properties of iron it is usual to adopt the terms " soft " and " hard." Soft iron is iron which becomes instantly magnetized by induction when exposed to any magnetic force, but has no See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of retaining its magnetism . Hard iron is less susceptible of being magnetized, but when once magnetized it retains its magnetism permanently .

The term " iron " used in these pages includes the " steel " now commonly employed in See also:

• SHIPBUILDING

shipbuilding . If an iron ship be swung when upright for deviation, and the mean horizontal and vertical magnetic forces at the compass positions be also observed in different parts of the world, mathematical See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis shows that the deviations are caused partly by the permanent magnetism of hard iron, partly by the transient induced magnetism of soft iron both horizontal and vertical, and in a lesser degree by iron which is neither magnetically hard nor soft, but which becomes magnetized in the same manner as hard iron, though it gradually loses its magnetism on change of conditions, as, for example, in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of a ship, repaired and hammered in See also:

• DOCK

dock, steaming in an opposite direction at sea . This latter cause of deviation is called sub-permanent magnetism . The horizontal directive force on the needle on board is nearly always less than on land, sometimes much less, whilst in See also:

• ARMOUR, PHILIP DANFORTH (1832-1901)

armour-plated ships it ranges from •8 to •2 when the directive force on land—1.o . If the ship be inclined to starboard or to See also:

• PORT

port additional deviation will be observed, reaching a maximum on north and south points, decreasing to zero on the east and west points . Each ship has its own magnetic See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, but there are certain conditions which are common to vessels of the same type . Instead of observing the deviation solely for the purposes of correcting the indications of the compass when disturbed by the iron of the ship, the practice is to subject all deviations to mathematical analysis with a view to their mechanical correction . The whole of the deviations when the ship is upright may be expressed nearly by five co-efficients, A . B, C, D, E . Of these A is a deviation See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant in amount for every direction of the ship's head . B has reference to horizontal forces acting in a longitudinal direction in the ship, and caused partly by the permanent magnetism of hard iron, partly by vertical induction in vertical soft iron either before or abaft the compass . C has reference to forces acting in a transverse direction, and caused by hard iron .

D is due to transient induction in horizontal soft iron, the direction of which passes continuously under or over the compass . E is due to transient induction in horizontal soft iron unsymmetrically placed with regard to the compass . When data of this character have been obtained the compass deviations may be mechanically corrected to within 1°—always adhering to the principal that " like See also:

• CURES

cures like." Thus the part of B caused by the permanent magnetism of hard iron must be corrected by permanent magnets horizontally placed in a fore and aft direction; the other part caused by vertical soft iron by means of bars of vertical soft iron, called Flinders bars, before or abaft the compass . C is compensated by permanent magnets athwart-ships and horizontal; D by masses of soft iron on both sides of the compass, and generally in the form of See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast-iron See also:

• SPHERES, MUSIC OF THE

spheres, with their centres in the same horizontal plane as the needles; E is usually too small to require correction; A is fortunately rarely of any value, as it cannot be corrected . The deviation observed when the ship inclines to either See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side is due—(r) to hard iron acting vertically upwards or downwards; (2) to vertical soft iron immediately below the compass; (3) to vertical induction in horizontal soft iron when inclined . To compensate (r) vertical magnets are used; (3) is partly corrected by the soft iron correctors of D; (2) and the remaining part of (3) cannot be conveniently corrected for more than one geographical position at a time . Although a compass may thus be made practically correct for a given time and place, the magnetism of the ship is liable to changes on changing her geographical position, and especially so when steaming at right angles or nearly so to the magnetic meridian, for then sub-permanent magnetism is developed in the hull . Some vessels are more liable to become sub-permanently magnetized than others, and as no corrector has been found for this source of deviation the navigator must determine its amount by observation . Hence, however carefully a compass may be placed and subsequently compensated, the mariner has no safety without constantly observing the bearings of the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun, stars or distant terrestrial See also:

• OBJECTS

objects, to ascertain its deviation . The results of these observations are entered in a compass See also:

• JOURNAL
• JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily)

journal for future reference when See also:

• FOG

fog or darkness prevails . Every compass and corrector supplied to the ships of the See also:

• BRITISH

British See also:

• NAVY

navy is previously examined in detail at the Compass See also:

• OBSERVATORY

Observatory established by the See also:

• ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF

admiralty at See also:

• DEPTFORD

Deptford . A trained observer acting under the See also:

• SUPERINTENDENT

superintendent of compasses is charged with this important See also:

• WORK

work .

The superintendent, who is a See also:

• NAVAL

naval officer, has to investigate the magnetic character of the ships, to point out the most suitable positions for the compasses when a ship is designed, and subsequently to keep himself informed of their behaviour from the time of the ship's first trial . A museum containing compasses of various types invented during the 19th century is attached to the Compass Observatory at Deptford . The mariner's compass during the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early part of the 19th century was still a very imperfect instrument, although numerous inventors had tried to improve it . In 1837 the Admiralty Compass See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

Committee was appointed to make a scientific investigation of the subject, and propose a form of compass suitable alike for azimuth and steering purposes . The committee reported in See also:

• JULY

July 184o, and after See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor Improvements by the makers the admiralty compass, the card of which is shown in See also:

• FIGS

figs . 1 and 2, was adopted by the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government . Until 1876, when See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William Thomson introduced his patent compass, this compass was not only the regulation compass of the British navy, but was largely used in other countries in the same or a modified form . The introduction of powerful engines causing serious vibration to compass cards of the admiralty type, coupled with the prevailing See also:

• DESIRE

desire for larger cards, the deviation of which could also be more conveniently compensated, led to the See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual introduction of the Thomson compass . Several important points were gained in the latter: the quadrantal deviation could be finally corrected for all latitudes; frictional error at the cap and pivot was reduced to a minimum, the See also:

• AVERAGE

average See also:

• WEIGHT

weight of the card being 200 grains; the See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long free vibrational See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of the card was found to be favourable to its steadiness when the vessel was See also:

• ROLLING

rolling . The first liquid compass used in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England was invented by Francis See also:

• CROW (Dutch, kraal, Ger. Krdhe, Fr. corbeau, Lat. corvus)

Crow, of See also:

• FAVERSHAM

Faversham, in 1813 . It is said that the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of a liquid compass was suggested to Crowgby the experience of the See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

captain of a See also:

• COASTING

coasting vessel whose compass card was oscillating wildly until a sea See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke on board filling the compass bowl, when the card became steady . Subsequent improvements were made by E .

J . Dent, and especially by E . S . See also:

• RITCHIE, CHARLES THOMSON RITCHIE, 1ST BARON (1838-1906)
• RITCHIE, DAVID GEORGE (1853-1903)

Ritchie, of See also:

• BOSTON
• BOSTON, THOMAS (1676-1732)

Boston, See also:

• MASSACHUSETTS (an Indian name, originally applied to a tribe of Indians)

Massachusetts . In 1888 the form of liquid compass (fig . 5) now solely used in See also:

• TORPEDO

torpedo boats and torpedo See also:

• BOAT (0. Eng. bdt; the true etymological connexion with Dutch and Ger. boot, Fr. bateau, Ital. battello presents great difficulties; Celtic forms are from O. Eng.)

boat destroyers was introduced . It has also proved to be the most trustworthy compass under the See also:

• SHOCK, or COLLAPSE

shock of heavy See also:

• GUN

gun See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire at present available . The deflector is an instrument designed to enable an observer to reduce the deviations of the compass to an amount not exceeding 2 ° during fogs, or at any time when bearings of distant objects are not available . It is certain that if the directive forces on the north, east, south and west points of a compass are equal, there can be no deviation . With the deflector any inequality in the directive force can be detected, and hence the power of equalizing the forces by the usual soft iron and magnet correctors . Several kinds of deflector have been invented, that of See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord See also:

• KELVIN, WILLIAM THOMSON, BARON (1824-1907)

Kelvin (Sir William Thomson) being the simplest, but Dr Waghorn's is also very effective . The use of the deflector is generally confined to experts .

The Magnetism of - Ships.—In 1814 Flinders first showed (see Flinders's Voyage, vol. ii. appx. ii.) that the abnormal values of the variation observed in the wood-built ships of his day was due to deviation of the compass caused by the iron in the ship; that the deviation was zero when the ship's head was near the north and south points; that it attained its maximum on the east and west points, and varied as the sine of the azimuth of the ship's head reckoned from the zero points . He also described a method of correcting deviation by means of a See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

bar of vertical iron so placed as to correct the deviation nearly in all latitudes . This bar, nowknown as a " Flinders bar," is still in general use . In 182o Dr T . See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

Young (see Brandeis Quarterly Journal, - 182o) investigated mathematically the magnetism of ships . In 1824 See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter See also:

• BARLOW, JOEL (1754-1812)
• BARLOW, PETER (1776-1862)
• BARLOW, SIR GEORGE HILARO (1762-1847)

Barlow' (1776–1862) introduced his correcting See also:

• PLATE

plate of soft iron . Trials in certain ships showed that their magnetism consisted partly of hard iron, and the use of the plate was abandoned . In 1835 Captain E . J . See also:

• JOHNSON, ANDREW
• JOHNSON, ANDREW (1808–1875)
• JOHNSON, BENJAMIN (c. 1665-1742)
• JOHNSON, EASTMAN (1824–1906)
• JOHNSON, REVERDY (1796–1876)
• JOHNSON, RICHARD (1573–1659 ?)
• JOHNSON, RICHARD MENTOR (1781–1850)
• JOHNSON, SAMUEL (1709-1784)
• JOHNSON, SIR THOMAS (1664-1729)
• JOHNSON, SIR WILLIAM (1715–1774)
• JOHNSON, THOMAS

Johnson, R.N., showed from experiments in the iron steamship "Garry See also:

• OWEN, JOHN (1616-1683)
• OWEN, JOHN [OVENUS Or AUDOENUS] (c. 1560-1622)
• OWEN, ROBERT (1771-1858)
• OWEN, SIR HUGH (1804-1881)
• OWEN, SIR RICHARD (1804–1892)

Owen " that the vessel acted on an See also:

• EXTERNAL

external compass as a magnet . In 188 Sir G . B .

See also:

• AIRY, SIR GEORGE BIDDELL (1801-1892)

Airy magnetically examined the iron steamship " See also:

• RAINBOW

Rainbow " at Deptford, and from his mathematical investigations (see Phil . Trans„ 1839) deduced his method of correcting the compass by permanent magnets and soft iron, giving See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical rules for the same in 184o . Airy's and Flinders's correctors form the basis of all compass correctors to this day . In 1838 S . D . See also:

• POISSON, SIMEON DENIS (1781-1840)

Poisson published his Memoir on the Deviations of the Compass caused by the Iron in a Vessel . In this he gave equations resulting from the hypo-thesis that the magnetism of a ship is partly due to the permanent magnetism of hard iron and partly to the transient induced magnet-ism of soft iron; that the latter is proportional to the intensity of the inducing force, and that the length of the needle is infinitesimally small compared to the distance of the surrounding iron . From Poisson's equations See also:

• ARCHIBALD, 5TH EARL OF DOUGLAS (c. 1391–1439)

Archibald See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith deduced the formulae given in the Admiralty See also:

• MANUAL

Manual for Deviations of the Compass (1st ed., 1862), a work which has formed the basis of numerous other manuals since published in Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain and other countries . In view of the serious difficulties connected with the inclining of every ship, Smith's formulae for ascertaining and providing for the correction of the heeling error with the ship upright continue to he of great value to safe navigation . In 1855 the See also:

• LIVERPOOL
• LIVERPOOL, EARLS
• LIVERPOOL, EARLS OF

Liverpool Compass Committee began its work of investigating the magnetism of ships of the See also:

• MERCANTILE (or COMMERCIAL) AGENCIES

mercantile marine, resulting in three reports to the Board of See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

Trade, all of great value, the last being presented in 1861 . See also' MAGNETISM, and NAVIGATION; articles on Magnetism of Ships and Deviations of the Compass, Phil . Trans., 1839–1883, Journal See also:

• UNITED

United Service Inst., 1859–1889, Trans .

Inst . See also:

• NAY, or NEY

Nay . Archit., 186o-1861-1862, See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

Report of Brit . Assoc., 1862, See also:

• LONDON

London Quarterly Rev., 1865; also Admiralty Manual, edit . 1862–1863–1869–1893–1900; and Towson's Practical Information on Deviations of the Compass (1886) . (E . W . C.) See also:

• HISTORY

History of the Mariner's Compass . The See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery that a lodestone, or a piece of iron which has been touched by a lodestone, will direct itself to point in a north and south position, and the application of that discovery to direct the navigation of ships, have been attributed to various origins . The See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese, the See also:

• ARABS

Arabs, the Greeks, the Etruscans, the Finns and the Italians have all been claimed as originators of the compass . There is now little doubt that the claim formerly advanced in favour of the Chinese is See also:

• ILL

ill-founded . In Chinese history we are told how, in the sixty-See also:

• FOURTH

fourth See also:

• YEAR

year of the reign of Hwang-ti (2634 B.c.), the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor Hivan-yuan, or Hwang-ti, attacked one Tchi-yeou, on the plains of Tchou-See also:

• LOU

lou, and finding his See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army embarrassed by a thick fog raised by the enemy, constructed a-See also:

• CHARIOT (derived from an O. Fr. word, formed from char, a car)

chariot (Tchi-nan) for indicating the south, so as to distinguish the four See also:

• CARDINAL (Lat. cardinalis)

cardinal points, and was thus enabled to pursue Tchi-yeou, and take him prisoner .

(See also:

• JULIUS

Julius See also:

• KLAPROTH, HEINRICH JULIUS (1783-1835)
• KLAPROTH, MARTIN HEINRICH (1743-1817)

Klaproth, Lettre a M. le See also:

• BARON
• BARON (1835-1895)
• BARON, MICHEL (1653—1729)

Baron See also:

• HUMBOLDT, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH ALEXANDER, BARON
• HUMBOLDT, KARL WILHELM VON (1767-1835)

Humboldt sur l'invention de la boussole, See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1834 . See also Mailla, Histoire generale de la Chine, torn. i. p . 316, Paris, 1777.) But, as other versions of the See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story show, this See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account is purely mythical . For the south-pointing chariots are recorded to have been first devised by the emperor Hian-tsoung (A.D . 806–820); and there is no See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence that they contained any magnet . There is no genuine See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of a Chinese marine compass before A.D . 1297, as Klaproth admits . No sea-going ships were built in See also:

• CHINA

China before 139 B.c . The earliest allusion to the power of the lodestone in Chinese literature occurs in a Chinese See also:

• DICTIONARY

dictionary, finished in A.D . 121, where the lodestone is defined as " a See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone with which an attraction can be given to a needle," but this knowledge is no more than that existing in Europe at least five See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred years before . Nor is there any nautical significance in a passage which occurs in the Chinese See also:

• ENCYCLOPAEDIA

encyclopaedia, Poei-wen-yun fou, in which it is stated that under the Tsin See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

dynasty, or between A.D . 265 and 419, " there were ships indicating the south." The Chinese, Sir J .

F . See also:

• DAVIS (or DAVYS), JOHN (1550 ?-16o5)
• DAVIS, ANDREW JACKSON (1826—1910)
• DAVIS, CHARLES HOWARD (1857- )
• DAVIS, CUSHMAN KELLOGG (1838-1900)
• DAVIS, HENRY WILLIAM BANKS (1833- )
• DAVIS, HENRY WINTER (1817-1865)
• DAVIS, JEFFERSON (1808–1889)
• DAVIS, THOMAS OSBORNE (1814–1845)

Davis informs us, once navigated as far as India, but their most distant voyages at present extend not farther than See also:

• JAVA

Java and the See also:

• MALAY

Malay Islands to the south (The Chinese, vol. iii. p . 14, London, 1844) . According to an Arabic See also:

• MANUSCRIPT

manuscript, a See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation of which was published by See also:

• EUSEBIUS
• EUSEBIUS (Gr. EuOi/3tos, from ebaegils, pious, cf. the Latin name Pius)
• EUSEBIUS [OF CAESAREA] (c. 260-c. 340)
• EUSEBIUS [OF EMESA] (d. c. "36o)

Eusebius See also:

• RENAUDOT, EUSEBE (1646-1720)
• RENAUDOT, THEOPHRASTE (1586-1653)

Renaudot (Paris, 1718), they traded in ships to the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian Gulf and Red Sea in the 9th century . Sir G . L . See also:

• STAUNTON
• STAUNTON, HOWARD (1810-1874)
• STAUNTON, SIR GEORGE THOMAS, BART

Staunton, in vol. i. of his See also:

• EMBASSY

Embassy to China (London, 1797), after referring to the early acquaintance of the Chinese with the See also:

• PROPERTY

property of the magnet to point southwards, remarks (p . 445), " The nature and the cause of the qualities of the magnet have at all times been subjects of contemplation among the Chinese . The Chinese name for the compass is ting-nan-ching, or needle pointing to the south; and a distinguishing See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark is fixed on the magnet's southern See also:

• POLE (FAMILY)
• POLE, REGINALD (1500-1558)
• POLE, RICHARD DE LA (d. 1525)
• POLE, WILLIAM (1814—1900)

pole, as in See also:

• EUROPEAN

European compasses upon the northern one." " The See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere of Chinese navigation," he tells us (p . 447), " is too limited to have afforded experience and observation for forming any system of See also:

• LAWS

laws supposed to govern the variation of the needle . . . . The Chinese had soon occasion to perceive how much more essential the perfection of the compass was to the See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior navigators of Europe than to themselves, as the commanders of the ` See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

Lion ' and ` Hindostan,' trusting to that instrument, stood out directly from the land into the sea." The number of points of the compass, according to the Chinese, is twenty-four, which are reckoned from the south pole; the form also of the instrument they employ is different from that See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar to Europeans .

The needle is peculiarly poised, with its point of suspension a little below its centre of gravity, and is exceedingly sensitive; it is seldom more than an See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch in length, and is less than a line in thickness . " It may be urged," writes Mr T . S . See also:

• DAVIES (DAvIslus), JOHN (1679-1732)
• DAVIES, DAVID CHARLES (1826-1891)
• DAVIES, RICHARD (c. 1505—1581)
• DAVIES, SIR JOHN (1569-1626)
• DAVIES, SIR LOUIS HENRY (1845— )

Davies, " that the different manner of constructing the needle amongst the Chinese and European navigators shows the See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence of the Chinese of us, as theirs is the worse method, and had they copied from us, they would have used the better one " (Thomson's British See also:

• ANNUAL

Annual, 1837, p . 291) . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, it has been contended that a knowledge of the mariner's compass was communicated by them directly or indirectly to the early Arabs, and through the latter was introduced into Europe . See also:

• SISMONDI, JEAN CHARLES LEONARD DE (1773-1842)

Sismondi has remarked (Literature of Europe, vol. i.) that it is peculiarly characteristic of all the pretended discoveries of the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages that when the historians mention them for the first time they treat them as things in general use . Gun-See also:

• POWDER (through O. Fr. puldre, modern poudre, from Lat. pulvis, pulveris, dust)

powder, the compass, the Arabic numerals and paper, are nowhere spoken of as discoveries, and yet they must have wrought a total change in See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war, in navigation, in See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science, and in See also:

• EDUCATION

education . G . See also:

• TIRABOSCHI, GIROLAMO (1731—1794)

Tiraboschi (Storia della letteratura italiana, tom. iv. See also:

• LIB

lib. ii. p . 204, et seq., ed . 2., 1788), in support of the conjecture that the compass was introduced into Europe by the Arabs, adduces their superiority in scientific learning and their early skill in navigation .

He quotes a passage on the See also:

• POLARITY (Lat. polaris, poles, pole)

polarity of the lodestone from a See also:

• TREATISE

treatise translated by Albertus See also:

• MAGNUS, HEINRICH GUSTAV (1802-1870)

Magnus, attributed by the latter to See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle, but apparently only an Arabic compilation from the See also:

• WORKS

works of various philosophers . As the terms Zoron and Aphron, used there to signify the south and north poles, are neither Latin nor See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek, Tiraboschi suggests that they may be of Arabian origin, and that the whole passage concerning the lodestone may have been added to the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original treatise by the Arabian translators . Dr W . See also:

• ROBERTSON, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1816-1853)
• ROBERTSON, GEORGE CROOM (1842-1892)
• ROBERTSON, JOSEPH (1810-1866)
• ROBERTSON, THOMAS WILLIAM (1829-1871)
• ROBERTSON, WILLIAM BRUCE (182o-1886)

Robertson asserts (See also:

• HISTORICAL

Historical Disquisition concerning See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

Ancient India, p . 227) that the Arabs, See also:

• TURKS

Turks and Persians have no original name for the compass, it being called by them Bossola, the See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian name, which shows that the thing signified is See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign to them as well as the word . The Rev . G . P . See also:

• BADGER

Badger has, how-ever, pointed out (Travels of Ludovico di See also:

• VARTHEMA (BARTHEMA, VERTOMANNUS, &C.), LUDOVICO DI

Varthema, trans . J . W . See also:

• JONES
• JONES, ALFRED GILPIN (1824-1906)
• JONES, EBENEZER (182o-186o)
• JONES, ERNEST CHARLES (1819-1869)
• JONES, HENRY (1831-1899)
• JONES, HENRY ARTHUR (1851- )
• JONES, INIGO (1573-1651)
• JONES, JOHN (c. 1800-1882)
• JONES, MICHAEL (d. 1649)
• JONES, OWEN (1741-1814)
• JONES, OWEN (1809-1874)
• JONES, RICHARD (179o-1855)
• JONES, SIR ALFRED LEWIS (1845-1909)
• JONES, SIR WILLIAM (1746-1794)
• JONES, THOMAS RUPERT (1819– )
• JONES, WILLIAM (1726-1800)

Jones, ed .

G . P . Badger, See also:

• HAKLUYT, RICHARD (c. 1553—1616)

Hakluyt See also:

• SOC

Soc., 1863, See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note, pp . 31 and 32) that the name of Bushla or Busba, from the Italian Bussola, though common among Arab sailors in the Mediterranean, is very seldom used in the Eastern seas,—Dairah and See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

Belt el-lbrah (the Circle, or See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

House of the Needle) being the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary appellatives in the Red Sea, whilst in the Persian Gulf Kiblah-nameh is in more general use . Robertson quotes Sir J . See also:

• CHARDIN, JEAN SIMEON (1699-1779)
• CHARDIN, SIR JOHN (1643-1713)

Chardin as boldly asserting " that the Asiatics are beholden to us for this wonderful instrument, which they had from Europe a long time before the Portuguese conquests . For, first, their compasses are exactly like ours, and they buy them of Europeans as much as they can, scarce daring to meddle with their needles themselves . Secondly, it is certain that the old navigators only coasted it along, which I impute to their want of this instrument to See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide and instructthem in the middle of the ocean . . . . I have nothing but See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument to offer touching this See also:

• MATTER

matter, having never met with any See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person in See also:

• PERSIA

Persia or the Indies to inform me when the compass was first known among them, though I made inquiry of the most learned men in both countries . I have sailed from the Indies to Persia in Indian ships, when no European has been aboard but myself . The pilots were all See also:

• INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN

Indians, and they used the forestall and quadrant for their observations .

These See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments they have from us, and made by our artists, and they do not in the least vary from ours, except that the characters are Arabic . The Arabs are the most skilful navigators of all the Asiatics or Africans; but neither they nor the Indians make use of charts, and they do not much want them; some they have, but they are copied from ours, for they are altogether ignorant of See also:

• PERSPECTIVE (Lat. peespicere, to see through)

perspective." The observations of Chardin, who flourished between 1643 and 1713, cannot be said to receive support from the testimony of some earlier authorities . That the Arabs must have been acquainted with the compass, and with the construction and use of charts, at a period nearly two centuries previous to Chardin's first voyage to the East, may be gathered from the description given by See also:

• BARROS, JOAO DE (1496-1570)

Barros of a See also:

• MAP
• MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9)

map of all the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of India, shown to Vasco da Gama by a See also:

• MOOR

Moor of Guzerat (about the 1th of July 1498), in which the bearings were laid down " after the manner of the See also:

• MOORS (Lat. Mauri; Gr. Mavpot, dark men)
• MOORS, KABYLES, MZABITES

Moors," or " with meridians and See also:

• PARALLELS

parallels very small (or See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close together), without other bearings of the compass; because, as the squares of these meridians and parallels were very small, the coast was laid down by these two bearings of N. and S., and E. and W., with great certainty, without that multiplication of bearings of the points of the compass usual in our maps, which serves as the See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root of the others." Further, we learn from See also:

• OSORIO, JERONYMO (1506-1580)

Osorio that the Arabs at the time of Gama " were instructed in so many of the arts of navigation, that they did not yield much to the Portuguese mariners in the science and practice of maritime matters." (See The Three Voyages of Vasco da Gama, Hakluyt Soc., 1869; note to See also:

• CHAP

chap. xv. by the Hon . H . E . J . See also:

• STANLEY (FAMILY)
• STANLEY, ARTHUR PENRHYN (18x5–1881)
• STANLEY, EDWARD (1779-1849)
• STANLEY, SIR HENRY MORTON (184o-1904)
• STANLEY, SIR WILLIAM (1548-163o)
• STANLEY, THOMAS (1625-1678)

Stanley, p . 138.) Also the Arabs that navigated the Red Sea at the same period are shown by Varthema to have used the mariner's chart and compass (Travels, p . 31) . Again, it appears that compasses of a See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive description, which can hardly be supposed to have been brought from Europe, were employed in the East Indies certainly as early as several years previous to the close of the 16th century . In William Barlowe's Navigator's See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

Supply, published in 1597, we read:—" Some fewe yeeres since, it so See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell out that I had severall conferences with two East Indians which were brought into England by See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master Candish [See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas See also:

• CAVENDISH
• CAVENDISH, GEORGE (1500-1562?)
• CAVENDISH, HENRY (1731-1810)
• CAVENDISH, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1505-1557)

Cavendish], and had learned our See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language: The one of them was of Mamillia [See also:

• MANILA

Manila] in the Isle of Luzon, the other of Miaco in See also:

• JAPAN

Japan . I questioned with them concerning their See also:

• SHIPPING

shipping and manner of sayling .

They described all things See also:

• FARCE

farce different from ours, and shewed, that in steade of our Compas, they use a magneticall needle of sixe ynches long, and longer, upon a pinne in a dish of See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white China earth filled with water; In the bottome whereof they have two crosse lines, for the foure principall windes; the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the divisions being reserved to the skill of their Pilots." Bailak Kibdjaki, also, an Arabian writer, shows in his See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

Merchant's Treasure, a work given to the world in 1282, that the magnetized needle, floated on water by means of a splinter of wood or a See also:

• REED
• REED, ANDREW (1787-1862)
• REED, ISAAC (1742—1807)
• REED, JOSEPH (1741—1785)
• REED, THOMAS BRACKETT (1839—1902)

reed, was employed on the Syrian seas at the time of his voyage from See also:

• TRIPOLI
• TRIPOLI (Tarabulus el-Gharb, i.e. Tripoli of the West)
• TRIPOLI, or TARABULUS (anc. Tripolis)

Tripoli to See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria (1242), and adds:—" They say that the captains who navigate the Indian seas use, instead of the needle and splinter, a sort of See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish made out of hollow iron, which, when thrown into the water, swims upon the See also:

• SURFACE

surface, and points out the north and south with its head and tail " (Klaproth, Lettre, p . 57) . E . See also:

• WIEDEMANN, GUSTAV HEINRICH (1826-1899)

Wiedemann, in See also:

• ERLANGEN

Erlangen Sitzungsberichte (1904, p . 330), translates the phrase given above as splinter of wood, by the term wooden See also:

• CROSS

cross . Furthermore, although the sailors in the Indian vessels in which Niccola de' See also:

• CONTI, NICOLO
• CONTI, PRINCES OF

Conti traversed the Indian seas in 1420 are stated to have had no compass, still, on board the ship in which Varthema, less than a century later, sailed from See also:

• BORNEO

Borneo to Java, both the mariner's chart and compass were used; it has been questioned, however, whether in this case the compass was of Eastern manufacture (Travels of Varthema, Introd. xciv, and p . 249) . We have already seen that the Chinese as See also:

• LATE

late as the end of the 18th century made voyages with compasses on which but little reliance could be placed; and it may perhaps be assumed that the compasses early used in the East were mostly too imperfect to be of much assistance to navigators, and were therefore often dispensed with on customary routes . The Arab traders in the See also:

• LEVANT

Levant certainly used a floating compass, as did the Italians before the introduction of the pivoted needle; the magnetized piece of iron being floated upon a small raft of See also:

• CORK
• CORK (perhaps through Sp. corcha from Lat. cortex, bark, but possibly connected with quercus, oak)
• CORK, RICHARD BOYLE

cork or reeds in a bowl of water . The Italian name of calamita, which still persists, for the magnet, and which literally signifies a See also:

• FROG

frog, is doubtless derived from this practice . The See also:

• SIMPLE

simple water-compass is said to have been used by the Coreans so late as the middle of the 18th century; and Dr T . Smith, See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing in the Philosophical Transactions for 1683-1684, says of the Turks (p .

439), " They have no See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius for Sea-voyages, and consequently are very raw and unexperienced in the See also:

• ART

art of Navigation, scarce venturing to See also:

• SAIL

sail out of sight of land . I speak of the natural Turks, who trade either into the black Sea or some part of the Morea, or between See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople and Alexandria, and not of the Pyrats of See also:

• BARBARY

Barbary, who are for the most part Renegado's, and learnt their skill in Christendom . . . The See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish cothpass consists but of 8 points, the four Cardinal and the four See also:

• COLLATERAL (from Med. Lat. collateralis,—cum, with, and latus, lateris, side,—side by side, hence parallel or additional)

Collateral." That the value of the compass was thus, even in the latter part of the 17th century, so imperfectly recognized in the East may serve to explain how in earlier times that instrument, long after the first discovery of its properties, may have been generally neglected by navigators . The Arabic geographer, Edrisi, who lived about 1Too, is said by See also:

• BOUCHER, FRANCOIS (1703-1770)
• BOUCHER, JONATHAN (1738-1804)

Boucher to give an account, though in a confused manner, of the polarity of the magnet (See also:

• HALLAM
• HALLAM, ROBERT (d. 1417)

Hallam, See also:

• MID

Mid . Ages, vol. iii. chap . 9, part 2); but the earliest definite mention as yet known of the use of the mariner's compass in the middle ages occurs in a treatise entitled De utensilibus, written by See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander See also:

• NECKAM, ALEXANDER (1157-1217)

Neckam in the 12th century . He speaks there of a needle carried on board ship which, being placed on a pivot, and allowed to take its own position of repose, shows mariners their course when the polar See also:

• STAR

star is hidden . In another work, De naturis serum, lib. ii. c . 89, he writes,—" Mariners at sea, when, through cloudy See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather in the day which hides the sun, or through the darkness of the See also:

• NIGHT

night, they lose the knowledge of the quarter of the world to which they are sailing, See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch a needle with the magnet, which will turn round till, on its motion ceasing, its point will be directed towards the north " (W . See also:

• CHAPPELL, WILLIAM (1809–1888)

Chappell, Nature, No . 346, See also:

• JUNE

June 15, 1876) .

The magnetical needle, and its suspension on a stick or See also:

• STRAW

straw in water, are clearly described in La See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible Guiot, a poem probably of the 13th century, by Guiot de See also:

• PROVINS

Provins, wherein we are told that through the magnet (la magntte or t'amaniere), an ugly See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown stone to which iron turns of its own See also:

• ACCORD (from Fr. accorder, to agree)

accord, mariners possess an art that cannot fail them . A needle touched by it, and floated by a stick on water, turns its point towards the pole-star, and a light being placed near the needle on dark nights, the proper course is known (Hist. litteraire de la See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, torn. ix. p . 199 ; Barbazan, Fabliaux, tom. ii. p . 328) . Cardinal Jacques de Vitry, See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop of See also:

• AEON

Aeon in See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine, in his History (cap . 89), written about the year 1218, speaks of the magnetic needle as " most necessary for such as sail the sea ";1 and another See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French crusader, his contemporary, See also:

• VINCENT (or VINCENTIUS), ST
• VINCENT, GEORGE (1796-1831?)
• VINCENT, MARY ANN (1818-1887)

Vincent de See also:

• BEAUVAIS

Beauvais, states that the See also:

• ADAMANT (from Gr. aba,uas, untameable)

adamant (lodestone) is found in See also:

• ARABIA

Arabia, and mentions a method of using a needle magnetized by it which is similar to that described by Kibdjaki . In 1248 See also:

• HUGO, GUSTAV VON (1764–1844)
• HUGO, VICTOR MARIE (1802-1885)

Hugo de Bercy notes a change in the construction of compasses, which are now supported on two floats in a glass See also:

• CUP (in O.E. cuppe; generally taken to be from Late Lat. cuppa, a variant of Lat. cupa, a cask, cf. Gr. KuaeXXov)

cup . From quotations given by See also:

• ANTONIO
• ANTONIO (1429—1498)
• ANTONIO, NICOLAS (1617-1684)

Antonio Capmany (Questioner Criticas) from the De contemplatione of Raimon See also:

• LULL (or LvLLY), RAIMON, or RAYMOND (c. 1235-1315)

Lull, of the date 1272, it appears that the latter was well acquainted with the use of 1 Adamas in India reperitur . . . Ferrum occulta quadam natura ad se trahit . Acus ferrea postquam adamantem contigerit, ad stellam septentrionalem . . See also:

• SEMPER, GOTTFRIED (1803–1879)

semper convertitur, unde valde necessarius est navigantibus in mari.the magnet at sea;' and before the middle of the 13th century Gauthier d'Espinois alludes to its polarity, as if generally known, in the lines: " Tons autresi comme 1'aimant decoit [detourne] L'See also:

• AIGUILLETTE (Fr. diminutive of aiguille, a needle; the obsolete English form is " aglet ")

aiguillette See also:

• PAR (Lat. par, equal)

par force de vertu, A ma See also:

• DAME
• DAME (through the Fr. from Lat. domina, mistress, lady, the feminine of dominus, master, lord)

dame tor le moist [monde] retenue Qui sa beaute connoit et apereoit." Guido Guinizzelli, a poet of the same period, writes:—" In those parts under the north are the mountains of lodestone, which give the virtue to the See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air of attracting iron; but because it [the lodestone] is far off, [it] wishes to have the help of a similar stone to make it [the virtue] work, and to direct the needle towards the star."' Brunetto See also:

• LATINI, BRUNETTO (c. 1210-C. 1294)

Latini also makes reference to the compass in his encyclopaedia Livres dou treser, composed about 126o (Livre i. pt. ii. ch. cxx.) : See also:

• POR

Por ce nagent li marinier a 1'enseigne See also:

• DES

des estoiles qui i sont, que it apelent tramontaines, et See also:

• LES

les gens qui sont en Europe et es parties deca nagent a la tramontaine de septentrion, et li autre nagent a cele de midi .

Et qui n'en set la verite, praigne une See also:

• PIERRE

pierre d'aimant, et troverez que ele a ij faces: Tune qui gist vers l'une tramontaine, et 1'autre gist vers 1'autre . Et a chascune des ij faces la pointe d'une aguille vers cele tramontaine a cui cele See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face gist . Et por ce seroient li marinier deceu se it ne se preissent garde " (p . 147, Paris edition, 1863) . See also:

• DANTE

Dante (See also:

• PARADISE (Gr. lrap6BEwos)

Paradise, xii . 28-30) mentions the pointing of the magnetic needle toward the pole star . In Scandinavian records there is a reference to the nautical use of the magnet in the HauksbOk, the last edition of the LandndmabOk (See also:

• BOOK

Book of the Colonization of Iceland):—" Floki, son of Vilgerd, instituted a great See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice, and consecrated three ravens which should show him the way (to Iceland); for at that time no men sailing the high seas had lodestones up in northern lands." Haukr Erlendsson, who wrote this See also:

• PARAGRAPH

paragraph about 1300, died in 1334; his edition was founded on material in two earlier works, that of Styrmir Karason (who died 1245), which is lost, and that of Hurla Thordson (died 1284) which has no such paragraph . All that is certain is a knowledge of the nautical use of the magnet at the end of the 13th century . From T . Torfaeus we learn that the compass, fitted into a See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

box, was already in use among the Norwegians about the middle of the 13th century (Nisi. rer . Norvegicarum, iv. c . 4, p .

345, Hafniae, 1711); and it is probable that the use of the magnet at sea was known in See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland at or shortly subsequent to that time, though See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

Robert, in See also:

• CROSSING

crossing from See also:

• ARRAN
• ARRAN, EARLS OF

Arran to Carrick in 1306, as See also:

• BARBOUR, JOHN (? 1316-1395)

Barbour writing in 1375 informs us, " na nedill had na stane," but steered by a fire on the See also:

• SHORE

shore . See also:

• ROGER (d. 1139)
• ROGER (d. 1181)

Roger' See also:

• BACON
• BACON (through the O. Fr. bacon, Low Lat. baco, from a Teutonic word cognate with " back," e.g. O. H. Ger. pacho, M. H. Ger. backe, buttock, flitch of bacon)
• BACON, FRANCIS (BARON VERULAM, VISCOUNT ST ALBANS) (1561-1626)
• BACON, JOHN (1740–1799)
• BACON, LEONARD (1802–1881)
• BACON, ROGER (c. 1214-c. 1294)
• BACON, SIR NICHOLAS (1509-1579)

Bacon (See also:

• OPUS ('O7rois)

Opus majus and Opus minus, 1266-1267) was acquainted with the properties of the lodestone, and wrote that if set so that it can turn freely (See also:

• SWIMMING (from " swim," A.S. swimman, the root being common in Teutonic languages)

swimming on water) it points toward the poles; but he stated that this was not due to the pole-star, but to the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of the northern region of the heavens . The earliest unquestionable description of a pivoted compass is that contained in the remarkable Epistola de magnete of Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt, written at See also:

• LUCERA

Lucera in 1269 to Sigerus de Foncaucourt . (First printed edition See also:

• AUGSBURG
• AUGSBURG, CONFESSION OF
• AUGSBURG, WAR OF THE LEAGUE OF

Augsburg, 1558 . See also Bertelli in Boncomp'See also:

• AGNI

agni's Bollettino di bibliografia, t. i.,. or S . P . See also:

• THOMPSON
• THOMPSON, FRANCIS (1860-1907)
• THOMPSON, LAUNT (1833-1894)
• THOMPSON, SIR HENRY, BART
• THOMPSON, SIR JOHN SPARROW (1844-1894)
• THOMPSON, THOMAS PERONNET (1783-1869)
• THOMPSON, WILLIAM HEPWORTH (18ro–1886)

Thompson in Proc . British See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy, vol. ii.) Of this work twenty-eight See also:

• MSS

MSS. exist; seven of them being at See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford . The first part of the See also:

• EPISTLE

epistle deals generally with magnetic attractions and repulsions, with the polarity of the stone, and with the supposed influence of the poles of the heavens upon the poles of the stone . In the second part Peregrinus describes first an improved floating compass with fiducial line, a circle graduated with 90 degrees to each quadrant, and provided with movable See also:

• SIGHTS

sights for taking bearings . He then describes a new compass with a needle thrust through a pivoted axis, placed in a box with transparent cover, cross See also:

• INDEX

index of brass or See also:

• SILVER

silver, divided circle, and an external " See also:

• RULE

rule " or alhidade provided with a pair of sights . In the See also:

• LEIDEN

Leiden MS. of this work, which for long was erroneously ascribed to one Peter Adsiger, is a See also:

• SPURIOUS

spurious passage, long believed to mention the variation of the compass .

2 Sicut acus per naturam vertitur ad septentrionem dum sit tacta a magnete.—Sicut acus nautica dirigit marinarios in sua navigatione . 3 Ginguene, Hist. lit. de 1'Italie, t . 1. p . 413 . See also:

• PRIOR (from Lat. prior—former, and hence superior, through O. Fr. priour)
• PRIOR, MATTHEW (1664-1721)

Prior to this clear description of a pivoted compass by Peregrinus in 1269, the Italian sailors had used the floating magnet, probably introduced into this region of the Mediterranean by traders belonging to the port of See also:

• AMALFI

Amalfi, as commemorated in the line of the poet Panormita: " Prima dedit nautis usum magnetis Amalphis." This See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion is supported by the historian Flavius Blondus in his Italia illustrata, written about 1450, who adds that its certain origin is unknown . In 1511 Baptista Pio in his Commentary repeats the opinion as to the invention of the use of the magnet at Amalfi as related by Flavius . Gyraldus, writing in 1540 (Libellus de re nautica), misunderstanding this reference, declared that this observation of the direction of the magnet to the poles had been handed down as discovered " by a certain Flavius." From this passage arose a See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend, which took shape only in the 17th century, that the compass was invented in the year 1302 by a person to whom was given the fictitious name of Flavio See also:

• GIOJA, MELCHIORRE (1767-1829)

Gioja, of Amalfi . From the above it will have been evident that, as Barlowe remarks concerning the compass, " the lame See also:

• TALE (O.Eng. talu, number, account, story; the word is common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Zahl, number, Erzahlung, narrative, Du. taal, speech, language)

tale of one Flavius at Amelphus, in the kingdome of See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF

Naples, for to have devised it, is of very slender probabilitie "; and as regards the assertion of Dr See also:

• GILBERT
• GILBERT (KINGSMILL) ISLANDS
• GILBERT (or GYLBERDE), WILLIAM (1544-1603)
• GILBERT, ALFRED (1854– )
• GILBERT, ANN (1821-1904)
• GILBERT, GROVE KARL (1843– )
• GILBERT, J
• GILBERT, JOHN (1810-1889)
• GILBERT, MARIE DOLORES ELIZA ROSANNA [" LOLA MONTEZ "] (1818-1861)
• GILBERT, NICOLAS JOSEPH LAURENT (1751–1780)
• GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY (c. 1539-1583)
• GILBERT, SIR JOSEPH HENRY (1817-1901)
• GILBERT, SIR WILLIAM SCHWENK (1836– )

Gilbert, of See also:

• COLCHESTER
• COLCHESTER, CHARLES ABBOT, 1ST BARON (1757-1829)

Colchester (De magnete, p . 4, 1600), that Marco See also:

• POLO (Tibetan pulu, ball)
• POLO, GASPAR GIL (?153o-1591)
• POLO, MARCO (c. 1254-1324)

Polo introduced the compass into See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy from the East in 126o,1 we need only quote the words of Sir H . See also:

• YULE
• YULE, SIR HENRY (182o-1889)

Yule (Book of Marco Polo): " Respecting the mariner's compass and See also:

• GUNPOWDER

gunpowder, I shall say nothing, as no one now, I believe, imagines Marco to have had anything to do with their introduction." When, and by whom, the compass card was added is a matter of conjecture . Certainly the See also:

• ROSA, CARL AUGUST NICHOLAS (1843-1889)
• ROSA, MONTE
• ROSA, SALVATOR (1615-1673)

Rosa Ventorum, or See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

Wind-rose, is far older than the compass itself; and the naming. of the eight principal " winds " goes back to the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

Temple of the Winds in See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens built by Andronicus Cyrrhestes . The earliest known wind-See also:

• ROSES, WARS OF THE

roses on the portulani or sailing charts of the Mediterranean pilots have almost invariably the eight principal points marked with the See also:

• INITIALS (Lat. initialis, of or belonging to a beginning, initium)

initials of the principal winds, Tramontano, See also:

• GRECO, EL

Greco, Levante, Scirocco, Ostro, Africo (or Libeccio), Ponente and See also:

• MAESTRO

Maestro, or with a cross instead of L, to mark the east point .

The north point, indicated in some of the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest compass cards with a broad arrow-head or a See also:

• SPEAR (O. Eng. spere, O. H. Ger. sper, mod. Ger. speer, &c., cf. Lat. sparrs; probably related to " spar, " a beam)

spear, as well as with a T for Tramontano, gradually developed by a combination of these, about 1492, into a fleur de lis, still universal . The cross at the east continued even in British compasses till about 1700 . Wind-roses with these characteristics are found in Venetian and Genoese charts of early 14th century, and are depicted similarly by the See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish navigators . The naming of the intermediate subdivisions making up the See also:

• THIRTY

thirty-two points or thumbs of the compass card is probably due to Flemish navigators ; but they were recognized even in the time of See also:

• CHAUCER, GEOFFREY (? 1340-1400)

Chaucer, who in 1391 wrote, " Now is thin Orisonte departed in xxiiii partiez by thi azymutz, in significacion of xxiiii partiez of the world: al be it so that ship men rikne thilke partiez in xxxii " (Treatise on the See also:

• ASTROLABE (from Gr. liar pop, star, and Aa(3eiv, to take)

Astrolabe, ed . See also:

• SKEAT, WALTER WILLIAM (1835– )

Skeat, Early See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

Text Soc., London, 1872) . The mounting of the card upon the needle or " See also:

• FILE

file," so as to turn with it, is probably of Amalphian origin . Da Buti, the Dante commentator, in 138o says the sailors use a compass at the middle of which is pivoted a See also:

• WHEEL (0. Eng. hweol, hweohl, &c., cognate with Icel. hjol, Dan. hiul, the Indo-European root is seen in Sanskrit chakra, Gr. r in Aos, circle, whence " cycle ")
• WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE

wheel of light paper to turn on its pivot, on which wheel the needle is fixed and the star (wind-rose) painted . The placing of the card at the bottom of the box, fixed, below the needle, was practised by the compass-makers of See also:

• NUREMBERG (Ger. Nurnberg)

Nuremberg in the 16th century, and by See also:

• STEVINUS, SIMON (1548-1620)

Stevinus of See also:

• BRUGES (Flemish Brugge, a name signifying the bridge or place of bridges)

Bruges about 1600 . The gimbals or rings for suspension hinged at right-angles to one another, have been erroneously attributed to See also:

• CARDAN [Ital. CARDANOI, GIROLAMO [GERONYMO or HIERONIMO] (1501-1576)

Cardan, the proper term being cardine, that is hinged or pivoted . The earliest description of them is about 1604 . The term binnacle, originally Id/lade, is a corruption of the Portuguese abilacolo, to denote the See also:

• HOUSING

housing enclosing the compass, probably originating with the Portuguese navigators . The improvement of the compass has been but a slow process .

" According to all the texts he returned to See also:

• VENICE
• VENICE (continued)
• VENICE (Venezia)

Venice in 1295 or, as is more probable, in 1296."—Yule . The See also:

• LIBEL

Libel of English Policie, a poem of the first half of the 15th century, says with reference to Iceland (chap. x.) " Out of Bristowe, and costes many one, Men haue practised by nedle and by stone Thider wardes within a litle while." Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, p . 201 (London, 1599) . From this it would seem that the compasses used at that time by English mariners were of a very primitive description . Barlowe, in his treatise Magnetical Advertisements, printed in 1616 (p . 66), complains that " the Compasse needle, being the most admirable and usefull instrument of the whole world, is both amongst ours and other nations for the most part, so bungerly and absurdly contrived, as nothing more." The form he recommends for the needle is that of " a true circle, having his Axis going out beyond the circle, at each end narrow and narrower, unto a reasonable See also:

• SHARPE, DANIEL (18o6-1856)

sharpe point, and being pure See also:

• STEELE
• STEELE, ANNE (1717-1778)
• STEELE, SIR RICHARD (1672-1729)
• STEELE, THOMAS (1788-1848)
• STEELE, WILLIAM (d. 1680)

steele as the circle it selfe is, having in the middest a convenient receptacle to place the capitell in." In 1750 Dr Gowan See also:

• KNIGHT, CHARLES (1791-1873)
• KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY (1845– )
• KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON (1843–1908)

Knight found that the needles of merchant-ships were made of two pieces of steel See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

bent in the middle and united in the shape of a rhombus, and proposed to substitute straight steel bars of small breadth, suspended edgewise and hardened throughout . He also showed that the Chinese mode of suspending the needle conduces most to sensibility . In 182o Peter Barlow reported to the Admiralty that half the compasses in the British Navy were See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere See also:

• LUMBER

lumber and ought to be destroyed . He introduced a See also:

• PATTERN

pattern having four or five parallel straight strips of magnetized steel fixed under a card, a form which remained the standard admiralty type until the introduction of the modern Thomson (Kelvin) compass in 1876 . (F . H . B.; S .

P .