See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

CONVERSION (See also:

• LAT

Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change)  , ageneral See also:

• TERM

term for the operation of converting, changing, or transposing; used technically in See also:

• SPECIAL

special senses in See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

logic, See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology and See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law . r . In logic, See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion is one of three See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief methods of immediate inference by which a conclusion is obtained directly from a single premise without the intervention of another premise or See also:

• MIDDLE

middle term . A proposition is said to be "converted" when the subject and the predicate See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change. places; the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original proposition is the "convertend," the new one the "converse." The chief See also:

• RULE

rule governing conversion is that no term which was not distributed" in the convertend may be distributed in the See also:

• CON

con-See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse; nor may the quality of the proposition (affirmative or negative) be changed . It follows that of the four possible forms 1 A term is said to be." distributed " when it is taken universally: in the proposition " men are mortal " (meaning . " all men ") the term " men " is " distributed " while " mortal " is undistributed, because there are mortal beings which are not men . of propositions A, E, I and 0 (see See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article A), E and I can be converted simply . If no A is B (E), it follows that no B is A; if some A is B, it follows that some B is A . This See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of con-version is called See also:

• SIMPLE

Simple Conversion; E propositions convert into E, and I into I . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, A cannot be converted simply . If all men are mortal, the most that can follow by conversion is that some mortals are men . This is called Con-version by See also:

• LIMITATION, STATUTES OF

Limitation or Per Accidens .

Only if it be known from See also:

• EXTERNAL

external or non-logical See also:

• SOURCES

sources that the predicate also is distributed can there be simple conversion of a universal affirmative . Neither of these forms of conversion can be applied to the particular negative proposition 0, which has to be dealt with under a secondary See also:

• SYSTEM

system of conversion, as follows . The terminology by which these secondary processes are described is not altogether satisfactory, and logicians are not agreed as to the application of the terms . The following system is perhaps the most commonly used . We have seen that the converse of "all A is B" is "some B is A"; we can, in addition, derive from it another, though purely formal, proposition "no A is not-B"; i.e. an E propo ition . This See also:

• PROCESS

process is called Obversion, Permutation or Immediate Inference by Privative Conception; it is applicable to every proposition including O . A further process, known as Contraposition or Conversion by Negation, consists of conversion following on obversion . Thus from "all A is B," we get " no not-B is A." In the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of the 0 proposition we get (by obversion) "some A is not-B " and then (by conversion) "some not-B is A" (i.e. an I proposition) . In the case of the I proposition the contrapositive is impossible, as infringing the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main rule of conversion . Another term, See also:

• INVERSION (Lat. invertere, to turn about)

Inversion, has been used by some logicians for a still more complicated process by the alternative use of conversion and obversion, which is applicable to A and E, and results in obtaining a proposition concerning the contradictory of the original subject; thus "all A is B becomes "some not-A is not B." Considerable discussion has centred on the problem as to whether the process of conversion can properly be regarded as inference . The essence of inference is that the conclusion should embody knowledge which is not in the premise or premises, and many logicians have contended that no fact is stated in the converse which was not in the convertend, or, in other words, that conversion is merely a transformation or verbal change of the same statement . Hence the term Eductions and See also:

• EQUIVALENT

Equivalent Propositional Forms have been given to converse proposi tions .

It is clear, for instance, that if the universal affirmative is taken connotatively as a scientific law, and not historically, no real inference is achieved by stating as another scientific fact its converse, the particular affirmative . Moreover, even if the convertend is stated as an historic fact, though there is acquired a certain new significance, it may well be argued that the inference is not immediate but syllogistic . For this controversy see J . S . See also:

• MILL
• MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the late Lat. molina, cf. Fr. moulin, from Lat. mola, a mill, molere, to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived " meal;" the word appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. molen, Ger. muhle)
• MILL, JAMES (1773-1836)
• MILL, JOHN (c. 1645–1707)
• MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873)

Mill, Logic, II. i . 2 ; See also:

• BRADLEY, GEORGE GRANVILLE (1821–1903)
• BRADLEY, JAMES (1693–1762)

Bradley, Logic, III. pt. i. See also:

• CHAP

chap. ii . 30-37; H . W . B . See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph, Introduction to Logic (1906), pp . 209 See also:

• FOIL

foil.; J . N .

Keynes, Formal Logic (3rd ed., 1894) . 2 . In theology, conversion (the equivalent of the Gr. o rOOew, See also:

• BRAN

bran-00ov) is originally the acceptation of See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity by heathens . It is also used generally for a change from one See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion to another, or in a narrower sense for a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete change of attitude towards See also:

• GOD

God, involving a deeper conviction of the ultimate religious and moral truths . Considerable difference of See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion has always existed, and still exists, within the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church as to the true nature. and the causes of conversion, especially in the sense last described . Some have held that See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man is merely the passive recipient of, the Divine See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

Grace, a view based largely on the rendering of the Authorized Version of See also:

• ISAIAH
• ISAIAH, ASCENSION OF

Isaiah vi . 10 as quoted in Matt. xiii . 15, See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

Mark iv . 12, and See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John xii . 40 . Others again hold that See also:

• BAPTISM

baptism, as involving a second See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth of the baptized See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person, makes subsequent conversion unnecessary or even meaningless, or conversely that conversion is this very second birth and renders baptism unnecessary . The reply generally made to such arguments is that baptism implies regeneration only, which is a change wrought from the outside by the Divine Spirit in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general disposition or spiritual status,while conversion is a See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive or See also:

• CONCRETE
• CONCRETE (Lat. concretes, participle of concrescere, to grow together)

concrete demonstration of that change, not merely the negative beginning of a new See also:

• LIFE

life but the positive "returning" to God in faith and repentance .

The precise connexion between conversion and repentance is again a vexed question . How far and in what sense does man take an active See also:

• PART

part in his own conversion ? To this it is ,frequently answered that while the initial See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of conversion is and can be the See also:

• WORK

work of the See also:

• HOLY

Holy Spirit alone, it lies with man to make it complete by accepting the proffered grace in repentance and faith (cf . Acts vii . 51, "Ye stiffnecked and uncircumcised in See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart and ears, ye do always resist the Holy See also:

• GHOST (a word common to the W. Teutonic languages; O.E. vest, Dutch, 'geest, Ger. Geist)

Ghost") . A man may of his own See also:

• FREE

free will avoid those surroundings which predispose him to such "resistance." The view that man cannot convert himself is clearly stated in Article X. by the Church of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England . " The See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of man after the fall of See also:

• ADAM
• ADAM (or ADAN) DE LE HALE (died c. 1288)
• ADAM, ALEXANDER (1741–1809)
• ADAM, JULIETTE (1836– )
• ADAM, LAMBERT SIGISBERT (1700-1759)
• ADAM, MELCHIOR (d. 1622)
• ADAM, PAUL (1862– )
• ADAM, ROBERT (1728—1792)
• ADAM, SIR FREDERICK (1781-1853)
• ADAM, WILLIAM (1751-1839)

Adam is such that he cannot turn (sese convertere) and prepare himself by his. own natural strength and See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• WORKS

works, to faith, and calling upon God: where-fore we have no See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power to do good works pleasant and acceptable to God, without the grace of God by See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ preventing us that we may have a good will, and working with us, when we have that good will." Further problems are connected with the possibility of repeated conversions of the same man, the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity, of a single strongly marked conversion completed in, a single process, the significance of sudden conversion of persons in a highly emotional See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, such as has been See also:

• COMMON

common in revivalist meetings, especially in See also:

• WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria)

Wales and the See also:

• UNITED

United States of See also:

• AMERICA

America . Conversions of the last See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind have followed frequently on striking See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical phenomena, perceived in many cases only by the convert himself, such as a sudden See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

bright See also:

• LIGHT

light or a See also:

• NOISE (a word of doubtful origin; O. Fr. nogse or nose; Prov. nausa, which points to Lat. nausea, sickness, as the origin; others take Lat. noxia, harm, as the source)

noise like a clap of See also:

• THUNDER

thunder.l In all cases of conversion, however, the criterion of its, validity is generally taken to be the resultant change of a man's See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character as manifested in his mode of life and thought, in the abstention from See also:

• SIN
• SIN (O. Eng. syn: a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zonde, Ger. Siinde)

sin, and in devotion to good works . (X.) 3 . In See also:

• ENGLISH

English law, conversion is the unauthorized exercise of dominion by one person over the See also:

• PROPERTY

property (other than See also:

• MONEY

money, or chattels real) of another, in a manner inconsistent with his rights of See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession, or the unauthorized See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption by another of the See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of the true owner of goods . The See also:

• HISTORY

history and exact See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition of this form of actionable' wrong have occupied the See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention of many learned writers, and the incidents of. actions to assert the rights of the true owner form a considerable part of See also:

• TREATISES

treatises on the rules and forms of See also:

• CIVIL

civil See also:

• PLEADING (Fr. plaider, plaidoyer)

pleading . There are many ways in which the wrong may be committed .

In some cases the exercise of the dominion may amount to an See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of trespass or to a See also:

• CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime, e.g. where the taking amounts .to See also:

• LARCENY (an adaptation of Fr. larcin, O. Fr. larrecin, from Lat. latrocinium, theft, latio, robber)

larceny, or fraudulent See also:

• APPROPRIATION (from Lat. appropriare, to set aside)

appropriation by a bailee or See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent en-trusted with the property of another (Larceny Acts of 1861 and 1901) . But in such cases, except where money is taken, the civil remedy of the owner is by See also:

• ACTION

action for conversion or detention of the property, subject in the case of larceny to the rule that criminal See also:

• PROSECUTION

prosecution should precede restitution by the taker . The remedy in use in these cases used to be by what was called an action on the case for See also:

• TROVER (0. Fr. trover, to find, mod. trouver)

trover and conversion, the See also:

• PLAINTIFF

plaintiff putting aside all suggestions of trespass and of crime, and resting his case on the fiction that the See also:

• DEFENDANT

defendant had found and used goods not his own . The fictitious averment of loss was abolished in 1852, and under the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure, in which the old forms of action are not in use, the remedy is by a claim (still usually called conversion) for wrongfully depriving the true owner of See also:

• PERSONAL

personal property of its use by some specified act inconsistent with his dominion over it, usually by dealing with the property in a manner inconsistent with the owner's rights . Originally, the action of trover and conversion was limited to goods and chattels, but it is now accepted as applying to valuable securities, such as cheques and bills of See also:

• EXCHANGE

exchange . The gist of the action is in the unauthorized dealing, for however See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short a See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time and for however limited a purpose, with the personal property of another . Even refusal to deliver up to the owner is sufficient to prove conversion, though it is often 1 Numerous instances, See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from other religions besides Christianity, are given in See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James's The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902) . made the ground of an action for See also:

• DETINUE (O. Fr. detenue, from detente, to hold back)

detinue, if the plaintiff desires to have the property returned in specie . The knowledge, See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive or good faith of the person wrongfully dealing with the property of another is for civil purposes immaterial, and the action is often brought to try the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of two claimants to the same goods; e.g. where a person who has innocently bought or taken in See also:

• PLEDGE

pledge goods stolen or illegally procured resists the claim of the original owner for the return of the goods . A warehouseman may render himself liable to the owner of goods deposited with him, through delivering the goods to a third person on a forged authority or without authority, or by issuing a warehouse See also:

• RECEIPT (M.E. receite, derived through Fr. from Lat. recepta, participle of recipere, to receive)

receipt representing the goods to be in his possession or See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control when they have ceased to be so . The exact measure of See also:

• COMPENSATION (from Lat. compensare, to weigh one thing against another)

compensation due to a plaintiff whose goods have been wrongfully converted may be merely nominal if the wrong is technical and the defendant can return the goods; it may be limited to the actual damage where the goods can be returned, but the wrong is substantial; but in See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary cases it is the full value to the owner of the goods of which he has been deprived . Fraudulent conversion by any person to his own use (or that of persons other than the owner) of property entrusted to him is a crime in the case of custodians of property, factors, trustees under See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express See also:

• TRUSTS

trusts in See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing (Larceny Act, 1861, ss .

77–85; Larceny Act, 1901) . The law of See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland, of most See also:

• BRITISH

British possessions, and of the United States, follows that of England as to the civil or criminal remedies for conversion . The term "conversion" is also used in Englishlaw with reference to the rule of courts of See also:

• EQUITY (Lat. aequitas)

equity which, in certain cases (following the See also:

• MAXIM, SIR HIRAM STEVENS (184o- )

maxim of treating as done what ought to have been done), treats as converted into personalty See also:

• LAND

land which has been directed so to be converted by a will, See also:

• CONTRACT
• CONTRACT (Lat. contract us, from contrahere, to draw together, to bind)

contract or See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement, or as converted into land personalty which has been by such See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument directed to be applied for See also:

• PURCHASE

purchase of realty . The rule is also applied where a vendor of land See also:

• DIES, CHRISTOPH ALBERT (1755-1822)

dies between the making of the contract of See also:

• SALE
• SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736)
• SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782—1845)

sale and its completion by See also:

• CONVEYANCE

conveyance of the land . The importance of the rule lies in the different destination of realty and personalty under the See also:

• LAWS

laws See also:

• RELATING

relating to See also:

• INHERITANCE

inheritance and See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession . See Bullen and See also:

• LEAKE, WILLIAM MARTIN (1777-186o)

Leake, Precedents of Pleading (3rd ed., 1868, 6th ed. by See also:

• DODD, WILLIAM (1729-1977)

Dodd and See also:

• CHITTY, SIR JOSEPH WILLIAM (1828-1899)

Chitty, 1905) ; F . See also:

• POLLOCK

Pollock, on Torts (7th ed., 1904) ; Clerk and Lindsell, on Torts (3rd ed., 19o4); Lewin, on Trusts (11th ed., 1904) ; Jarman, on See also:

• WILLS, WILLIAM GORMAN (1828-1891)

Wills (5th ed., 1893) ; Dart, Vendors and Purchasers (11th ed., p . 301) . (W . F .