See also:

• CONSCRIPTION (from Lat. con-, together, and scribere, to write)

CONSCRIPTION (from See also:

• LAT

Lat. See also:

• CON

con-, together, and scribere, to write)  , the selection, by See also:

• LOT
• LOT (Lat. Oltis)

lot or otherwise, of a proportion of the men 'of military See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age for compulsory service in the See also:

• NAVAL

naval and military forces of their See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country; or, more widely, compulsory military service in any See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form . For a discussion of the military features of See also:

• CONSCRIPTION (from Lat. con-, together, and scribere, to write)

conscription and of other forms of recruiting see Apr, §§ 40 if . The See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article deals with the economic and social aspects of compulsory military service, for which, generally and non-technically, the word " conscription " is used more commonly than any other . The word occurs for the first See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France in the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law of the 19th Fructidor (1798), which pre-See also:

• SCRIBES

scribes the liability of See also:

• LES

les afenseurs conscrits to serve if required from their twentieth to twenty-fifth See also:

• YEAR

year of age . There is perhaps no law on the See also:

• STATUTE

statute-books of any nation which has exercised and is destined in the future to exercise a more far-reaching See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence on the future of humanity than this little-known See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of 1798;0Introduced by See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

General See also:

• JOURDAN, JEAN BAPTISTE, COUNT (1762-1833)

Jourdan to the See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

Council of the Five See also:

• HUNDRED

Hundred, for it was the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power thus conferred upon the French See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government which alone rendered the See also:

• NAPOLEONIC

Napoleonic policy of See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest possible . " I can afford to expend See also:

• THIRTY

thirty thousand men a See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month "; this boast of See also:

• NAPOLEON

Napoleon's, made to Metternich at Schonbrunn in 18o5, has determined the trend of events from that See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day forward, not only on the See also:

• BATTLE

battle-See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field, but also in the workshops, and forms even at the present day the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief See also:

• GUARANTEE (sometimes spelt " guarantie " or " guaranty "; an O. Fr. form of " warrant," from the Teutonic word which appears in German as wahren, to defend or make safe and binding)

guarantee for See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace, stability and economic development upon the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . The See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea in itself was not new . The principle that every able-bodied male is liable to be called on for the See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence of the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state See also:

• DATES

dates from the earliest times . The essential importance of the event lies in this, that at a See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical moment this law passed by an obscure See also:

• BODY

body of men—absolutely in See also:

• DEFIANCE

defiance of the See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion of the greatest reformer that France at that moment had discovered, See also:

• CARNOT, LAZARE EIPPOLYTE (18ot-1888)
• CARNOT, MARIE FRANCOIS SADI (1837-1894)
• CARNOT, SADI NICOLAS LEONHARD (1796-1832)

Carnot, and of the feelings of a very large proportion of the whole community—became permanent by the See also:

• ACTION

action of causes set in See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion by Napoleon, which ultimately compelled all Europe to adopt similar legislation . To understand its full significance we must trace the See also:

• LINE

line of See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution of the then existing armies of Europe . In almost any state, in proportion as the central executive power prevailed over See also:

• INTERNAL

internal disturbance, the able-bodied See also:

• MALES

males of each country ceased to have opportunities and incentives for training themselves to arms . See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

Trade became more profitable than See also:

• PLUNDER

plunder, and men began to specialize in various directions .

See also:

• WEALTH

Wealth began to accumulate and fortresses sprang into existence for its See also:

• PROTECTION

protection, but the new fortifications required specialists for their reduction, and above all things an abundance of time . See also:

• MILITIA (Fr. milice, Ger. Miliz, from Lat. miles, soldier, militia, military service)

Militia forces (corresponding to the former feudal levies) neither could find the specialized labour nor would afford the time—hence the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity arose of enlisting men who had made the use of arms their See also:

• SPECIAL

special study and were content to abide by the rules of conduct their See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance as organized bodies imposed . But wherever Europe happened to enjoy a few years of peace, the See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of men who had trained themselves to arms naturally decreased, and the state itself was compelled to assume the task of training its recruits . This, with the exceedingly complicated nature of the weapons in use, was a very See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long See also:

• PROCESS

process, and though even in the 16th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century the idea of universal service was put forward by such statesmen as See also:

• MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLO (1469-1527)

Machiavelli and See also:

• MAURICE (1521–1553)
• MAURICE (MAURICIUS FLAVIUS TIBERIUS) (c. 539–602)
• MAURICE [or MAURITIUS], ST (d. c. 286)
• MAURICE, JOHN FREDERICK DENISON (1805-1872)

Maurice of See also:

• NASSAU

Nassau, practically it could not be put into force, because in the time the male See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population could economically give to their training, satisfactory results could not be obtained . As See also:

• MOTLEY
• MOTLEY, JOHN LOTHROP (1814–1897)

Motley has pointed out in his Rise of the Dutch See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

Republic, in the time of See also:

• ALVA
• ALVA, or ALBA, FERNANDO ALVAREZ DE TOLEDO, DUKE OF, (1508-1583)

Alva 5000 disciplined Spaniards were a match for 20,000 and more burghers, though the latter were fighting with the courage of desperation, and were of necessity more or less inured to the horrors of warfare . But with every improvement in the nature of See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand firearms this ratio of superiority of the trained soldiers tended to disappear, whilst as See also:

• CAMPAIGNS

campaigns became fewer and shorter the difficulty of obtaining See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war-trained soldiers, accustomed to fighting as the Spaniards had been, always increased . Moreover, after the peace of See also:

• WESTPHALIA (Ger. Westfalen)
• WESTPHALIA, TREATY OF

Westphalia—the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of the See also:

• GREAT

great era of religious See also:

• WARS

wars—wars were made for dynastic reasons and primarily for the acquisition of territory; and since the territory was of no use without inhabitants to pay See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue, the principleof moderation was introduced into the conduct of hostilities, altogether See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign to their nature " (See also:

• CLAUSEWITZ, KARL VON (1780-1831)

Clausewitz) . Men were no longer allowed to live at See also:

• FREE

free quarters or to pillage towns . On the contrary, even in an enemy's country, they had to submit to the severest restraints, and thus soldiering, being no longer remunerative, ceased to attract the more daring See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits . Thus in the See also:

• DECADE (from Gr. Oka, ten)

decade preceding the French Revolution soldiering had reached the very See also:

• NADIR (Arabic nadir, " opposite to," used elliptically for nadir-es-semt, "opposite to the zenith ")

nadir of degradation all over Europe, and, though the Prussians, for instance, still retained a great relative superiority when fighting in closed bodies under the eyes of their leaders, the spirit which had led them to victory when fighting in and for their own country had entirely disappeared from their ranks when they had to See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face the French in their great struggle for existence . Amongst the earliest problems of the French Revolution was the question of See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army reform, and compulsory service was at once proposed, and though for the time the opposition of most of the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal soldiers prevailed, ultimately a proposal was accepted by which voluntary enlistment was retained for the line, all unmarried citizens between eighteen and See also:

• FORTY

forty years of age constituted the militia, and the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the men the See also:

• NATIONAL

national See also:

• GUARDS, AND HOUSEHOLD TROOPS

guards for See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home defence . The latter proved so popular that over 2,571,000 names were obtained .

At once the militia was given up, and reliance was placed upon the national guard, which was called upon to furnish 169 battalions of See also:

• VOLUNTEERS

volunteers . The result was disappointing . Only 6o incomplete battalions were furnished, and these (except for the few hundreds of enthusiasts amongst them from whom came many of the marshals, generals and colonels of the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire) were recruited from the least trustworthy sections of the community . These were the celebrated Volontaires and proved a See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive See also:

• SCOURGE (Ital. scoriada, from Lat. excoriare, to flay, corium, skin)

scourge wherever they were quartered . It was clear that they could not meet the invaders, and the See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly decreed on the 11th of See also:

• JULY

July 1792 " La patrie en danger," and ordered every able-bodied See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man to consider himself liable for active service, but See also:

• LEFT

left it to the communes and districts to select representatives to proceed to the front . These men were called Federes, and seem to have been principally those whom the communes desired to get rid of . But, though the idea of compulsion was present, the means of enforcing the law at the time were so imperfect that the result of this effort was only 6o,000 men, of whom not more than See also:

• HALF

half ever reached the field armies . Further, the law had announced that the liability extended only for the duration of the particular See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign, which in accordance with the prevalent idea of war was considered to terminate when See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter quarters were taken up . In See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December, therefore, most of the men raised during the year took their See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge, and with the new year the See also:

• WORK

work had to begin all over again . To fill the gaps caused by this sudden defection, and in view of the addition of Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain to the See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of their enemies, the See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

Convention decreed on the loth of See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 1793 a fresh compulsory See also:

• LEVY (Fr. levee, from lever, Lat. levare, to lift, raise)
• LEVY, AMY (1861–1889)
• LEVY, AUGUSTE MICHEL (1844– )

levy of 500,000 men . Quotas were assigned to each See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department and See also:

• COMMUNE (Med. Lat. communia, Lat. communis, common)
• COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL

commune, and three days' See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

grace was allowed to each to find their contingents by volunteering; failing this recourse was had to compulsion, all unmarried national guards between the ages of eighteen and forty being held liable . Thereupon thousands fled from their homes, and See also:

• VENDEE
• VENDEE, WARS OF THE

Vendee (q.v.) See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose in open revolt .

Then on the 18th of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March came the disaster of See also:

• NEERWINDEN

Neerwinden, and again the danger of invasion loomed near . In this emergency the See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

Committee of Public Safety replaced the existing recruiting agents by special commissioners with unlimited power, and these ruthlessly hunted down those who attempted to evade their liability . Still the result was inadequate to meet the danger arising from the fall of See also:

• VALENCIENNES

Valenciennes and See also:

• CONDE
• CONDE, LOUIS DE BOURBON, PRINCE
• CONDE, LOUIS II
• CONDE, PRINCES OF

Conde . The See also:

• JACOBINS, THE

Jacobins appeared before the Convention on the 12th of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August and demanded the See also:

• LEVEE (from Fr. lever, to raise)
• LEVEE (from the French substantival use of lever, to rise; there is no French substantival use of levee in the English sense)

Levee en masse, and, using the popular outcry as a fulcrum, Carnot at length succeeded in introducing a work-able See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme of compulsion, which limited the liability to service to all able-bodied men between eighteen and twenty-five, but within these limits allowed no exemptions . This became law on the 23rd of August, and it at once began to operate satis, factorly, because it was limited to a class who were neither sufficiently numerous, nor sufficiently important politically, to resist See also:

• COERCION (from Lat. coercere, to restrain)
• COERCION, CONTRACT

coercion . Meanwhile other factors had intervened to render military service more popular . See also:

• FAMINE (Lat. fames, hunger)

Famine was spreading, See also:

• POLITICAL

political persecution was at its highest, and the ranks of the army became almost the only See also:

• REFUGE

refuge where men could See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape the terrors of See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret denunciation . Moreover, experience in the See also:

• NETHERLANDS

Netherlands and the See also:

• PALATINATE (Ger. Pfalz)

Palatinate had shown that men could live very comfortably at their enemy's expense . All these causes combined made an immense increase in the yield of the new law, and, according to the careful estimate of the duc d'See also:

• AUMALE
• AUMALE, HENRI EUGENE PHILIPPE LOUIS

Aumale (1867), by the 1st of See also:

• JANUARY

January 1794 there were no less than 770,000 men under arms and available for active service . The See also:

• TIDE (O. Eng. lid, cf. Ger. Zeit, time or season, connected with root of Sanskrit a-diti, endless)

tide of success in the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north of France now definitely turned against the See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

Allies, for they were powerless against the mobility and See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers produced by See also:

• HUNGER

hunger and political terrorism . See also:

• BONAPARTE

Bonaparte's successes of 1796 were the highest expression of the " new French " method thus See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed . But with the See also:

• RESPITE (O. Fr. respit, modern repit, Lat. respectus, regard, consideration, respicere, to look back at)

respite which his victories in See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy immediately secured, a reaction against the severity of the conscription soon made itself See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt, and the obvious need for internal development gave the discontented a See also:

• LEVER (through O. Fr. leveour, levere, mod. levier, from Lat. levare, to lift, raise)
• LEVER, CHARLES JAMES (1806-1872)

lever for extorting concessions from the government .

To the political economists of the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period it seemed a de-liberate See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste of productive See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy to take the See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

merchant or clerk from his work and force a See also:

• MUSKET (Fr. mousquet, Ger. Muskete, &c.)

musket into his hands, whilst other men already trained were willing to renew their See also:

• CONTRACT
• CONTRACT (Lat. contract us, from contrahere, to draw together, to bind)

contract to defend the state . To regulate this question and also to define more clearly the obligations of the See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen, Jourdan introduced before the Five Hundred a See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report calling for a reorganization of the army . This ultimately, in the autumn of 1798, became the law of the country and remained practically unaltered as the basis of the French military organization down to 1870 . The law definitely laid down the liability of every able-bodied French citizen to serve from his twentieth to his twenty-fifth year, leaving it to circumstances to determine how many classes or what proportion of each should be called up for service . Finally, after much discussion the right of exemption by See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment of a substitute was conceded, and therein See also:

• LAY

lay the germ of the disaster of 1870 . Meanwhile, with the See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption of the imperial See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title by Napoleon, the era of conquest recommenced, and as each fresh slice of territory was absorbed the French law of conscription was immediately enforced . This still further swelled the numerical preponderance against which the other nations had to contend, and each in turn was compelled to follow the French example . See also:

• PRUSSIA
• PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; Lat. Borussia)

Prussia, however, alone pursued the idea to its logical conclusion, and in the law of 1808 definitely affirmed the principle of universal service without distinction of class or right of exemption by See also:

• PURCHASE

purchase . Under the restrictions as to numbers imposed on Prussia by Napoleon after See also:

• TILSIT

Tilsit, and also as a consequence of exceeding poverty, this law found only partial fulfilment, and voluntary organization had to be called into existence to meet the demand for numbers during the Wars of Liberation; but when after 1815 peace was at length assured, the See also:

• SYSTEM

system came into full operation, and it is to this that Prussia owed her phenomenal recovery from the depths of exhaustion into which the See also:

• CATASTROPHE (Gr. Karaurpoch, from KaraQrp4ecv, to over-turn)

catastrophe of See also:

• JENA

Jena had plunged her . Army See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure became the See also:

• FLY (formed on the root of the supposed original Tent. fleugan, to fly)

fly-See also:

• WHEEL (0. Eng. hweol, hweohl, &c., cognate with Icel. hjol, Dan. hiul, the Indo-European root is seen in Sanskrit chakra, Gr. r in Aos, circle, whence " cycle ")
• WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE

wheel which steadied her disorganized See also:

• FINANCE

finance . The troops had to be fed, clothed, equipped and housed; and the several occupations and trades involved in these processes gave profitable employment both to See also:

• INTELLECT (Lat. intellectus, from intelligere, to understand)

intellect, which was required to invent, devise and See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control, and to See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital, which would have shirked the risks attending any but government contracts, and remained in private hoards, to the detriment of the reproductive power of the nation . The compulsory intercourse of all ranks compelled the classes to educate the masses—using the See also:

• TERM

term " See also:

• EDUCATION

education " in its broadest sense .

Free See also:

• BOOK

book-education itself had been forced on the nation as a military necessity of the moment, for without a certain degree of intellectual development in the recruits it wasimpossible to make soldiers of them within the See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short time available . But the See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical value and application of the book teaching had, in sheer self-defence, to be imparted by the better-class recruits to their social inferiors, and, in the unconscious exercise of these functions as teachers of one another, all found themselves strengthened in See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character and universal sympathies . The intelligence of the men reacted on the See also:

• OFFICERS

officers, who could no longer exercise authority by See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere word of command, but were compelled, if they wished to survive, to See also:

• TEACH [THATCH OR THACH], EDWARD (d. 1718)

teach by intelligent methods; and they were compelled to struggle for survival because outside of the army See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute ruin and destitution awaited them . The duration of service being limited to three years, it followed that each year brought with it an influx of recruits to each See also:

• BATTALION

battalion beyond the power of a few specialists to See also:

• COPE
• COPE (M.E. cape, cope, from Med. Lat. capa, cappa)
• COPE, EDWARD DRINKER (1840-1897)
• COPE, EDWARD MEREDITH (1818-1873)

cope with . Hence the work had to be delegated to the captains and subalterns, who thus were compelled to become the teachers as well as the leaders of their men . The results from a military point of view were incalculable . Perhaps the greatest benefit Prussia derived from her system during the first two generations—i.e. from 1810 to 186o—of its continuance was the insensible See also:

• FUSION

fusion which took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place between the See also:

• ARISTOCRACY (Gr. apuvror, best; «paria, government)

aristocracy and the See also:

• PEOPLE

people as a consequence of their enforced co-operation in a See also:

• COMMON

common task . Freed from the fear of French oppression, the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court and the older men of the See also:

• NOBILITY

nobility would have swung back to the full exercise of their old feudal privileges; for as they still retained the bulk of the executive power, all the legal reforms and restrictions initiated by von See also:

• STEIN, CHARLOTTE VON (1742-1827)
• STEIN, HEINRICH FRIEDRICH KARL, BARON VOM

Stein would have proved but See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper safeguards; but the army compelled the opposing classes to understand and appreciate one another better, and the younger See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation, living always with the See also:

• THREAT

threat of invasion impending over them, learnt by emulation from their seniors, who had led their men in battle, the true secret of command, the See also:

• ART

art of awakening the higher instincts of the men entrusted to them . If it seems to See also:

• BRITISH

British readers that their progress was slow and that much remains to be accomplished, their starting-point at the outbreak of the French Revolution must be recalled and contrasted with that of the British army; indeed, we must go back to the time of See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry VII. to find a See also:

• FAIR

fair parallel . It must be remembered too that we are speaking of Prussia only . In the other states of See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany which retained conscription with paid substitutes progress was far slower . The whole of See also:

• BAVARIA (Ger. Bayern)

Bavaria, See also:

• WURTTEMBERG

Wurttemberg, and the districts along the See also:

• RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijn)

Rhine had been saturated with French socialistic theories, and here the task of regeneration See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell into other hands, and freedom, of a relative See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind, had to be extorted by revolutionary means .

To these reformers—many of them both devoted and enlightened thinkers—the armies of their own little states necessarily appeared as merely authorized oppressors of the people; and they may well be pardoned for failing to appreciate the essential See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences involved in the two systems . As the years went by, the Prussian military See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

machine was turning out year by year an ever-increasing number of men, who by See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason of the See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical and moral training they had undergone were See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head and shoulders above the class whence they had sprung . These men soon asserted their superiority in the labour See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market and drove their weaker comrades to the See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall . The men thus displaced, being obviously less fitted to maintain wives and families, found themselves supplanted by their stronger rivals in the affections of the See also:

• WOMEN

women, and See also:

• JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. jalousie, formed from jaloux, jealous, Low Lat. zelosus, Gr. j'i os, ardour, zeal, from the root seen in '&u', to boil, ferment; cf. " yeast ")

jealousy being thus evoked, they became as it were a nidus for revolutionary bacilli . This partly explains the temporary recrudescence of revolutionary tendencies during the 'forties and 'fifties . But the growing wealth-producing power of the nation, due to the higher See also:

• AVERAGE

average physique and power of concentration (the consequence of the military training), began to attract the See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention of capitalists, and an era of railway construction set in, distributing wealth and employment about the country . This for a time relieved the congestion of the labour market, and, long before the victories of 1.866 and 1870 had definitely removed the last fears of invasion, See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries were beginning to See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring up around the great trading centres of Germany . With the treaty of Frankfurt the last fears of the investors vanished, and capital, hitherto dammed back by the uncertainty, of See also:

• LAND

land See also:

• TENURE (Fr. tenure, from Lat. tenere, to hold)

tenure, particularly in the Rhine districts, literally poured into the country, inducing an era of expansion and prosperity for which one can hardly find a parallel, even in See also:

• AMERICA

America . That such a period of evolution should have been attended by fluctuations lies in the nature of things . Men accustomed to See also:

• DEAL

deal only in hundreds find it difficult to adapt themselves to the business methods requisite to deal securely with millions,' and there have been many severe crises due to over-See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production and See also:

• SPECULATION

speculation, which displaced large masses of workmen and, brought misery to thousands of homes . The remarkable increase of population, the See also:

• DIRECT

direct consequence of the broader understanding of elementary hygienic principles instilled into the men during their service with the See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours, brought a fresh complication into the problem . The strength of the army being definitely fixed by See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial considerations, the proportion of men taken for service to the See also:

• TOTAL

total number annually becoming liable fell off, during' the 'eighties, to a very marked degree, and the men who escaped service, being as a consequence of their want of training less fitted for employment in the organized industries which were in process of evolution, swelled the ranks of the unemployed and thus afforded fresh material for the socialist propagandists to work upon .

If the proportion of men escaping service rose materially above one-half of the total yearly contingent of men becoming available for service, the danger lay very near that the socialist See also:

• VOTE

vote might soon exceed all other interests put together, thus threatening the stability of all existing institutions . To meet this danger it was determined in 1893 to increase the See also:

• ANNUAL

annual contingent whilst diminishing the duration of 'See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour service, so that approximately two-thirds of the men available should pass through the ranks, it being held that the See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit of obedience to constituted authority acquired in the army, together with the silent influence which could be exercised on the ex-soldiers and reservists by the sympathy and example of their former commanders of all ranks, formed the best possible guarantee against the undue spread of socialistic See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine . It was never anticipated that all men who had served their two years would become partisans of constituted authority, but only that, whilst all would learn the hopelessness of armed resistance against the force which held control of the solid-See also:

• DRAWN

drawn cartridges and See also:

• ARTILLERY (the O. Fr. artiller, to equip with engines of war, probably comes from Late Lat. articulum, dim. of ars, art, cf. " engine " from ingenium, or of artus, joint)

artillery material, the bulk at least would recognize the substantial advantages that accrued to them personally from their previous connexion with the services, and would form a solid See also:

• BULWARK (a word probably of Scandinavian origin, from bol or bole, a tree-trunk, and werk, work, in Ger. Bollwerk, which has also been derived from an old German bolen, to throw, and so a machine for throwing missiles)

bulwark against the spread of subversive doctrines . To realize the whole situation, the attitude of the leading thinkers amongst the statesmen and soldiers of Germany must be See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne in mind . See also:

• SOCIALISM

Socialism is to them a necessary lever to extort from capital fairer conditions for labour, capital must be fairly dealt with if the labourers' reasonable demands are to be satisfied, and the army is the compensating lever which secures the necessary adjustments . Capital is attracted by the See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security of tenure ensured by a strong army, and the working classes are encouraged to put forward reasonable demands by the habits of self-respect and the sense of individuality they acquire in the army, whilst the possible danger of any abuse of the offensive power the army embodies is curbed by the fact, well known and realized by all See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental soldiers, that though one may See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order men on to the battlefield, one cannot guarantee that they will fight when they get there unless the cause they are called on to defend appeals to the hereditary instincts of self-preservation in the See also:

• RACE

race itself . It is unfortunate that sufficient attention has not yet been paid to the statistical See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of this question, and See also:

• CONCRETE
• CONCRETE (Lat. concretes, participle of concrescere, to grow together)

concrete figures are not forthcoming to demonstrate the material benefits which have flowed from compulsory service . Briefly, however, it may be pointed out that under See also:

• MODERN

modern conditions of See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry the greatest national wealth-producing power resides, not as formerly in the technical skill of the individual. which machinery is gradually superseding, but in thepower of continuous collective effort of organized bodies, and that physical See also:

• HEALTH

health and the power of See also:

• MENTAL

mental concentration are the principal qualities required by the See also:

• UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF
• UNITS, PHYSICAL

units of such bodies . Now these are the two essential factors which modern methods of military training aim at developing, and these methods in turn evolved naturally from. the conditions of service which compulsion introduced . The men who have undergone this training leave the ranks with bodies steeled to resist disease, and minds capable of prolonged concentrated effort . Hence they not only remain capable of work for a considerably longer period of time, but they also do better work throughout the whole time . It has been estimated that on the average the trained See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German soldier's expectation of See also:

• LIFE

life is about five years better than the normal of his own class .

Hence altogether about one million men are still alive and doing See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good work who without such training would be dead and buried; similarly there are in all some seven millions more, all doing better work day for day than they otherwise would have done . On the whole the armies of the German states absorbed in See also:

• TAXATION
• TAXATION (from " tax," derived, through the French, from Lat. taxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same root as tangere, to touch)

taxation some 1500 million See also:

• STERLING
• STERLING, ANTOINETTE (d. 1904)
• STERLING, JOHN (1806-1844)

sterling from See also:

• WATERLOO

Waterloo (1815) up to 1906; hence if we assume the increment of wealth-producing power due to training as only two shillings a See also:

• WEEK (from A.S. wicu, Germanic *wikon, probably=change, turn)

week per man, the See also:

• NET

net return on the capital invested must be regarded as enormous, and that some such economic process has been in action is sufficiently indicated by the almost incredible growth in national See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit during the same period . At the close of the Napoleonic wars, German (including Prussian) credit was actually nil, and there was hardly a See also:

• TOWN

town or See also:

• HAMLET

hamlet throughout the See also:

• AREA

area swept over by the French armies that was not paying heavy See also:

• INTEREST

interest on loans raised to satisfy the rapacity of its conquerors . Many of these loans still remained unliquidated at the close of the r87o campaign . Yet since then the credit, both of the individual states and of the empire as a whole, has risen to a point rivalling that of Great Britain, in spite of the fact that in See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical position and in material resources the country is by no means favourably situated . These advantages have followed on the introduction of compulsory service in Germany—not because there is any inherent virtue in the principle of compulsion in itself, but because it happened that, at the moment compulsion became necessary, the idea was exactly adapted to its environment, and the See also:

• DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages)

driving forces necessary to ensure its permanency remained in full activity . Primarily there existed an aristocracy numerically sufficient to fill the offices of instructorship to the masses, and poverty compelled this aristocracy to accept the new responsibility . In the second place there was the knowledge of what' war really means, sufficiently vivid and fresh in the minds of the masses to induce them to submit to the necessary restraints of military discipline . When these causes were no longer in full activity, there remained, as sufficient incentive to those still in the active phase of their training, the knowledge that the nation at large, and more particularly the women, fully appreciated the sacrifices that all ranks were compelled to make . In other nations these driving forces have been absent . Thus' in See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia the aristocracy was both numerically and intellectually inadequate to the tasks compulsion entailed upon it . But generally it can be seen that the success or failure of the system has been in exact proportion to the degree in which these drivingforces have been available .

The failure of compulsion if applied in the British Isles- would be due to the fact that the principal See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor of its success—the knowledge of what war must mean and the See also:

• RISK

risk of immediate invasion—cannot be brought home to the people as long as the British See also:

• NAVY

navy retains its predominance . If the navy is adequate to prevent invasion, then compulsion is unnecessary; if it is inadequate, then the only way to make good its inadequacy is to bring home to the See also:

• ELECTORS (Ger. Kurfursten, from Kilren, O.H.G. kiosan, choose, elect, and Furst, prince)

electors by a course of ,partial training the consequences which must ensue if they continue to neglect it . (F . N .