See also:

• CONSUL
• CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. praetor maximus)

CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. See also:

• PRAETOR (Lat. prae-itor, " he who goes before," "a leader")

praetor See also:

• MAXIMUS
• MAXIMUS, ST (c. 58o-662)

maximus)  , the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne by the two highest of the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary magistrates of the whole See also:

• ROMAN

Roman community during the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic . In the imperial See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period these magistrates had ceased practically to be the heads of the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, but their technical position remained unaltered . (For the See also:

• MODERN

modern commercial See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office of See also:

• CONSUL
• CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. praetor maximus)

consul see the See also:

• SEPARATE

separate See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article below.) The consulship arose with the fall of the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy (see further See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

RoME: See also:

• HISTORY

History, II . " The Republic ") .. The Roman reverence for the abstract conception of the magistracy, as expressed in the imperium and the auspicia, led to the preservation of the See also:

• REGAL

regal See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power weakened only by See also:

• EXTERNAL

external limitations . The two new officials who replaced the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king See also:

• BORE

bore the titles of leaders (praetores) and of See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges (judices; cf . See also:

• CICERO

Cicero, De legibus, 3 . 8, " regio imperio duo sunto iique a praeeundo judicando . . . praetores judices . . . appellamino ") . But the new fact of colleagueship caused a third title to prevail, that of consoles or " partners," a word probably derived from consalio on the See also:

• ANALOGY (Gr. avaXo-yLa, proportion)

analogy of praesul and exul (Mommscn, Staatsrecht, H. p . 77, n .

3) . This first example of the collegiate principle assumed the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form that soon became See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar in the Roman See also:

• COMMONWEALTH

commonwealth . Each of the pair of magistrates could See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act up to the full See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of the imperium; but the dissent of his colleague rendered his decision or his See also:

• ACTION

action null and void . At the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time the principle of a merely See also:

• ANNUAL

annual See also:

• TENURE (Fr. tenure, from Lat. tenere, to hold)

tenure of office was insisted on . The two See also:

• MAGISTRATE (Lat. magistratus, from magister, master, properly a public office, hence the person holding such an office)

magistrate's at the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of their See also:

• YEAR

year of office were See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound to transmit their power to successors; and these successors whom they nominated were obliged to seek the suffrages of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people . The only See also:

• BODY

body known to us as electing the consuls during the republican period was the See also:

• COMITIA

comitia centuriata (see See also:

• COMM

Comm) . The consulate was originally confined to See also:

• PATRICIANS (Lat. patricius, an adjectival form from pater, father; not, as some say, from pater and ciere, to call)

patricians . During the struggle for higher office that was waged between. the orders the office was suspended on fifty-one occasions between the years 444 and 367 B.C. and replaced by the military tribunate with consular power, to which plebeians were eligible . The struggle was brought to an end by the Licinio -Sextian See also:

• LAWS

laws of 367 B.C., which enacted that one consul must be a plebeian (see PATRICIANS) . Most of the See also:

• INTERNAL

internal history of Rome down to the beginning of the third See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.C. consists in a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of attacks, whether intentional or accidental, on the power of the executive . As the consuls are the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole representatives of higher executive authority in See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early times, this history is one of a progressive decline in the originally wide and arbitrary powers of the office . Their right of See also:

• SUMMARY

summary criminal See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction was weakened by the successive laws of See also:

• APPEAL

appeal (provocatio); their capacity for interpreting the See also:

• CIVIL

civil See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law at their See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure by the publication of the Twelve Tables and the Forms of Action .

The growth of the tribunate of the See also:

• PLEBS (from the root seen in Lat. plenus, full; cf. Gr. 7rXit9os)

plebs hampered their activity both as legislators and as judges . They surrendered the duties of See also:

• REGISTRATION

registration to the censors in 443 B.C., and the rights of civil jurisdiction and See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control over the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market and See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police to the See also:

• PRAETOR (Lat. prae-itor, " he who goes before," "a leader")

praetor and the See also:

• CURULE (Lat. currus, " chariot ")

curule aediles in 367 B.C . The result of these limitations and of this specialization of functions in the community was to leave the consuls with less specific duties at See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home than any magistrates in the state . But the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of specific functions may be of itself a sign of a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty of supervision . The consuls were in a very real sense the heads of the state . See also:

• POLYBIUS (c. 204–122 B.C.)

Polybius describes them as controlling the whole See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration (Polyb. vi . 12 rravcov eiai Kbpt.ot i i' Si7poaim) lrp i ewv) . This control they exercised in See also:

• CONCERT (through the French from Lat. con-, with, and certare, to strive)

concert with the See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate, whose See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief servants they were . It was they who were the most See also:

• REGULAR

regular consultants of this See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council, who formulated its decrees as edicts, and who brought before the people legislative See also:

• MEASURES

measures which the senate had approved . It was they also who represented the state to the See also:

• OUTER

outer See also:

• WORLD

world and introduced See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign envoys to the senate . The symbols of their See also:

• PRESIDENCY

presidency were manifold . It was marked by the twelve See also:

• LICTORS (lictores)

lictors (q.v.), a number permitted to no other ordinary magistrate, by the fact that the first act of newly-admitted consuls was to take the auspices, their second to summon the senate, and by the use of their names for dating the year .

The consulate was, indeed, as Cicero expresses it, the culminating point in an See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official career (" Honorum populi finis est consulatus," Cie . See also:

• PRO

Pro Planco, 25 . 6o) . In the domestic See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere the consuls retained certain powers of jurisdiction . This jurisdiction was either (i.) administrative or (ii.) criminal . (i.) Their administrative jurisdiction was some-times concerned with See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial matters such as pecuniary claims made by the state and individuals against one another . They acted in these matters in the periods during which the censors were not in office . We also find them adjudicating in disputes about See also:

• PROPERTY

property between the cities of See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy . (ii.) Their criminal jurisdiction was of three kinds . In the first See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place it was their duty, before the development of the See also:

• STANDING

standing commissions which originated in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 2nd century B.C., to set in See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion the criminal law against offenders for the See also:

• COGNIZANCE (Lat. cognoscere, to know)

cognizance of ordinary, as opposed to See also:

• POLITICAL

political, crimes . The reference of such cases to the See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly of the people was effected through their quaestors (see See also:

• QUAESTOR (from Lat. quaero, investigate)

QUAESTOR) . Secondly, when the people and senate, or the senate alone, appointed a See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission (see SENATE), the See also:

• COMMISSIONER

commissioner named was often a consul .

Thirdly, we find the consul conducting a criminal inquiry raised by a point of See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

international law . It is possible that in this See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case his advising body (consilium) was composed of the fetiales (see See also:

• HERALD (O. Fr. heraut, herault; the origin is uncertain, but O.H.G. heren, to call, or hariwald, leader of an army, have been proposed; the Gr. equivalent is Kddpvi : Lat. praeco, caduceator, fetialis)

HERALD, ad fin.) . (Cicero, De republics, iii . 18 . 28; See also:

• MOMMSEN, THEODOR (1817–1903)

Mommsen, Staatsrecht, ii. p . 112, n . 3) . During the greater See also:

• PART

part of the republic the consuls were recognized as the heads of the administration abroad as well as at home . It thus became necessary that departments of administration (provinciae) should be determined and assigned . Themethod of See also:

• ASSIGNMENT, ASSIGNATION, ASSIGNEE

assignment varied . The least usual See also:

• DEVICE

device was for one consul to take the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field at the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of an See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army, while the other remained at home to transact the civil business of state . More often foreign See also:

• WARS

wars demanded the See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention of both consuls .

In this case the regular army of four legions was usually divided between them . When it was necessary that both armies should co-operate, the principle of rotation was adopted, each consul having the command for a single See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day—a practice which may be illustrated by the events preceding the See also:

• BATTLE

battle of See also:

• CANNAE (mod. Canne)

Cannae (Polybius iii . 11o; See also:

• LIVY [Thus L1v1us] (59 B.C.—A.D: 17)

Livy xxii . 41) . During the See also:

• GREAT

great period of See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest from 264 to 146 B.C . Italy was generally one of the consular "provinces," some foreign See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country the other; and when at the close of this period Italy was at See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace, this distinction approximated to one between civil and military command . The consuls . settled their departments amongst themselves by agreement or by See also:

• LOT
• LOT (Lat. Oltis)

lot (comparatio, sortitio), the power of declaring what should be the consular provinciae was usurped by the senate, (see SENATE), and a lex Sempronia passed by C . See also:

• GRACCHUS

Gracchus, probably in 122 B.C., ordained that the two consular provinces should be declared before the See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election of the consuls . At this time the consuls entered office on the 1st of See also:

• JANUARY

January (a practice which commenced in 153 B . C.), and their military command began on the 1st of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March . They could hold this military command until they were superseded in the following March, and thus their tenure of power was practically raised to fourteen months . But meanwhile the home officials invested with the imperium had proved insufficient for the military needs of the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire, and the See also:

• SYSTEM

system of prolonging the command (prorogatio imperil) had been growing up (see See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

PROVINCE) .

The consul whose command had been prolonged now served abroad as proconsul . It is probable, that See also:

• SULLA, LUCIUS CORNELIUS (138–78 B.C.)

Sulla in his legislation of 81 B.C. did something to stereotype this system . Certainly the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government by pro-magistrates be-comes the See also:

• RULE

rule after this period (cf . Cicero, De natura deorum, ii . 3 . 9; De divinatione, ii . 36 . 76, 77), although there are several instances of consuls assuming the active command of provinces between the years 74 and 55 n.c . (Mommsen, Rechtsfrage, p . 30), and Cicero declares that the consul has a right to approach every province (" consuies, quibus more majorum concessum est vel omnes adire provincial, Cicero, Ad Atticum, viii . 15 . 3)• Certainly in theory the provinces were still regarded as " consular," not " proconsular," and were technically, although not practically, held from the 1st of March of the consul's tenure of office at Rome (cf .

Cicero, De provinciis consularibus, 15 . 37; Mommsen, Rechtsfrage, passim) . It was not until the lex Pompeia of 52 B.C . (Dio See also:

• CASSIUS
• CASSIUS, AVIDIUS (d. A.D. 175)
• CASSIUS, GAIUS

Cassius xl . 56) had established a five years' See also:

• INTERVAL

interval between home and foreign command that the theory of the prorogatio imperil vanished and the proconsulate became a separate office . Since the theory of the persistence of the republican constitution was of the essence of the Principate, the consuls necessarily lost little of their outward position and dignity under the rule of the Caesars . The consulship was the only office in which a See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen, other than a member of the imperial See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house, might have the princeps as a colleague, and in the interval between the See also:

• DEATH

death or deposition of one princeps and the See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment of another the consuls resumed their normal position as the heads of the state (cf . Herodian ii . 12) . As the presidents of the senate, who after A.D . 14 elected them to their office, they were the chief See also:

• PERSONAL

personal representatives of those elements of See also:

• SOVEREIGNTY

sovereignty that were supposed to attach to that body, and they directed that high criminal jurisdiction which the senate of this period assumed (see SENATE) . A restored power of jurisdiction is indeed one of the features of their position during this time, and it is probable that the civil appeals which came to the senate were delegated to the consuls .

They also acted for a time as delegates to the princeps in matters of See also:

• CHANCERY

Chancery jurisdiction such as See also:

• TRUSTS

trusts and guardianship (Mommsen, Staatsrecht, ii. p . 103) . The consulship was also a preparation for certain high commands, such as the government of certain public and imperial provinces (see PROVINCE) and the praefecture of the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city . It was probably due to the fact that the consulship was such a See also:

• PRIZE, or PRIZE OF WAR (Fr. prise, from prendre, to take)

prize, and perhaps also to the expense imposed on the office by its association with the celebration of See also:

• GAMES, CLASSICAL

games (Dio Cassius lvi . 46, lix . 20) that the tenure was progressively shortened . In the early principate the consuls hold office for six months, later for four to two months (Mommsen, Staatsrecht, ii. pp . 84-87) . The consuls appointed for the 1st of January were called ordinarii, the others suffecti; and the whole year was dated by the names of the former . This distinction continued in the Empire that was founded by See also:

• DIOCLETIAN (GAIUs AURELIUS VALERIUS DIOCLETIANUS) (A.D. 245–313)
• DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF (De Pretiis rerum venalium)

Diocletian and See also:

• CONSTANTINE

Constantine . The ordinarii were nominated by the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor, the suffecti were nominated by the senate, and their appointment was ratified by the emperor . The consulship was still the greatest dignity which the Empire had to bestow; and the pomp and ceremony of the office increased in proportion to the decline in its actual power .

The entry of the consuls on office was celebrated by a great procession, by games given to the people, by a See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of gifts, such as the See also:

• IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur)
• IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842)

ivory diptychs, a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long series of which has been preserved . But the senate, over which they presided until the time of Justinian, was little more than the municipal coyncil of the city of Rome; and the See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice which they meted out had dwindled down to the formal and uncontested acts of manumission and the granting of guardians . Sometimes there was a consul of the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West at Rome and a consul of the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East at See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople;. at other times both consuls might be found in either See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital . The last consul See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born in a private station was Basilius in the East in A.D . 541 . But the emperors continued to See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear the title for some time longer . For the consular diptychs, cf. besides Daremberg-Saglio, l.c., See also:

• GORI

Gori, See also:

• THESAURUS (Gr. B17o-avp6s)

Thesaurus velerum diptychorum (See also:

• FLORENCE
• FLORENCE (Ital. Firenze, Lat. Florentia)

Florence, 1759), and Labarte, Histoire See also:

• DES

des arts industriels au moyen See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge, i. p . 10 See also:

• FOIL

foil., 190 foil . (1st ed., See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1864) . (A . H . J .