CONSTANTINE  , a See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of See also:

• ALGERIA
• ALGERIA (Algerie)

Algeria, See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of the See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of the same name, 54 M. by railway S. by W. of the See also:

• PORT

port of See also:

• PHILIPPEVILLE

Philippeville, in 36°22' N., 6° 36' E . Constantine is the See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence of a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general commanding a See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division, of a See also:

• PREFECT (prefet)

prefect and other high officials, is the seat of a See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop, and had a See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population in 1906 of 46,806, of whom 25,312 were Europeans . The population of the See also:

• COMMUNE (Med. Lat. communia, Lat. communis, common)
• COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL

commune, which includes the suburbs of Constantine, was 58,435 . The city occupies a romantic position on a rocky See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau, cut off on all sides See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west from the surrounding See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country by a beautiful See also:

• RAVINE

ravine, through which the See also:

• RIVER

river Rummel flows . The plateau is 2130 ft. above See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea-level, and from 500 to nearly l000 ft. above the river See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed . The ravine, formed by the Rummel, through erosion of the See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone, varies greatly in width—at its narrowest See also:

• PART

part the cliffs are only 15 ft. apart, at its broadest the valley is 400 yds. wide . At the N.E. See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle of the city the See also:

• GORGE

gorge is spanned by an See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge (El-Kantara) built in 1863, giving See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access to the railway station, situated on See also:

• MANSURA

Mansura See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill . A See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone bridge built by the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans, and restored at various times, suddenly gave way in 1857 and is now in ruins; it was built on a natural See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

arch, which, 184 ft. above the level of the river, spans the valley . Along the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-eastern See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the city the Rummel is spanned in all four times by these natural stone See also:

• ARCHES, COURT OF

arches or tunnels . To the north the city is commanded by the See also:

• JEBEL (plur. jibed)

Jebel Mecid, a hill which the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French (following the example of the Romans) have fortified . Constantine is walled, the extant See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall having been largely constructed out of See also:

• ROMAN

Roman material . Through the centre from north to See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south runs a See also:

• STREET
• STREET, GEORGE EDMUND (1824-1881)

street (the See also:

• RUE (Fr. rue, Lat. ruta, from Gr. pur)

rue de See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France) roughly dividing Constantine into two parts .

The See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place du Palais, in which are the See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace of the See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor and the See also:

• CATHEDRAL

cathedral, and the kasbah (citadel) are west of the rue de France, as is likewisethe place Negrier, containing the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law courts . The native See also:

• TOWN

town lies chiefly in the south-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east part of the city . A striking contrast exists between the Moorish See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter, with its tortuous lanes and See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental See also:

• ARCHITECTURE (Lat. architectura, from the Gr. ap)(LTEKrwv, a master-builder)

architecture, and the See also:

• MODERN

modern quarter, with its rectangular streets and wide open squares, frequently bordered with trees and adorned with fountains . Of the squares the place de See also:

• NEMOURS
• NEMOURS, LORDS AND DUKES OF
• NEMOURS, LOUIS CHARLES PHILIPPE RAPHAEL

Nemours is the centre of the commercial and social See also:

• LIFE

life of the city . Of the public buildings those dating from before the French occupation possess See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief See also:

• INTEREST

interest . The palace, built by Ahmed See also:

• PASHA

Pasha, the last See also:

• BEY (a modern Turk. word, the older form being beg, cf. Pers. baig)

bey of Constantine, between 183o and 1836, is one of the finest specimens of Moorish architecture of the nth See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century . The kasbah, which occupies the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern corner of the city, See also:

• DATES

dates from Roman times, and preserves in its more modern portions numerous remains of other Roman edifices . It is now turned into See also:

• BARRACKS (derived through the French from the Late Lat. barra, a bar)
• BARRACKS, CAMP

barracks and a See also:

• HOSPITAL (Lat. haspitalis, the adjective of hospes, host or guest)

hospital . ' The See also:

• FINE

fine See also:

• MOSQUE (through Fr. mosquie; Span. mezquila, from Arab. masjid, sajada, to adore)

mosque of Sidi-el-Kattani (or Salah Bey) dates from the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of the 18th century; that of Suk-er-Rezel, now transformed into a cathedral,. and called Notre-See also:

• DAME
• DAME (through the Fr. from Lat. domina, mistress, lady, the feminine of dominus, master, lord)

Dame See also:

• DES

des See also:

• SEPT

Sept Douleurs, was built about a century, earlier . The See also:

• GREAT

Great Mosque, or Jamaa-el-Kebir, occupies the site of what was probably an See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• PANTHEON (Lat. pantheum or pantheon; Gr. srav& ov, all-holy, from re, s, all, and Oeor god)

pantheon . The mosque Sidi-el-Akhdar has a beautiful See also:

• MINARET (from the Arabic mandrat ; manar or miner is Arabic for a lighthouse, a tower on which liar, fire, is lit)

minaret nearly 8o ft. high . The museum, housed in the hotel de ville, contains a fine collection of antiquities, including a famous See also:

• BRONZE

bronze statuette of the winged figure of Victory, 23 in. high, discovered in the kasbah in 1858 .

A religious See also:

• SEMINARY (Lat. seminarium, from semen, seed)

seminary, or medressa, is maintained in connexion with the Sidi-el-Kattani; and the French support a See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college and various See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor educational establishments for both Arabic and See also:

• EUROPEAN

European culture . The native See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry of Constantine is chiefly confined to See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather goods and woollen fabrics . Some 1oo,000 burnouses are made annually, the finest partly of See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

wool and partly of See also:

• SILK

silk . There is also an active See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade in See also:

• EMBOSSING

embossing or See also:

• ENGRAVING

engraving See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper and See also:

• BRASS
• BRASS (O. Eng. braes)

brass utensils . A considerable trade is carried on over a large See also:

• AREA

area by means of railway connexion with See also:

• ALGIERS (Fr. Alger, Arab. Jezair, i.e. The Islands)

Algiers, See also:

• BONA (BONE)
• BONA, JOHN (1609-1674)

Bona, See also:

• TUNIS

Tunis and See also:

• BISKRA

Biskra, as well as with Philippeville . The See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways, however, have taken away from the city , its See also:

• MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

monopoly of the See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic in See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat, though its See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in that trade still amounts to from £400,000 to £480,000 a See also:

• YEAR

year . Constantine, or, as it was orginally called, See also:

• CIRTA (mod. Constantine, q.v.)

Cirta or Kirtha, from the Phoenician word for a city, was in ancient times one of the most important towns of See also:

• NUMIDIA

Numidia, and the residence of the See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings of the Massyli . Under Micipsa (2nd century B.c.) it reached the height of its prosperity, and was able to furnish an See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army of 1o,000 See also:

• CAVALRY (Fr. cavalerie, Ger. Kavallerie or Reiterei, derived ultimately from late Lat. caballus, horse)

cavalry and 20,000 See also:

• INFANTRY

infantry . Though it afterwards declined, it still continued an important military See also:

• POST

post, and is frequently mentioned during successive See also:

• WARS

wars.: See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar having bestowed a part of its territory on his supporter Sittius, the latter introduced a Roman See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement, and the town for a See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time was known as Colonia Sittianorum . In the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war of See also:

• MAXENTIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS VALERIUS

Maxentius against See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander, the Numidian usurper, it was laid in ruins; and on its restoration in A.D . 313 by Constantine it received the name which it still retains . It was not captured during the Vandal invasion of See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa, but on the See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest by the Arabians (7th century) it shared the same See also:

• FATE

fate as the surrounding country .

Successive Arab dynasties looted it, and many monuments of antiquity suffered (to be finally swept away by " municipal improvements " under the French regime) . During the 12th century it was still a place of considerable prosperity; and its See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce was extensive enough to attract the merchants of See also:

• PISA
• PISA, COUNCIL OF (1409)

Pisa, See also:

• GENOA (anc. Genua, Ital. Genova, Fr. GPnes)

Genoa and See also:

• VENICE
• VENICE (continued)
• VENICE (Venezia)

Venice . Frequently taken and retaken by the See also:

• TURKS

Turks, Constantine finally became under their dominion the seat of a bey, subordinate to the See also:

• DEY (an adaptation of the Turk. dai, a maternal uncle)

dey of Algiers . To Salah Bey, who ruled from 1770 to 1792, we owe most of the existing Moslem buildings . In 1826 Constantine asserted its See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence of the dey of Algiers, and was governed by Haji Ahmed, the choice of the See also:

• KABYLES, or KABAIL

Kabyles . In 1836 the French under See also:

• MARSHAL (med. Lat. marescalcus, from O.H.Ger. marah, horse, and scalc, servant)

Marshal See also:

• CLAUSEL (more correctly CLAUZEL), BERTRAND, COUNT (1772–1842)

Clausel made an unsuccessful See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to See also:

• STORM (in O. Eng..storm, and so in Du. and Low Ger.; in O. H. Ger. and mod. Ger. Sturm; the root is probably that seen in " stir," to rouse, move, disturb, cf. Ger. storen)
• STORM, THEODOR WOLDSEN (1817-1888)

storm the city, which they attacked by See also:

• NIGHT

night by way of El-Kantara . The French suffered heavy loss . In 1837 Marshal Valee approached the town by the connecting western See also:

• ISTHMUS (Gr.io0pbs, neck)

isthmus, and succeeded in taking it by See also:

• ASSAULT (from Lat. ad, to or on, and saltare, to leap)

assault, though again the French lost heavily . Ahmed, however, escaped and maintained his independence in the Aures mountains . He submitted to the French in 1848 and died in 185o .