See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

CONGRESS (See also:

• LAT

Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and See also:

• GRADUS, or GRADUS AD PARNASSUM (a step to Parnassus)

gradus, step)  , in See also:

• DIPLOMACY (Fr. diplomatic)

diplomacy, a See also:

• SOLEMN (Lat. sollemnis, sollemnis, less correctly solennis, yearly, annual; from sollus = totus, whole, entire, Gr. Mos., and annus, year)

solemn See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly of sovereigns or their plenipotentiaries met together for the purpose of definitely settling See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

international questions of See also:

• COMMON

common See also:

• INTEREST

interest . In this See also:

• POLITICAL

political See also:

• CONNOTATION

connotation the word first came into use in the 17th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century; an isolated instance occurs in 1636, when it was applied to the See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting of delegates summoned by the See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

pope to See also:

• COLOGNE (Ger. Koln, or officially, since 1900, Coln)

Cologne, to See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to put an end to the See also:

• THIRTY

Thirty Years' See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War . In 1647 the meetings of delegates for the conclusion of See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace, assembled at See also:

• OSNABRUCK

Osnabruck and See also:

• MUNSTER
• MUNSTER, SEBASTIAN (1489-1552)

Munster, were termed a See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

congress; and in spite of objections to it on the ground that it was "coarse and inappropriate," based on the physiological sense of the word, it continued thenceforward in use . The See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of the name Congress for the See also:

• NATIONAL

national legislative See also:

• BODY

body in the See also:

• UNITED

United States (and so for other See also:

• AMERICAN

American countries) was simply a development from this usage, for the " See also:

• CONTINENTAL

Continental Congresses " of 1774 and 1775-1781, and the "Congress of the See also:

• CONFEDERATION (Fr. confederation, Lat. confoederatio, from foedus, a league, foederare, to form a league)

Confederation" (1781-1788), were, as inter-See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state representative deliberative bodies, analogous to international congresses, and the Congress of 1789 onwards ultimately consists of representatives of the See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign states composing the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

Union; this body is, however, dealt with under UNITED STATES: Political Institutions . The more See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general analogous use of the See also:

• TERM

term (See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church Congress, &c.) is of See also:

• MODERN

modern origin . In its international sense the term "congress" is only applied to gatherings of first-class importance, attended either by the sovereigns themselves or by their secretaries of state for See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign affairs; less important meetings, e.g. either in preparation for a congress or for the See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement of a particular question, are usually termed "conferences." The dividing See also:

• LINE

line between the congress and the See also:

• CONFERENCE

conference is, however, historically See also:

• ILL

ill-defined; and though a congress of the first importance, e.g. that of See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna (1814-1815), is never otherwise described, the two terms have often been used indifferently in See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence even of such dignified assemblages as the meetings of sovereigns and statesmen at See also:

• AIX

Aix-la-Chapelle (1818), See also:

• TROPPAU (Polish, Oppava; Czech, Opava)
• TROPPAU, CONGRESS OF

Troppau (1820) and See also:

• LAIBACH (Slovenian, Ljubljana)

Laibach (1821) . The individual sessions of a congress are also sometimes called conferences . The results of the See also:

• WORK

work done at various international congresses in developing a sense of the common interests of nations are dealt with under INTERNATIONAL See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

LAW and its allied articles.937 The more important congresses, e.g . Munster and Osnabruck (See also:

• WESTPHALIA (Ger. Westfalen)
• WESTPHALIA, TREATY OF

Westphalia) in 1648; See also:

• BREDA

Breda, 1667; Aix-la-Chapelle, 1668, 1748, 1818; See also:

• NIJMWEGEN, NIMEGUEN, NYMEGEN

Nijmwegen, 1678; See also:

• REGENSBURG (RATISBON)

Regensburg, 1682 See also:

• RYSWICK, TREATY OF

Ryswick, 1697; See also:

• UTRECHT
• UTRECHT, TREATY OF

Utrecht, 1713; See also:

• TETSCHEN

Tetschen, 1779; See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1782, 1814, 1815, 1856; Rastadt, 1794; See also:

• AMIENS

Amiens, 1802; See also:

• CHATILLON

Chatillon, 1814; Vienna, 1814–1815; Troppau, 1820; Laibach, 1821; See also:

• VERONA
• VERONA, CONGRESS OF

Verona, 1822; See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, 1878, are treated under their topographical headings . The See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article is concerned only with the questions of constitution and See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure . See also:

• CONVOCATION
• CONVOCATION (Lat. convocatio, a calling together)

Convocation and constituent Elements of a Congress.—Any sovereign See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

Power has the right to issue invitations to a congress or conference . In principle, moreover, every state directly concerned in the matters to be discussed has the right to be represented .

But this principle, though affirmed by the See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

Powers at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, has rarely been translated into practice . At the congress of Vienna (1814-1815), the decisions of which affected every state in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, a See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

committee of the five See also:

• GREAT

great Powers claimed and exercised the right to See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

settle every-thing of importance; and this set the precedent which has been followed ever since . At the congresses of Paris and Berlin, as at that of Vienna, the great Powers regulated the affairs of lesser states without consulting the representatives of the latter . Similarly, at the conference of 1869 on the affairs of See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

Crete no representative of See also:

• GREECE

Greece was present; and at the conference of See also:

• LONDON

London (1883), on the international regulation of the See also:

• DANUBE (Ger. Donau, Hungarian Duna, Rumanian Dunarea, Lat. Danubius or Danuvius, and in the lower part of its course Ister)

Danube, the sovereign state of See also:

• RUMANIA
• RUMANIA, or ROUMANIA [Romdnia]

Rumania, though a Danubian Power, was not represented . It was only with great difficulty that See also:

• CAVOUR (anc. Caburrum or Forum Vibii)
• CAVOUR, CAMILLO BENSO, COUNT (1810–18.61)

Cavour obtained See also:

• ADMISSION

admission to the congress of Paris in 1856, and the proposal of a congress in 1859 See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke down on the refusal of See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria to admit the right of See also:

• SARDINIA (Gr. 'IXs'o"uva, from a fancied resemblance to a footprint in its shape, Ital. Sardegna)

Sardinia to be represented . M . See also:

• PRADIER, JAMES (1792–1852)

Pradier-Fodere deplores the consistent See also:

• BREACH (Mid. Eng. breche, derived from the common Teutonic root brec, which appears in " break," Ger. brechen, &c.)

breach of the "fundamental See also:

• RULE

rule" in this respect; but since every sovereign state, great and small, once admitted, has an equal See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice, it is difficult to see how a principle, equitable in theory, could be established in practice . The failure of the See also:

• HAGUE, THE (in Dutch, 's Gravenhage, or, abbreviated, den Haag; in Fr. La Haye; and in Late Lat. Haga Comitis)

Hague conferences to arrive at any substantial results was in fact due, more than anything else, to the admission on equal terms of a See also:

• CROWD, CROUTH, CROWTH

crowd of very unequal Powers . It may then be laid down that all congresses and conferences that have effected settlements of importance have been summoned and dominated by Powers strong enough to enforce respect for their views . Preliminaries.—Before a congress meets it is customary, not only to agree on the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of meeting (a question often of first-class importance) and on the Powers to whom invitations are to be sent, but to define very carefully the nature and See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope of the business to be transacted . This is done sometimes by an elaborate See also:

• EXCHANGE

exchange of diplomatic correspondence issuing in preliminary conventions, sometimes by the summoning of conferences, e.g. those at Vienna in 1855 preliminary to the congress of Paris in 1856 . Procedure.—When the congress assembles the first business-is the verification of powers, which is done by a See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission specially appointed to examine the See also:

• CREDENTIALS (lettres de creance)

credentials of the plenipotentiaries .

It is usual for the Powers, for obvious See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical reasons, to be represented by two or three plenipotentiaries . If the foreign See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister himself attend, he needs no credentials; those of his colleagues are countersigned by him . The verification being completed, questions of procedure, of See also:

• PRECEDENCE (from Lat. praecedere, to go before, precede)

precedence and the like, are settled . In earlier times this was a See also:

• MATTER

matter of extreme difficulty and delicacy, since there was no norm by which the respective dignity of the representatives of first-class Powers could be established; an incredible amount of See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time was wasted in futile questions of precedence, and not seldom negotiations for a peace that every one desired broke down on a point of See also:

• ETIQUETTE

etiquette . All this has been obviated by the rule observed at the congress of Berlin (1878), according to which the plenipotentiaries took their seats at a See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse-See also:

• SHOE (a word appearing in the Teutonic languages in various forms, as Ger. Schuh, Swed. and Dan. sko, sometimes supposed to come from an unknown root ska or sku, cover)

shoe table in the alphabetical See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of the states they represented, according to the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• ALPHABET (see also WRITING)

alphabet . The See also:

• PRESIDENCY

presidency of the congress is by See also:

• COURTESY (O. Fr. curtesie, later courtoisie)

courtesy reserved for the minister for foreign affairs of the state in which the meeting is held; if, however, he decline to serve, a See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president is elected; or, if there be a mediating Power, the minister representing this presides . At the first session the president takes his seat and delivers a speech welcoming the delegates and sketching the See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of the meeting; the See also:

• BUREAU (a Fr. word from burel or bureau, a coarse cloth used for coverings)

bureau of the congress (secretary, assistant secretaries, and archivist) is then elected on the nomination of the president, and its members are introduced to the assembly . Finally the president impresses on all present the See also:

• OBLIGATION

obligation of keeping the proceedings See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret, and adjourns the session for a See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day or two, in order that the ministers may have an opportunity of making each others' acquaintance and talking matters over in private . Serious business begins with the second session . The discussions are governed by carefully defined rules . Thus every proposition must be presented in See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing, and all decisions to be binding on all must be unanimous . The secretary keeps the minutes (proses-verbal) of each session, which are signed by all present and read at the next meeting .

This See also:

• PROTOCOL (Fr. protocole, Late Lat. protocollum, from Gr. vrp(;rros, first, and KoXXav, to glue, i.e. originally the first sheet of a papyrus roll)

protocol—as it has been called since the congress of Vienna—takes the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of a bald, but very exact resume of important points discussed, ending with a See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of the conclusions and resolutions arrived at . If there be no such results, opinions are recorded . If any plenipotentiary dissent from the general See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion, such dissent must be recorded in the protocol . Sometimes See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short signed memoranda, known as a See also:

• VOTE

vote or opinion, are attached to the protocol, stating the reasons that have governed the Powers in question in agreeing to a given conclusion . Individual Powers may See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express their dissent in two ways: either by placing such dissent on record, as See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord See also:

• STEWART, ALEXANDER TURNEY (1803-1876)
• STEWART, BALFOUR (1828-1887)
• STEWART, CHARLES (1778–1869)
• STEWART, DUGALD (1753-1828)
• STEWART, J
• STEWART, JOHN (1749—1822)
• STEWART, JULIUS L
• STEWART, SIR DONALD MARTIN (1824–19o0)
• STEWART, SIR HERBERT (1843—1885)
• STEWART, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1540—c. 1605)
• STEWART, STUART
• STEWART, WILLIAM (c. 1480-c. 1550)

Stewart did at Laibach, or by with-See also:

• DRAWING

drawing altogether from the sessions of the congress, as See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain did at Vienna and Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain at Verona . Though the Final See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

Act of Vienna was issued as the act of all the Powers, the subsequent formal See also:

• ADHESION (from Lat. adhaerere, to adhere)

adhesion of Spain was considered necessary to See also:

• COMPLETE

complete the "See also:

• EUROPEAN

European" See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of that treaty; the See also:

• ACTION

action of Great Britain at Verona prevented the intervention in Spain from having the See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

sanction of the See also:

• CONCERT (through the French from Lat. con-, with, and certare, to strive)

concert . At Vienna in 1814, owing to the vast range of the questions to be settled, the work of the congress was distributed among committees; but at Paris (1856) and Berlin (1878) all matters were discussed and settled in full session . The conclusions arrived at after the discussion of the various subjects before the congress are usually embodied in See also:

• SEPARATE

separate conventions, duly signed by the Powers who are a party to them . Finally, these separate conventions are brought together in an inclusive treaty, signed by all the plenipotentiaries present, known as the Final Act . See P . Pradier-Fodere, Cours de See also:

• DROIT (Fr. for " right," from Lat. directus, straight)

droit diplomatique (2 vols., 2nd ed., Paris, 1899) . (W .

A .