See also:

• CONGO

CONGO See also:

• FREE

FREE See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

STATE  , the name formerly given by See also:

• BRITISH

British writers to the Etat Independant du See also:

• CONGO

Congo, a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of See also:

• EQUATORIAL

equatorial See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa which occupied the greater See also:

• PART

part of the See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin of the Congo See also:

• RIVER

river . In 1908 the state was annexed to See also:

• BELGIUM
• BELGIUM (Fr. Belgique; Flem. Belgic)

Belgium . The See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article gives (I) the See also:

• HISTORY

history of the state, (2) an See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the See also:

• TOPOGRAPHY
• TOPOGRAPHY (Gr. Toros, place, -partied', to write)

topography, See also:

• ETHNOLOGY

ethnology, &c., of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country and of its economic See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition at the date of its becoming a Belgian See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony . I . HISTORY The Congo See also:

• FREE

Free State owed its existence to the ambition and force of See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of a single individual . It dated its formal inclusion among the See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent states of the See also:

• WORLD

world from 1885, when its founder, See also:

• LEOPOLD (M.H. Ger. Liupolt; O.H. Ger. Liupald, from hut, Mod. Ger. Leute, " people," and paid, " bold," i.e. " bold for the people ")

Leopold II., See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of the hui pt1" Belgians, became its See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head . But to understand how formation_ it came into existence a brief account is needed of its See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign's connexion with the See also:

• AFRICAN

African See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent . In 1876 King Leopold summoned a See also:

• CONFERENCE

conference at See also:

• BRUSSELS (Fr. Bruxelles, Flem. Brussel)

Brussels of the leading See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical experts in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, which resulted in the creation of " The See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

International Association for the Exploration and See also:

• CIVILIZATION

Civilization of Africa." To carry out its See also:

• OBJECTS

objects an international See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission was founded, with committees in the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal countries of Europe . The Belgian See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

committee at Brussels, where also were the headquarters of the International commission, displayed from the first greater activity than did any of the other committees . It turned its See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention in the first See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place to See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East Africa, and several expeditions were sent out, which resulted in the See also:

• FOUNDING (from Lat. fundere, to pour)

founding of a Belgian station at Karema on See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake See also:

• TANGANYIKA (a name said by V. L. Cameron to signify a " mixing-place ")

Tanganyika . But the return of Mr (afterwards See also:

• SIR

Sir) H . M .

See also:

• STANLEY (FAMILY)
• STANLEY, ARTHUR PENRHYN (18x5–1881)
• STANLEY, EDWARD (1779-1849)
• STANLEY, SIR HENRY MORTON (184o-1904)
• STANLEY, SIR WILLIAM (1548-163o)
• STANLEY, THOMAS (1625-1678)

Stanley from his See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey of exploration down the Congo forcibly directed the attention of King Leopold to the possibilities for exploration and civilization offered by the Congo region . On the invitation of the king, Mr Stanley visited Brussels, and on the 25th of See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 1878 a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate committee of the International Association was organized at Brussels, under the name " Comite d'etudes du Haut Congo." Shortly afterwards this committee became the " International Association of the Congo," which in its turn was the forerunner of the Congo Free State . The Association was provided with a nominal See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of £40,000, but from the first its funds were largely supplemented from the private See also:

• PURSE (Late Lat. bursa, adapted from Gr. Gupta, hide, skin; possibly O. Eng. pusa, bag, has influenced the change from b to p)

purse of King Leopold; and by a See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual See also:

• PROCESS

process of See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution the See also:

• WORK

work, which was originally, in name at least, international in character, became a purely Belgian enterprise . Mr Stanley, as See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent of the Association, spent four years in the country,founding stations and making See also:

• TREATIES

treaties with various chiefs . The first station was founded in See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 188o at Vivi, and before returning to Europe in See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 1884 Mr Stanley had established 'twenty-two stations on the Congo and its tributaries . Numerous expeditions were organized by King Leopold in the Congo basin, and the activity of the International Association and its agents began seriously to engage the attention of the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers interested in Africa . On behalf of See also:

• PORTUGAL

Portugal, claims were advanced to the Congo, based on the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery of its mouth by Portuguese navigators centuries before . In the interests of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, M. de Brazza was actively exploring on the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks of the Congo, and had established various posts, including one where the important station of Brazzaville is now situated . The fact that the International Association of the Congo had no admitted status as a sovereign See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power rendered the See also:

• TENURE (Fr. tenure, from Lat. tenere, to hold)

tenure of its acquisition somewhat See also:

• PRECARIOUS

precarious, and induced King Leopold to make determined efforts to secure for his enterprise a recognized position . See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

Early in 1884 a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic events brought the question to a head . The 2nd See also:

• EARL

Earl See also:

• GRANVILLE
• GRANVILLE, GRANVILLE
• GRANVILLE, JOHN CARTERET, EARL (1690-1763)

Granville, then British See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign secretary, in February of that See also:

• YEAR

year concluded a See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

convention with Portugal, recognizing both banks of the mouth of the Congo as Portuguese territory . This convention was never ratified, but it led directly to the summoning of the See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

Congress of 1884-1885, and to the recognition of the International Association as a sovereign state .

The See also:

• UNITED

United States of See also:

• AMERICA

America was the first great power, in a convention signed on the 22nd of See also:

• APRIL

April 1884, to recognize the Association as a properly constituted state . Simultane- See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

lion tt by the ously, King Leopold had been negotiating with the lion by powers . See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government, the Association's most serious See also:

• RIVAL

rival, not only to obtain recognition but on various boundary questions, and on the 23rd of April 1884 See also:

• COLONEL (derived either from Lat. column, Fr. colonne, column, or Lat. corona, a crown)

Colonel M . Strauch, the See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president of the Association, addressed to the French See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister for foreign affairs a See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note in which he formally declared that the Association would not cede its possessions to any power, " except in virtue of See also:

• SPECIAL

special conventions, which may be concluded between France and the Association, for fixing the limits and conditions of their respective See also:

• ACTION

action." The note further declared that, as a fresh See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof of its friendly feeling towards France, the Association engaged to give France the right of preference if, through unforeseen circumstances, it were compelled to sell its possessions . Mention may here be made of the fact that in a note dated the 22nd of April 1887, M. See also:

• VAN

van Eetvelde, See also:

• ADMINISTRATOR

administrator-See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general of the foreign affairs of the Congo State, informed the French minister at Brussels that the International Association had not intended in 1884 that the rightof preference accorded to France could be opposed to that of Belgium; and on the 29th of April the French minister took note, in the name of the French government, of this See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation of the right of preference, in so far as such interpretation was not contrary to pre-existing international engagements . See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany was the next great power after the United States to recognize the See also:

• FLAG (or " FLAGGE," a common Teutonic word in this sense, but apparently first recorded in English)

flag of the International Association as that of a friendly state, doing so on the 8th of November 1884, and the same recognition was subsequently accorded by Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain on the 16th of See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December; See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, 19th of December; See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria-See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary, 24th of December; See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland, 27th of December; See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain, 7th of See also:

• JANUARY

January 1885; France and See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia, 5th of February; See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Sweden and See also:

• NORWAY
• NORWAY (Norge)

Norway, loth of February; Portugal, 14th of February; and See also:

• DENMARK
• DENMARK (Danmark)

Denmark and Belgium, 23rd of February . While negotiations with Germany for the recognition of the status of the Congo Free State were in progress, See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

Prince See also:

• BISMARCK
• BISMARCK, OTTO EDUARD LEOPOLD VON, PRINCE

Bismarck issued invitations to the powers to an international conference at Berlin . The conference assembled on the 15th of November 1884, and its deliberations ended on the 26th of February of the following year by the See also:

• SIGNATURE (through Fr. from Lat. signature, signare, to sign, signum, mark, token, sign)

signature of a General See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

Act, which dealt with the relations of the European powers to other regions of Africa as well as the Congo basin . The provisions affecting the Congo may be briefly stated . A conventional basin of the Congo was defined, which comprised all the regions watered by the Congo and its affluents, including Lake Tanganyika, with its eastern tributaries, and in this conventional basin it was declared that " the See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade of all nations shall enjoy See also:

• COMPLETE

complete freedom." Freedom of See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation of the Congo and all its affluents was also secured, and See also:

• DIFFERENTIAL

differential dues on vessels and merchandise were forbidden . Trade monopolies were prohibited, and See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision made for civilizing the natives, the suppression of the slave trade, and the See also:

• PROTECTION

protection of missionaries, scientists and explorers . Provision was made for the powers owning territory in the conventional basin to proclaim their See also:

• NEUTRALITY

neutrality .

As regards navigation, only such taxes or duties were to be levied as had " the character of an See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent for services rendered to navigation itself "; and it was further provided that (Article 16) " The roads, See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways or lateral canals which may be constructed with the special See also:

• OBJECT

object of obviating the innavigability or correcting the imperfection of the river route on certain sections of the course of the Congo, its affluents, and other waterways, placed under a similar See also:

• SYSTEM

system as laid down in 'Article 15, shall be considered,' in their quality of means of communication, as dependencies of this river and as equally open to the See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic of all nations . And as on the river itself, so there shall be collected on these roads, railways, and canals only tolls calculated on the cost of construction, See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance, and management, and on the profits due to the promoters "; while as regards the See also:

• TARIFF (adapted in English from the French; the word comes through the Spanish tarifa, a list or schedule of prices, from the Arabic, ta'rifa, information, an inventory, 'arf, know-ledge)

tariff of these tolls, strangers and natives of the respective territories were to be treated " on a footing of perfect equality." The International Association not having possessed, at the date of the assembling of the Conference, any recognized status, was not formally represented at Berlin, but the flag of the Association having, before the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of the conference, been recognized as that of a sovereign state by all the powers, with the exception of See also:

• TURKEY

Turkey, the Association formally adhered to the General Act . Thus early in 1885 King Leopold had secured the recognition of the Association as an independent state, but its limits were as yet not clearly defined . On the 5th of February, as the result of prolonged negotiations, France conceded ag,•ee- menfs as the right of. the Association to the course of the See also:

• LOWER

lower to limits . Congo below Manyanga, and accepted the Chiloango river and the See also:

• WATER

water-parting of the See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters of the Niadi Kwilu and the Congo, as far as beyond the See also:

• MERIDIAN
• MERIDIAN (from the Lat. meridianus, pertaining to the south or mid-day)

meridian of Manyanga, as the boundary between her possessions and those of the Association on the lower river . From Manyanga the frontier was to follow the Congo up to Stanley See also:

• POOL

Pool, the median See also:

• LINE

line of Stanley Pool, and the Congo again " up to a point to be settled above the river Licona-Nkundja," from which point a line was to be See also:

• DRAWN

drawn to the 17th degree of See also:

• LONGITUDE (from Lat. longitudo, " length ")

longitude east of See also:

• GREENWICH

Greenwich, following as closely as possible the water-parting of the Licona-Nkundja basin . The identity, of the Licona-Nkundja subsequently gave rise to considerable discussions with France, and eventually a See also:

• PROTOCOL (Fr. protocole, Late Lat. protocollum, from Gr. vrp(;rros, first, and KoXXav, to glue, i.e. originally the first sheet of a papyrus roll)

protocol, signed at Brussels on the 29th of April 1887, continued the' boundary along the Congo to its confluence with the See also:

• UBANGI

Ubangi (Mobangi), whence it followed the See also:

• THALWEG (a German word compounded from Thal, valley, and YPeg, way)

thalweg of that river to its intersection with the 4th parallel of See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude, below which parallel it was agreed that the northern boundary of the Congo Free State should in no See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case descend . In accepting this frontier King Leopold had to See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice all claims to the valley of the Niadi Kwilu, in which he had founded fourteen stations, and to the right See also:

• BANK

bank of the Ubangi . With Portugal the Association concluded an agreement on the 14th of February 1885, by which the northern bank of the Congo was recognized as belonging to the Association, while Portugal retained the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern bank of the river as far as Noki . North of the Congo Portugal retained the small See also:

• ENCLAVE (a French word from enclaver, to enclose)

enclave of See also:

• KABINDA

Kabinda, while See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of the river the frontier See also:

• LEFT

left the Congo at Noki and followed the parallel of that place to the Kwango river . In April 1885 the Belgian chamber authorized King Leopold " to he the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief of the state founded in Africa by the Inter-See also:

• NATIONAL

national Association of the Congo," and declared that " the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union between Belgium and the new State of the Congo shall be exclusively See also:

• PERSONAL

personal." This act of the Belgian legislature regularized the position of King Leopold, who at once began the work of organizing an See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration for the new state.' In a circular See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter addressed to the powers on the 1st of August 1885 His See also:

• MAJESTY (Fr. majeste; Lat. majestas, grandeur, greatness, from the base mag-, as in magnus, great, major, greater, &c.)

Majesty declared the neutrality of the " Independent State of the Congo," and set out the boundaries which were then claimed for the new state . At the date of the issue of the circular the agreements with France and Portugal had partially defined the boundaries of the Free State on the lower river, and the 3oth degree of longitude east of Greenwich was recognized as the limit of its See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension eastwards .

The following is a See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of the agreements subsequently made with reference to the boundaries of the state (see also AFRICA, §5): 1 . 22nd of November 1885, with France.—Protocol for delimitation of the Manyanga region . 2 . 29th of April 1887, with France.—Protocol for delimitation of the Ubangi region . 25th of May 1891, with Portugal.—Treaty for delimitation of the Lunda region, and convention of even date for the See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement of frontiers on lower Congo . 24th of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 1894, with Portugal.—See also:

• DECLARATION (from Lat. declarare, to make fully clear, clams)

Declaration approving delimitation of Lunda region . 12th of May 1894, with Great Britain.—Agreement as to See also:

• NILE
• NILE, BATTLE OF THE
• NILE, SOBAT

Nile valley and boundaries with British Central Africa . 14th of August 1894, with France.—Agreement as to Mbomu river, and Congo and Nile basins . 5th of February 1895, with France.—Agreement as to Stanley Pool . 8 . 9th of May 1906, with Great Britain.—Agreement as to territories leased in 1894 in the Nile valley . The See also:

• NET

net result of the above agreements was to leave the Congo Free State with France, Portugal and Great Britain as her neighbours on the north, with Great Britain and Germany as her neighbours on the east, and with Great Britain and Portugal on her southern frontier .

The See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main object of King Leopold's ambition was to obtain an outlet on the Nile, and for the history of the incidents connected with the two important agreements made in 1844 with Great Britain and France, and their sequel in the agreement made with Great Britain in 1906, reference must be made to the article AFRICA, §5 . The See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure necessitated by the efforts of the king to attain his object involved a heavy See also:

• STRAIN (through O. Fr. straindre, estraindre, mod. i treindre, from Lat. stringere, to draw tight, related to stress, stretch, string, &c.)

strain on the finances of the state, reacting on its See also:

• INTERNAL

internal policy . The avowed object of the Free State was to develop the resources of the territory with the aid of the natives, but it early became apparent that the Arab slave-traders, who had established themselves in the country between Lake Tanganyika and Stanley Falls and on the upper river, opposed a serious obstacle to the realization of this See also:

• PROGRAMME, or PROGRAM

programme . The scanty resources at the disposal of the state imposed a policy of See also:

• RESTRAINT (from " to restrain," Lat. restringere, to hold back, prevent)

restraint on the See also:

• OFFICERS

officers who were brought into relations with ' The formal See also:

• PROCLAMATION (Lat. proclamare, to make public by announcement)

proclamation of See also:

• SOVEREIGNTY

sovereignty was made at See also:

• BOMA (properly Mboma)

Boma on the 1st of See also:

• JULY

July 1885.919 the See also:

• ARABS

Arabs on the upper river, of whom Tippoo-Tib was the chief . In 1886 the Arabs had destroyed the state station at Stanley Falls, and it was apparent that a struggle for supremacy was inevitable . But the Free State was at that See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time See also:

• ILL

ill prepared for a trial of strength, and at Mr Stanley's See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion the bold course was taken of appointing Tippoo-Tih See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor of Stanley Falls, as the representative of King Leopold . This was in 1887, and for five years the modus vivendi thus established continued in operation . During those years fortified camps were established by the Belgians on the Sankuru, the Lomami, and the Arumiwi, and the Arabs were See also:

• QUICK

quick to see that each year's delay increased the strength of the forces against which they would have to contend . In 1891 the See also:

• IMPOSITION (from Lat. imponere, to place or lay upon)

imposition of an export See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty on See also:

• IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur)
• IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842)

ivory excited much ill-will, and when it became known that, in his march towards the Nile, van See also:

• KERCKHOVEN, JAN POLYANDER VAN DEN (1568-1646)

Kerckhoven The See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War had defeated an Arab force, the Arabs on the upper the ainst Arabs . Congo determined to precipitate the conflict . In May 1892 the See also:

• MURDER

murder of M . Hodister, the representative of a Belgian trading See also:

• COMPANY

company, and of ten other Belgians on the upper Lomami, marked the beginning of the Arab war .

When the See also:

• NEWS

news reached the lower river a Belgian expedition under the command of Commandant (afterwards See also:

• BARON
• BARON (1835-1895)
• BARON, MICHEL (1653—1729)

Baron) See also:

• DHANIS, FRANCIS, BARON (1861-1909)

Dhanis was making its way towards See also:

• KATANGA

Katanga . This expedition was diverted to the east, and, after a See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign extending over several months, during which several battles were fought and the Arab strongholds of Nyangwe and Kasongo were captured, the Arab power was broken and many of the leading Arabs were killed . The See also:

• POLITICAL

political and commercial results of the victory of the Free State troops were thus described by See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

Captain S . L . Hinde, who was Baron Dhanis's second in command: " The political See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

geography of the upper Congo basin has been completely changed, as a result of the Belgian campaign against the Arabs . It used to be a See also:

• COMMON

common saying in this part of Africa that all roads See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead to Nyangwe . This See also:

• TOWN

town, visited by See also:

• LIVINGSTONE, DAVID (1813-1873)

Livingstone, Stanley and See also:

• CAMERON, JOHN (1579–1623)
• CAMERON, RICHARD (1648?–168o)
• CAMERON, SIMON (1799-1889)
• CAMERON, VERNEY LOVETT (1844–1894)

Cameron, until lately one of the greatest markets in Africa, has ceased to exist, and its site, when I last saw it, was occupied by a single See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house . Kasongo, a more See also:

• RECENT

recent though still larger'centre, with perhaps 6o,000 inhabitants, has also been swept away, and is now represented by a station of the Free State 9 m. away on the river-bank . In See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony with this political See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change the trade routes have been completely altered, and the traffic which used to follow the well-beaten track from Nyangwe and the Lualaba across Tanganyika to See also:

• UJIJI

Ujiji, or See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the lake to See also:

• ZANZIBAR

Zanzibar, now goes down the Congo to Stanley Pool and the See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic."' These results had been attained largely by the aid of native levies and See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies, and a number of the men who had taken part in the Arab campaign were enlisted as permanent soldiers by the Belgians . Among these were some Batetelas, who in 1895 revolted in the Lulua and Lomami districts . The mutineers were eventually defeated; but in 1897, while Baron Dhanis was making his way with a large expedition towards the Nile, the Batetelas again revolted, murdered several of their See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white officers, and took See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of a large See also:

• AREA

area of the eastern portions of the state . Although defeated on several occasions by the Free State forces, the mutineers were not finally dispersed until near the end of 19oo, when the last remnants were reported to have crossed into See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German territory and surrendered their arms .

In other parts of the country the state had difficulties with native chiefs, several of whom preserved their See also:

• AUTONOMY (Gr. abr6s, self, and v6pos, law)

autonomy . In the central See also:

• KASAI, or CASSAI

Kasai region the state had been unable to make its authority See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good up to the time it ceased to exist . The international position of the Free State was from the first a somewhat anomalous one . It has already been noted that the right of preference accorded to France in 1884, as interpreted in 1887, was not intended to be opposed to that of Belgium . By his will dated the 2nd of August 1889 King Leopold bequeathed to Belgium " all our sovereign rights over the Independent State of the Congo, as they are recognized by the declarations, conventions and treaties concluded since x884 between the foreign powers on the one See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side, the International Association of the Congo and ' After 1900 Nyangwe and Kasongo again became towns of some importance, and traffic along the route to Tanganyika revived with the See also:

• ADVENT (Lat. Adventus, sc. Redemptoris, " the coming of the Saviour ")

advent of railways, though the main traffic continued down the Congo river . 3 . 4 . 5• 6 . 7 . inter. national position . the Independent State of the Congo on the other, as well as all the benefits, rights and advantages attached to that sovereignty." In July 1890 Belgium acquired, by the terms of a See also:

• LOAN (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Swed. Mn, Icel. lan, Dut. leen; the O.E. laen appears in " lend," the ultimate source is seen in the root of Gr. Xeiaecv and Lat. linquere, to leave)

loan to the Congo State which was granted free of See also:

• INTEREST

interest, the See also:

• OPTION (Lat. optio, choice, choosing, optare, to choose)

option of annexing the state on the expiry of a See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of ten years and six months . Notwithstanding this loan the state became involved in further See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial difficulties,' and on the 9th of January 1895 the Belgian government entered into a treaty with King Leopold to take over the Free State with all its possessions, claims and obligations, as from the 1st of January of that year .

In anticipation of the consent of the Belgian See also:

• PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

parliament to this treaty, a Franco-Belgian convention was signed on the 5th of February 1895, by which the Belgian government recognized " the right of preference possessed by France over its Congolese possessions in case of their compulsory See also:

• ALIENATION (from Lat. alienus, belonging to another)

alienation, wholly or in part." But after See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long delays and a violent See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press compaign the See also:

• MINISTRY

ministry See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell, the See also:

• BILL

bill providing for See also:

• ANNEXATION (Lat. ad, to, and nexus, joining)

annexation was withdrawn, and the See also:

• CHAMBERS (the Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera, a room)
• CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740)
• CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840)
• CHAMBERS, ROBERT (18oz-1871)
• CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796)

chambers voted a further loan to the Free State to enable it to See also:

• TIDE (O. Eng. lid, cf. Ger. Zeit, time or season, connected with root of Sanskrit a-diti, endless)

tide over its immediate difficulties . In 1901, on the expiry of the See also:

• TERM

term of years fixed in the loan convention of 1890, the question of the annexation of the Congo State by Belgium again formed the subject of prolonged discussion . A bill was brought forward in favour of annexation, but this time it was opposed by the Belgian government, which proposed simply to let the loan run on without interest . King Leopold likewise declared himself to be opposed to immediate annexation, and the bill was with-drawn . Under the terms of the government measure, which finally passed through the Belgian parliament in August 1901, Belgium retained her right of option, though not the right to exercise it at a fixed date . Moreover, in anticipation of the time when the Congo State would become a Belgian colony, there was issued under date of 7th of August 1901 the terms of a See also:

• PRO

pro-posed loi organigee, regulating the government of any colonial possessions which Belgium might acquire . The discussions which from time to time took place in the Belgian parliament on the affairs of the Congo State were greatly embittered by the charges brought against the state administration . The administration of the state had indeed undergone a complete change since the early years of its existence . A See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

decree of the 1st of July 1885 had, it is true, declared all " vacant lands " the See also:

• PROPERTY

property of the state (Domaine prise de Petal), but it was not for some time that this decree was so interpreted as to confine the lands of the natives to those they lived upon or " effectively " cultivated . Their rights in the See also:

• FOREST

forest were not at first disputed, and the trade of the natives and of Europeans was not interfered with . But in 1891—when the See also:

• WEALTH

wealth in See also:

• RUBBER, INDIARUBBER

rubber and ivory of vast regions had been demonstrated—a See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret decree was issued (See also:

• SEPT

Sept . 21) reserving to the state the See also:

• MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

monopoly of ivory and rubber in the " vacant lands " constituted by the decree of 1885, and circulars were issued making the monopoly effective in the Aruwimi-Welle, See also:

• EQUATOR (Late Lat. aequator, from aequare, to make equal)

Equator and Ubangi districts .

The agents of the state were enjoined to supervise their collection, and in future natives were to be obliged to sell their produce to the state . By other decrees and circulars (See also:

• OCTOBER

October 3o and December 5, 1892, and August 9, 1893) the rights of the natives and of white traders were further restricted . No See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition had been given by the decree of 1885 as to what constituted the " vacant lands " which became the property of the state, but the effect of the later decrees was to assign to the government an See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute proprietary right over nearly the whole country; a native could not even leave his See also:

• VILLAGE

village with-The state out a special permit.2 The oppressive nature of these becomes a See also:

• MEASURES

measures See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew forth a weighty remonstrance from monopolist the leading officials, and See also:

• MONSIEUR (Fr., formed from men, my, and sieur, lord)

Monsieur C . See also:

• JANSSEN, JOHANNES (1829-1891)
• JANSSEN, or JANSEN (sometimes JOHNSON), CORNELIUS (1593-1664)
• JANSSEN, PIERRE JULES CESAR (1824–1907)

Janssen, the trading governor, resigned . Vigorous protests by the private concern. trading companies were also made against this violation of the freedom of trade secured by the Berlin Act, and eventually ' For an account of the loans and liabilities of the state see II . The Belgian Congo, § See also:

• FINANCE

Finance . 2 The British See also:

• PARLIAMENTARY

parliamentary See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper Africa No. z, 1909, contains a memorandum on the See also:

• LAND

land See also:

• LAWS

laws in the Congo State, showing the extent to which trade was monopolized throughout its territories by the government.an arrangement was made by which certain areas were reserved to the state and certain areas to private traders, but the restrictions imposed on the natives were maintained . Large areas of the state domain were leased to companies invested with very extensive powers, including the exclusive right to exploit the produce of the See also:

• SOIL

soil.3 In other cases, e.g. in the See also:

• DISTRICT

district of Katanga, the state entered into See also:

• PARTNERSHIP (earlier forms, partener, parcener, from Late Lat. partionarius for partitionarius, from partitio, sharing, pars, part)

partnership with private companies for the exploitation of the resources of the regions concerned . The " concession " companies were first formed in 1891 under Belgian See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law; in 1898 some of them were reconstituted under Congo law . In all of them the state had a financial interest either as shareholder or as entitled to part profits.' This system of exploitation of the country was fruitful of evil, and was mainly responsible for the See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad treatment of the natives . Only in the lower Congo and a narrow See also:

• STRIP

strip charges of land on either side of the river above Stanley Pool ofmatwas there any freedom of trade . The situation was adminisaggravated by the creation in 1896, by a secret decree, tration. of the Domaine de la couronne, a vast territory between the Kasai and Ruki See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers, covering about 112,000 sq. m .

To ad-minister this domain, carved out of the state lands and treated as the private property of Leopold II., a Fondation was organized and given a See also:

• CIVIL

civil See also:

• PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's mask, from personare,1 to sound through)

personality . It was not until 1902 that the existence of the Domaine de la couronne was officially acknowledged . The Fondation controlled the most valuable rubber region in the Congo, and in that region the natives appeared to be treated with the utmost severity . In the closing years of the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century and the early years of the 20th the charges brought against the state assumed a more and more definite character . As indicated, they fell under two main heads . In the first place the native policy of the Congo government was denounced as at variance with the humanitarian spirit which had been regarded by the powers as one of the chief motives inspiring the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of the Congo State . In the second place it was contended that the method of exploitation of the state lands and the concessions system nullified the free trade provisions of the Berlin Act . Reports which gave See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour to these charges steadily accumulated, and gave rise to a strong agitation against the Congo State system of government . This agitation was particularly vigorous in Great Britain, and the See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement entered on a new era when on the 20th of May 1903 the House of See also:

• COMMONS

Commons agreed without a See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division to the following See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion: " That the government of the Congo Free State having, at its inception, guaranteed to the powers that its native subjects should be governed with humanity, and that no trading monopoly or See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege should be permitted within its dominions, this House See also:

• REQUEST, LETTERS OF

request His Majesty's Government to confer with the other powers, signatories of the Berlin General Act, by virtue of which the Congo Free State exists, in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order that measures may be adopted to abate the evils prevalent in that state." In accordance with this request the 5th See also:

• MARQUESS (1760-1842)
• MARQUESS, or MARQUIS (Fr. marquis, Ital. marchese; from med. Lat. marchio, marchisus, i.e. comes marchiae, " count of the March ")

marquess of See also:

• LANSDOWNE
• LANSDOWNE, WILLIAM PETTY FITZMAURICE, 1ST MARQUESS OF (1737-18o5)

Lansdowne, then secretary of state for foreign affairs, issued a despatch on the 8th of August 1903 to the British representatives at the courts of the powers which signed the Berlin Act, See also:

• DRAWING

drawing attention to the alleged cases of ill-treatment of natives and to the existence of trade monopolies in the Congo Free State, and in conclusion stating that His Majesty's government would 3 This concession was asserted by traders who had previously dealt See also:

• DIRECT

direct with the natives, and by traders who hoped so to do, to contravene the provision of the Act of Berlin prohibiting any commercial monopoly in the Congo basin . The state maintained, however, that the proprietor who exploits and sells the produce of his land is not engaging in See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce . 4 The best known of these companies are the Abir (Anglo-Belgian See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India-rubber and Exploration Co.) and the Societe anversoise du commerce an Congo . In Katanga the companies holding concessions and the state are jointly represented by the Comite special du Katanga .

In 1906 four new companies were formed in which British, See also:

• AMERICAN

American and French capital was largely invested . Of these companies the Union miniere du Haut Katanga had for object the development of the See also:

• MINERAL

mineral wealth of the district named, while the Chemtn de fer du Bas Congo undertook to build a railway from Leopoldville to Katanga . The American Congo Company was granted a rubber concession in the Kasai basin . The See also:

• FOURTH

fourth company, the Societe internationale for estiere et miniere du Congo, combiiied See also:

• MINING

mining operations with the exploitation of forest produce . " be glad to receive any suggestions which the governments of the signatory powers might be disposed to make in reference to this important question, which might perhaps constitute, wholly or in part, the subject of a reference to the tribunal at the See also:

• HAGUE, THE (in Dutch, 's Gravenhage, or, abbreviated, den Haag; in Fr. La Haye; and in Late Lat. Haga Comitis)

Hague." This despatch failed to evoke any response from the powers, with the single exception of Turkey, but the public agitation against the Congo State regime continued to grow in force, being greatly strengthened by the publication in February 1904 of a See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report by Mr See also:

• ROGER (d. 1139)
• ROGER (d. 1181)

Roger See also:

• CASEMENT (from a Lat. form casamentum)

Casement, then British See also:

• CONSUL
• CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. praetor maximus)

consul at Boma, on a journey which he had made through the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle Congo. region in 1903 (described as the " Upper " Congo in the report) . The action on the part of the British government resulted in considerable See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence with the Congo government, which denied the charges of systematic ill-treatment of the natives and controverted the contention that its policy constituted an infringement of the Berlin Act . In July 1904, however, King Leopold issued a decree appointing a commission of inquiry to visit the Congo State, investigate the condition of the natives, and if necessary recommend reforms . The commission was composed of M . Edmond See also:

• JANSSENS (or JANSENS) VAN NUYSSEN, ABRAHAM (1567–1632)
• JANSSENS (or JANSENS), VICTOR HONORIUS (1664–1739)

Janssens, See also:

• ADVOCATE (Lat. advocatus, from advocare, to summon, especially in law to call in the aid of a counsel or witness, and so generally to summon to one's assistance)

advocate-general of the Belgian Cour de Cassation, who was appointed president; Baron Giacomo Nisco, president ad See also:

• INTERIM

interim of the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of See also:

• APPEAL

appeal at Boma; and Dr E. de See also:

• SCHUMACHER, HEINRICH CHRISTIAN (1780-1850)

Schumacher, a Swiss councillor of state and chief of the See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice in the See also:

• CANTON
• CANTON (borrowed from the Ital. cantone, a corner or angle)
• CANTON (more correctly KWANG-CHOW Fu)
• CANTON, JOHN (1718-1772)

canton of See also:

• LUCERNE
• LUCERNE (Ger. Luzern; Ital. Lucerne)
• LUCERNE, LAKE OF
• LUCERNE, PURPLE MEDICK

Lucerne . Its stay in the Congo State lasted from the 5th of October 1904 to the 21st of February 1905, and during that time the com-Reportot missioners ascended the Congo as far as Stanleyville. the See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

Corn- The report of the commission of inquiry was published, mtsston of minus the minutes of the See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence submitted to the Inquiry, commissioners, in November 1905 . While expressing admiration for the signs which had come under its See also: