See also:

• MARQUIS

MARQUIS DE See also:

• MARIE

MARIE See also:

• JEAN

JEAN See also:

• ANTOINE, ANDRE (1858- )

ANTOINE See also:

• NICOLAS
• NICOLAS, SIR NICHOLAS HARRIS (1799–1848)

NICOLAS CARITAT See also:

• MARQUIS DE MARIE JEAN ANTOINE NICOLAS CARITAT CONDORCET (1743-1794)

CONDORCET (1743-1794)  , See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French mathematician, philosopher and Revolutionist, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born at Ribemont, in See also:

• PICARDY (La Picardie)

Picardy, on the 17th of See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September 1743 . He descended from the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• FAMILY

family of Caritat, who took their See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title from See also:

• CONDORCET, MARIE JEAN ANTOINE NICOLAS CARITAT, MARQUIS DE (1743-1794)

Condorcet, near Nyons in See also:

• DAUPHINE

Dauphine, where they were See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long settled . His See also:

• FATHER

father dying while he was very See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young, his See also:

• MOTHER

mother, a very devout woman, had him educated at the Jesuit See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

College in See also:

• REIMS
• REIMS (RHEIMS)

Reims and at the College of See also:

• NAVARRE (Span. Navarra)

Navarre in See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, where he displayed the most varied See also:

• MENTAL

mental activity . His first public distinctions were gained in See also:

• MATHEMATICS (Gr. /saBnµar1Kil, Sc. vOcvn or E7rlQTt'µn; from p iN.La, "learning" or "science ")

mathematics . At the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of sixteen his performances in See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis gained the praise of D'See also:

• ALEMBERT, JEAN LE ROND

Alembert and A . C . Clairaut, and at the age of twenty-two he wrote a See also:

• TREATISE

treatise on the integral calculus which obtained warm approbation from competent See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges . With his many-sided See also:

• INTELLECT (Lat. intellectus, from intelligere, to understand)

intellect and richly-endowed emotional nature, however, it was impossible for him to be a specialist, and least of all a specialist in. mathematics . See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

Philosophy and literature attracted him, and social See also:

• WORK

work was dearer to him than any See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of intellectual exercise . In 1769 he became a member of the See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy of Sciences . His contributions to its See also:

• MEMOIRS

memoirs are numerous, and many of them are on the most abstruse and difficult mathematical problems . Being of a very genial, susceptible and enthusiastic disposition, he was the friend of almost all the distinguished men of his See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, and' a zealous propagator of the religious and See also:

• POLITICAL

political views then current among the literati of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France .

D'Alembert, See also:

• TURGOT, ANNE ROBERT JACQUES, BARON DE

Turgot and See also:

• VOLTAIRE, FRANCOIS MARIE AROUET DE (1694–1778)

Voltaire, for whom he had See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• AFFECTION (Lat. ad, and facere, to do something to, sc. a person)

affection and veneration, and by whom he was highly respected and esteemed, contributed largely to the formation. of his opinions . His Lettre d'un laboureur de Picardie d M . N . . . (See also:

• NECKER, JACQUES (1732—1804)

Necker) was written under the See also:

• INSPIRATION (Lat. inspirare, breathe upon or into)

inspiration of Turgot, in See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence of See also:

• FREE

free See also:

• INTERNAL

internal See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade in See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn . Condorcet also wrote on the same subject the Reflexions sur le See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce See also:

• DES

des bles (1776), His Letire d'un theologien, &c., was attributed to Voltaire, being inspired throughout by the Voltairian .See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-clerical spirit . He was induced by D'Alembert to take an active See also:

• PART

part in the preparation of the Encyclopedie . His Eloges des Academiciens de l'Academie Royale des Sciences marts depuis x666 jusqu'en 1699 (1773) gained him the reputation of being an eloquent and graceful writer . He was elected to the perpetual secretaryship of the Academy of Sciences in 1777, and to the French Academy in 1782 . He was also member of the See also:

• ACADEMIES

academies of See also:

• TURIN

Turin, St See also:

• PETERSBURG

Petersburg, See also:

• BOLOGNA
• BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI DA (1524–1608)

Bologna and See also:

• PHILADELPHIA

Philadelphia . In 1785 he published his Essai sur l'application de l'analyse aux probabilites des decisions prises a la pluralite des voix,—a remarkable work which has a distinguished See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in the See also:

• HISTORY

history of the See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability; a second edition, greatly enlarged and completely recast, appeared in 1804 under the title of Elements du calcul des probabililes et son application aux jeux de See also:

• HAZARD (0. Fr. hazard, from Span. czar, unlucky throw at dice, misfortune, from Arab. al, and zar, dice)

hazard, a la lolerie, et aux jugemenis des hommes, &c . In 1786 he married Sophie de See also:

• GROUCHY, EMMANUEL, MARQUIS DE (1766-1847)

Grouchy, a See also:

• SISTER

sister of See also:

• MARSHAL (med. Lat. marescalcus, from O.H.Ger. marah, horse, and scalc, servant)

Marshal Grouchy, said to have been one of the most beautiful See also:

• WOMEN

women of her time .

Her See also:

• SALON

salon at the Hotel des Monnaies, where Condorcet lived in his capacity as inspector-See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general of the See also:

• MINT
• MINT (Lat. moneta; Mid. Eng. mynt)

mint, was one of the most famous of the time . In 1786 Condorcet published his See also:

• VIE

Vie de Turgot, and in 1787 his Vie de Voltaire . Both See also:

• WORKS

works were widely and eagerly read, and are perhaps, from a merely See also:

• LITERARY

literary point of view, the best of Condorcet's writings . The political See also:

• TEMPEST, MARIE (1866– )

tempest which had been long gathering over France now began to break and to carry everything before- it . Condorcet was, of course, at once hurried along by it into the midst of the conflicts and confusion of the Revolution . He greeted with See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm the See also:

• ADVENT (Lat. Adventus, sc. Redemptoris, " the coming of the Saviour ")

advent of See also:

• DEMOCRACY (Gr. 3np.oKparia, from S)µos, the people, i.e. the commons, and Kparos, rule)

democracy, and laboured hard to secure and hasten its See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph . He was indefatigable in See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing See also:

• PAMPHLETS

pamphlets, suggesting reforms, and planning constitutions . He was not a member of the States-General of 1789, but he had expressed his ideas in the electoral See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly of the noblesse of Mantes . The first political functions which he exercised were those of a member of the See also:

• MUNICIPALITY

municipality of Paris (1790) . He was next chosen by the Parisians to represent them in the Legislative Assembly, and then appointed by that See also:

• BODY

body one of its secretaries . In this capacity he See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew up most of its addresses, but seldom spoke, his See also:

• PEN (Lat. penna, a feather, pen)

pen being more effective than his See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue . He was the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief author of the address to the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers when they threatened France with See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war .

He was keenly interested in See also:

• EDUCATION

education, and, as a member of the See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

committee of public instruction, presented to the Assembly (See also:

• APRIL

April 21 and 22, 1792) a bold and comprehensive See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme for the organization of a See also:

• SYSTEM

system of See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state education which, though more urgent questions compelled its postponement, became the basis of that adopted by the See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

Convention, and thus laid the See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations on which the See also:

• MODERN

modern system of See also:

• NATIONAL

national education in France is built up . After the, attempted See also:

• FLIGHT

flight of the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king, in See also:

• JUNE

June 1791, Condorcet was one of the first to declare in favour of a See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic, and it was he who drew up the memorandum which led the Assembly, on the 4th of September 1792, to See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

decree the suspension of the king and the summoning of the National Convention . He had, meanwhile, resigned his offices and See also:

• LEFT

left the Hotel des Monnaies; his See also:

• DECLARATION (from Lat. declarare, to make fully clear, clams)

declaration in favour of republicanism had alienated him from his former See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends of the constitutional party, and he did not join the Jacobin See also:

• CLUB (connected with " clump ")

Club, which had not yet declared against the See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy . Though attached to no,powerful political See also:

• GROUP

group, however, his reputation gave him great See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence . At the elections for the Convention he was chosen for five departments, and took his seat for that of See also:

• AISNE

Aisne . He now became the most influential member of the committee on the constitution, and as " reporter " he drafted and presented to the Convention (See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 15, 1793) a constitution, which was, how-ever, after stormy debates, rejected in favour of that presented by See also:

• HERAULT

Herault de Sechelles . The work of constitution-making had been interrupted by the trial of See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis XVI . Condorcet objected to the See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption of judicial functions by the Convention, objected also on principle to the infliction of the See also:

• DEATH

death See also:

• PENALTY (Lat. poena, punishment)

penalty; but he voted the king guilty of conspiring against See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty and worthy of any penalty See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short of death, and against the See also:

• APPEAL

appeal to the See also:

• PEOPLE

people advocated by the See also:

• GIRONDISTS (Fr. Girondins)

Girondists . In the See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere of universal suspicion that inspired the Terror his See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent attitude could not, however, be maintained with impunity . His severe and public See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism of the constitution adopted by the Convention, his denunciation of the See also:

• ARREST (Fr. arrester, arreeter, to stop or stay)

arrest of the Girondists, and his opposition to the violent conduct of the See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

Mountain, led to his being accused of conspiring against the Republic . He was condemned and declared to be hors la loi . Friends, sought for him an See also:

• ASYLUM (from Gr. b.-, privative, arid earl, right'of seizure)
• ASYLUM, RIGHT OF (Fr. droit d'asile; Ger. Asylrecht)

asylum in the See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house of Madame See also:

• VERNET

Vernet, widow of the sculptor and a near connexion of the painters of the same name .

Without even asking his name, this heroic woman, as soon as she was assured that he was an honest See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man, said, " Let him come, and lose not a moment, for while we talk he may be seized." When the See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution of the Girondists showed him that his presence exposed his protectress to a terrible danger, he resolvedto seek a See also:

• REFUGE

refuge elsewhere . " I am outlawed," he said, " and if I am discovered you will meet the same sad end as myself . I must not stay." Madame Vernet's reply deserves to be immortal, and should be given in her own words: " La Convention, See also:

• MONSIEUR (Fr., formed from men, my, and sieur, lord)

Monsieur, a le See also:

• DROIT (Fr. for " right," from Lat. directus, straight)

droit de mettre hors la loi: elle n'a pas le pouvoir de mettre hors de 1'humanite; See also:

• VOUS

vous resterez." From that time she had his movements strictly watched lest he should See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to quit her house . It was partly to turn his mind from the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of attempting this, by occupying it otherwise, that his wife and some of his friends, with the co-operation of Madame Vernet, prevailed on him to engage in the See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition of the work by which he is best known—the Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progres de l'esprit humain . In his retirement Condorcet wrote also his See also:

• JUSTIFICATION

justification, and several small works, such as the Moyen d'apprendre a corn See also:

• PIER (older forms per or Pere, from Med. Lat. pera; the word for piers out of water. For river piers, where a firm, watertight is of obscure origin, and the connexion with Fr. Pierre, Lat. stratum is found at a moderate depth below the river-bed, the pctr

pier sirement et avec facilite, which he intended for the See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools of the republic . Several of these works were published at the time, thanks to his friends; the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest appeared after his death . Among the latter was the admirable Avis d'un proscrit a sa fille . While in hiding he also continued to take an active See also:

• INTEREST

interest in public affairs . Thus, he wrote several important memoranda on the conduct of the war against the See also:

• COALITION (Lat. coalitio, the verbal substantive of coalescere, to grow together)

Coalition, which were laid before the Committee of Public Safety anonymously by a member of the Mountain named Marcoz, who lived in the same house as Condorcet without thinking it his See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty to denounce him . In the same way he for-warded to See also:

• ARBOGAST (d. 394)

Arbogast, See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president of the committee for public instruction, the solutions of several problems in higher mathematics . Certain circumstances having led him to believe that the house of Madame Vernet, 21 See also:

• RUE (Fr. rue, Lat. ruta, from Gr. pur)

rue Servandoni, was suspected and watched by his enemies, Condorcet, by a fatally successful artifice, at last baffled the vigilance of his generous friend and escaped . Disappointed in finding even a See also:

• NIGHT

night's shelter at the See also:

• CHATEAU (from Lat. castellum, fortress, through O. Fr. chastel, chasteau)

chateau of one whom he had befriended, he had to hide for three days and nights in the thickets and See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone-quarries of Clamart .

On the evening of the 7th of April 1794—not, as See also:

• CARLYLE, ALEXANDER (1722-1805)
• CARLYLE, JOSEPH DACRE (1759-18o4)
• CARLYLE, THOMAS (1795-1881)

Carlyle says, on a " bleared May See also:

• MORNING

morning,"—with garments torn, with wounded See also:

• LEG
• LEG (a word of Scandinavian origin, from the Old Norwegian leggr, cf. Swed. lagg, Dan. laeg; the O. Eng. word was sceanca, shank)

leg, with famished looks, be entered a See also:

• TAVERN

tavern in the See also:

• VILLAGE

village named, and called for an See also:

• OMELETTE

omelette . " How many eggs in your omelette ?" "A dozen." " What is your trade ?" " A See also:

• CARPENTER, LANT (1780-1840)
• CARPENTER, MIRY (1807-1877)
• CARPENTER, WILLIAM BENJAMIN (1813-1885)

carpenter." " Carpenters have-not hands like these, and do not ask for a dozen eggs in an omelette." When his papers were demanded he had none to show; when his See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person was searched a See also:

• HORACE [QuINTus HORATIUS FLACCUS] (65-8 B.C.)

Horace was found on him . The villagers seized him, See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound him, haled him forthwith on bleeding feet towards Bourg-la-Reine; he fainted by the way, was set on a See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse offered in pity by a passing See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

peasant, and, at the See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey's end, was See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast into a See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold See also:

• DAMP

damp See also:

• CELL (from Lat. cella, probably from an Indo-European kal —seen in Lat. celare, to hide; another suggestion connects the word with Lat. cera, wax, taking the original meaning to refer to the honeycomb)

cell . Next morning he was found dead on the See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor . Whether he had died from suffering and exhaustion, from See also:

• APOPLEXY (Gr. arov n i.a, from aroaMvvew, to strike down, to stun)

apoplexy or from See also:

• POISON

poison, is an undetermined question . Condorcet was undoubtedly a most sincere, generous and See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble-minded man . He was eager in the pursuit of truth, ardent in his love of human See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good, and ever ready to undertake labour or encounter danger on behalf of the philanthropic plans which his fertile mind contrived and his benevolent See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart inspired . It was thus that he worked for the suppression of See also:

• SLAVERY

slavery, for the rehabilitation of the See also:

• CHEVALIER, ALBERT (1861– )
• CHEVALIER, MICHEL (1806-1879)
• CHEVALIER, ULYSSE (1841– )

chevalier de La See also:

• BARRE
• BARRE, ISAAC (1726-1802)

Barre, and in defence of See also:

• LALLY, THOMAS ARTHUR, COMTE DE

Lally-Tollendal . He lived at a time when calumny was rife, and various slanders were circulated regarding him, but fortunately the slightest examination proves them to have been inexcusable fabrications . That while openly opposing See also:

• ROYALTY (0. Fr. realte, reialte, royaulte, from Med. Lat. regalitas, the substantive of regalis, of or belonging to a king, rex)

royalty he was secretly soliciting the See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office of See also:

• TUTOR (Lat. tutor, guardian, tueri, to watch over, protect)

tutor to the Dauphin; that he was See also:

• ACCESSORY

accessory to the See also:

• MURDER

murder of the duc de la Rochefoucauld; or that he sanctioned the burning of the literary treasures of the learned congregations, are stories which can be shown to be utterly untrue . His philosophical fame is chiefly associated with the Esquisse .. des`progres mentioned above . With the See also:

• VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT

vision of the See also:

• GUILLOTINE

guillotine before him, with confusion and violence around him, he comforted himself by trying to demonstrate that the evils of See also:

• LIFE

life had arisen from a See also:

• CONSPIRACY (from Lat. conspirare, literally to breathe together, to agree, combine, and especially to form a secret plot)

conspiracy of priests and rulers against their See also:

• FELLOWS, SIR CHARLES (1799-1860)

fellows, and from the See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad See also:

• LAWS

laws and institutions which they had succeeded in creating, but that the human See also:

• RACE

race would finally conquer its enemies and free itself of its evils .

His fundamental idea is that of a human perfectibility which has manifested itself in continuous progress in the past, and must See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead to indefinite progress in the future . He represents man as starting from the lowest See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of barbarism, with no superiority over the other animals See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save that of bodily organization, and as advancing uninterruptedly, at a more or less rapid See also:

• RATE

rate, in the path of enlightenment, virtue and happiness . The stages which the human race has already gone through, or, in other words, the great epochs of history, are regarded as nine in number . The first three can confessedly be described only conjecturally from general observations as to the development of the human faculties, and the analogies of See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage life . In the first See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch, men are See also:

• UNITED

united into hordes of hunters and fishers, who acknowledge in some degree public authority and the claims of family relationship, and who make use of an articulate See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language . In the second epoch—the See also:

• PASTORAL (from Lat. pastor, a shepherd)

pastoral state—See also:

• PROPERTY

property is introduced, and along with it inequality of conditions, and even slavery, but also leisure to cultivate intelligence, to invent some of the simpler arts, and to acquire some of the more elementary truths of See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science . In the third epoch—the agricultural state—as leisure and See also:

• WEALTH

wealth are greater, labour better distributed and applied, and the means of communication increased and extended, progress is still more rapid . With the invention of alphabetic writing the conjectural part of history closes. and the more or less authenticated part commences . The See also:

• FOURTH

fourth and fifth epochs are represented as corresponding to See also:

• GREECE

Greece and See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome . The See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages are divided into two epochs, the former of which terminates with the See also:

• CRUSADES

Crusades, and the latter with the invention of See also:

• PRINTING (from Lat. imprimere, O. Fr. empreindre)

printing . The eighth epoch extends from the invention of printing to the revolution in the method of philosophic thinking accomplished by See also:

• DESCARTES, RENE (1596-1650)

Descartes . And the ninth epoch begins with that great intellectual revolution, and ends with the great political and moral revolution of 1789, and is illustrious, according to Condorcet, through the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery of the true system of the See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical universe by See also:

• NEWTON
• NEWTON, ALFRED (1829–1907)
• NEWTON, JOHN (1725-1807)
• NEWTON, JOHN (1823-1895)
• NEWTON, SIR CHARLES THOMAS (1816-1894)
• NEWTON, SIR ISAAC (1642-1727)

Newton, of human nature by See also:

• LOCKE, GOTTFRIED CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1791–1855)
• LOCKE, JOHN (1632-1704)
• LOCKE, MATTHEW (c. 1630-1677)

Locke and See also:

• CONDILLAC, ETIENNE BONNOT DE (1715—178o)

Condillac, and of society by Turgot, See also:

• RICHARD
• RICHARD (d. 1184)
• RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (18,9-1908)
• RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888)
• RICHARD, ST

Richard See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

Price and See also:

• ROUSSEAU, JACQUES (1633-1693)
• ROUSSEAU, JEAN BAPTISTE (1671-1741)
• ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES (1712-1778)
• ROUSSEAU, PIERRE ETIENNE THEODORE (1812–1867); French painter of the Barbizon school, was born in Paris on the 15th of April 1812, of a bourgeois family which included one or two artists. At first he received a business training, but soon displayed aptitu

Rousseau .

There is an epoch of the future—a tenth epoch; and the most See also:

• ORIGINAL

original part of Condorcet's treatise is that which is devoted to it . After insisting that general laws regulative of the past See also:

• WARRANT (Med. Lat. warantum; O. Fr. garant, warant, derived from O.H.G. root represented in modern German bygewdhren)

warrant general inferences as to the future, he argues that the three tendencies which the entire history of the past shows will be characteristic features of the future are:—(1) the destruction of inequality between nations; (2) the destruction of inequality between classes; and (3) the improvement of individuals, the indefinite perfectibility of human nature itself —intellectually, morally and physically . These propositions have been much misunderstood . The equality to which he re-presents nations and individuals as tending is not See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute equality, but equality of freedom and of rights . It is that equality which would make the inequality of the natural advantages and faculties of each community and person beneficial to all . Nations and men, he thinks, are equal, if equally free, and are all tending to equality because all tending to freedom . As to indefinite perfectibility, he nowhere denies that progress is conditioned both by the constitution of humanity and the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of its surroundings . But he affirms that these conditions are compatible with endless progress, and that the human mind can assign no fixed limits to its own See also:

• ADVANCEMENT

advancement in knowledge and virtue, or even to the prolongation of bodily life . This theory explains the importance he attached to popular education, to which he looked for all sure progress . The See also:

• BOOK

book is pervaded by a spirit of excessive hopefulness, and contains numerous errors of detail, which are fully accounted for by the circumstances in which it was written . Its value lies entirely in its general ideas . Its chief defects See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring from its author's narrow and fanatical aversion to all philosophy which did not attempt to explain the See also:

• WORLD

world exclusively on See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical and sensational principles, to all See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion whatever, and especially to See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity and See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian institutions, and to monarchy .

His ethical position, however, gives emphasis to the sympathetic impulses and social feelings, and had considerable influence upon Auguste See also:

• COMTE, AUGUSTE [ISIDORE AUGUSTE MARIE FRANCOIS XAVIER] (1798-1857)

Comte . Madame de Condorcet (b . 1764), who was some twenty years younger than her See also:

• HUSBAND

husband, was rendered penniless by his proscription, and compelled to support not only herself and her four years old daughter but her younger sister, See also:

• CHARLOTTE

Charlotte de Grouchy . After the end of the Jacobin Terror she published an excellent See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation of See also:

• ADAM
• ADAM (or ADAN) DE LE HALE (died c. 1288)
• ADAM, ALEXANDER (1741–1809)
• ADAM, JULIETTE (1836– )
• ADAM, LAMBERT SIGISBERT (1700-1759)
• ADAM, MELCHIOR (d. 1622)
• ADAM, PAUL (1862– )
• ADAM, ROBERT (1728—1792)
• ADAM, SIR FREDERICK (1781-1853)
• ADAM, WILLIAM (1751-1839)

Adam See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith's Theory of Moral Sentiments; in 1798 a work of her own, Lettres sur la sympathie; and in 1799 her husband's Eloges des academiciens . Later she co-operated with See also:

• CABANIS, PIERRE JEAN GEORGE (1757-1808)

Cabanis, who had married her sister, and with See also:

• GARAT
• GARAT, DOMINIQUE JOSEPH (1749-1833)

Garat in See also:

• PUBLISHING

publishing the See also:

• COMPLETE

complete works of Condorcet (18o1-1804) . She adhered to the last to the political views of her husband, and under the Consulate and See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire her salon became a See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting-place of those opposed to the autocratic ' regime . She died at Paris on the 8th of September 1822 . Her daughter was married; in 1807, to General O'See also:

• CONNOR (or O'CONNOR), BERNARD (1666-1698)

Connor . A Biogr¢!See also:

• ALE

Ale de Condorcet, by M . F . See also:

• ARAGO, DOMINIQUE FRANCOIS JEAN (1786-1853)

Arago, is prefixed to A . Condorcet-O'Connor's edition of Condoreet's works, in 12 volumes (1847-1849) .

There is an able See also:

• ESSAY, ESSAYIST (Fr. essai, Late Lat. exagium, a weighing or balance; exigere, to examine; the term in general meaning any trial or effort)

essay on Condorcet in See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord See also:

• MORLEY
• MORLEY [oP BLACKBURN], JOHN MORLEY
• MORLEY, BARONS AND EARLS OF
• MORLEY, GEORGE (1597-1684)
• MORLEY, HENRY (1822-1894)
• MORLEY, SAMUEL (18o9–1886)

Morley of See also:

• BLACKBURN
• BLACKBURN, COLIN BLACKBURN, BARON (1813-1896)
• BLACKBURN, JONATHAN (c. 1700-c. 1765)

Blackburn's See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

Critical Miscellanies . On Condorcet as an See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical philosopher see Comte''s Cours de philosophic See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive, iv . 252-253, and Systeme de politique positive, iv . Appendice General, tog-III ; F . See also:

• LAURENT, FRANCOIS (1810–1887)

Laurent, Etudes, xii . 121-I26, 89-See also:

• ITO, HIROBUMI, PRINCE (1841-1909)

ITo; and R . See also:

• FLINT
• FLINT, AUSTIN (1812-1886)
• FLINT, or FLTNTSHTRE (sir Gallestr)
• FLINT, ROBERT (1838- )
• FLINT, TIMOTHY (1780-1840)

Flint, Philosophy of History in France and See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, i . 125-138 . The Memoires de Condorcet sur la Revolution francaise, extraits de sa correspondance et de celles de ses antis (2 vols., Paris, Ponthieu, 1824), which were in fact edited by F . G. de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, are See also:

• SPURIOUS

spurious . See also Dr J . F .

E.Robinet, Condorcet, sa vie et son ceuvre, and more especially L . Cahen,.Condorcet et la Revolution francaise (Paris, 1904) . On Madame de Condorcet see See also:

• ANTOINE, ANDRE (1858- )

Antoine Guillois, La Marquise de Condorcet; sa famille, on salon et ses ceuvres (Paris, 1897) .