See also:

• COOKERY (Lat. coquus, a cook)

COOKERY (See also:

• LAT

Lat. coquus, a See also:

• COOK
• COOK, ALBERT STANBURROUGH (1853– )
• COOK, EDWARD DUTTON (1829–1883)
• COOK, ELIZA (1818–1889)
• COOK, JAMES (1728-1779)
• COOK, THOMAS (1808-1892)

cook)  , the See also:

• ART

art of preparing and dressing See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food of all sorts for human See also:

• CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

consumption, of converting the raw materials, by the application of See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat or otherwise, into a digestible and pleasing See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition, and generally ministering to the See also:

• SATISFACTION (Lat. salisfacerc, to satisfy)

satisfaction of the appetite and the delight of the See also:

• PALATE (Lat. palatum, possibly from the root of pascere, to feed)

palate . We may take it that some See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of See also:

• COOKERY (Lat. coquus, a cook)

cookery has existed from the earliest times, and its progress has been from the See also:

• SIMPLE

simple to the elaborate, dominated partly by the foods accessible to See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man, partly by the See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization he has attained, and partly by the appliances at his command for the purpose either of treating the food, or of consuming it when served . The See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed art of cookery is necessarily a See also:

• LATE

late addition—if it may be considered to be included at all—to the See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of " See also:

• FINE

fine arts." Originally it is a purely See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial and useful art . Man, says a See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French writer, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born a roaster, and " pouretre cuisinier, it a besoin de le devenir." The ancients were See also:

• GREAT

great eaters, but strangers to the subtler refinements of the palate . The gods were supposed to love the See also:

• SMELL (connected etymologically with " smoulder " and " smoke ")

smell of fried See also:

• MEAT

meat., while their See also:

• NECTAR

nectar and See also:

• AMBROSIA

ambrosia represented an ideal, which, though preserved as a phrase, would hardly satisfy a See also:

• MODERN

modern epicure . The ancients were poorly provided with pots and pans, except of a simple See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order, or with the See also:

• APPURTENANCES (from late Lat. appertinentia, from appertinere, to appertain)

appurtenances of a See also:

• KITCHEN (O.E. cycene; this and other cognate forms, such as Dutch keuken, Ger. Kiuche, Dan. kokken, Fr. cuisine, are formed from the Low Lat. cucina, Lat. coquina, coquere, to cook)

kitchen, and they were sadly to seek in the requisites''of a modern table . So See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long as men See also:

• ATE

ate with their hands no dainty confection was suitable; the viands were set forth in a straightforward See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style See also:

• FIT

fit for their requirements . " See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

Plain cooking," which, after all, can never become obsolete, was the only sort . Oddities, no doubt, were the luxuries; and we can see to-See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day in the ethnological accounts of contemporary savages and backward civilizations, a See also:

• FAIR

fair See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation of the cookeries of the ancients . The luxuries of the See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese are, in their way, a survival of long ages of a cookery which to western civilization is See also:

• GROTESQUE

grotesque . Even if it is an historic impertinence, it is impossible for the countries of western civilization to regard the fine See also:

• FLOWER (Lat. flos, floris; Fr. fleur)
• FLOWER, SIB

flower of their own See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution as other than the highest See also:

• PITCH
• PITCH, MUSICAL

pitch of progress . Autres temps, autres mceurs .

To the Chinaman French cooking may possibly be as grotesque as to an Englishman the Chinaman's hundredyear-old buried See also:

• EGG (O.E. aeg, cf. Ger. Ei, Swed. aegg, and prob. Gr. u,ov, Lat. ovum)
• EGG, AUGUSTUS LEOPOLD (1816-1863)

egg, See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black and tasteless . The See also:

• HISTORY

history of See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative cookery is See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound up with the See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical possibilities of each See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country and its products; and if we See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark out stages in the evolution of cookery as a fine art, it is necessarily as understood by the so-called civilized peoples of the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West in their See also:

• CULMINATION (from Lat. culmen, summit)

culmination at the See also:

• PRESENT

present day . It is obvious that opportunity has dominated its history, for the art of cookery is to some extent the product of an increased refinement of See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste, consequent on culture and increase of See also:

• WEALTH

wealth . To this extent it is a decadent art, ministering to the luxury of man, and to his progressive inclination to be pampered and have his appetite tickled . It is thus only remotely connected with the See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere necessities of See also:

• NUTRITION

nutrition (q.v.), or the See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science of See also:

• DIETETICS

dietetics (q.v.) . Mere See also:

• HUNGER

hunger, though the best See also:

• SAUCE

sauce, will not produce cookery, which is the art of sauces . For centuries itselaboration consisted mainly of a progressive variety of foods, the richest and rarest being sought out; and their nature depended on what was most difficult to obtain . The Greeks learnt by contact with See also:

• ASIA

Asia to increase the sumptuous See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of their banquets, but we know little enough of their ideas of gastronomy . See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens was the centre of luxury . According to our See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief authority See also:

• ATHENAEUS

Athenaeus, See also:

• ARCHESTRATUS

Archestratus of See also:

• GELA

Gela, the friend of the son of See also:

• PERICLES (49o-429 B.C.)

Pericles, the See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide of See also:

• EPICURUS (342–270 B.C.)

Epicurus, and author of the Heduphagetica, was a great traveller, and took pains to get See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information as to how the delicacies of the table were prepared in different parts . His lost See also:

• WORK

work was versified by See also:

• ENNIUS, QUINTUS (239-170 B.c.)

Ennius . Other connoisseurs seem to have been See also:

• NUMENIUS

Numenius of See also:

• HERACLEA

Heraclea, Hegemon of See also:

• THASOS

Thasos, Philogenes of Leucas, Simonaclides of See also:

• CHIOS

Chios, and Tyndarides of See also:

• SICYON, or SECYON (the latter being the older form used by the natives)

Sicyon .

The See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans, emerging from their pristine simplicity, borrowed from the Greeks their achievements in"gastronomic See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure . We read of this or that See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• GOURMET

gourmet, such as See also:

• LUCULLUS

Lucullus, his extravagances and his luxury . The name of the connoisseur See also:

• APICIUS

Apicius, after whom a work of the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of See also:

• HELIOGABALUS (ELAGABALUS)

Heliogabalus is called, comes down to us in association with a See also:

• MANUAL

manual of cookery . And from See also:

• MACROBIUS, AMBROSIUS THEODOSIUS

Macrobius and See also:

• PETRONIUS (G. (?)1

Petronius we can gather very interesting glimpses of the Roman See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of a menu . In the later See also:

• EMPIRE

empire, tradition still centred See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the Roman cookery favoured by the See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical position of See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy; while the customs and natural products of the remoter parts of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe gradually begin to assert themselves as the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages progress . It is, however, not till the See also:

• RENAISSANCE, THE

Renaissance, and then too with Italy as the starting-point, that the history of modern cookery really begins . Meanwhile cookery may be studied rather in the See also:

• ARCHITECTURE (Lat. architectura, from the Gr. ap)(LTEKrwv, a master-builder)

architecture of kitchens, and the development of their appurtenances and personnel, than in any increase in the subtleties of the art; the ideal was inevitably See also:

• GROSS

gross; the end was feeding—inextricably associated in all ages with cooking, but as distinct from its fine Fleur as gluttony from gastronomy . See also:

• MONTAIGNE, MICHEL DE (1533-1592)

Montaigne's references to the revival of cookery in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France by See also:

• CATHERINE
• CATHERINE, SAINT

Catherine de' See also:

• MEDICI
• MEDICI, GIACOMO (1817-1882)

Medici indicate that the new See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention paid to the art was really novel . She brought See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian cooks to See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris and introduced there a cultured simplicity which was unknown in France before . It is to the Italians apparently that later developments are originally due . It is clearly established, for instance (says See also:

• ABRAHAM, or ABRAM (Hebrew for " father is high ")

Abraham See also:

• HAYWARD, ABRAHAM (1801-1884)
• HAYWARD, SIR JOHN (c. 1560-1627)

Hayward in his Art of Dining), that the Italians introduced ices into France . Fricandeaus were invented by the chef of See also:

• LEO
• LEO (THE LION)
• LEO, BROTHER (d. c. 1270)
• LEO, HEINRICH (1799-1878)
• LEO, JOHANNES (c. 1494-1552)
• LEO, LEONARDO (1694–1744)

Leo X .

And Coryate in his Crudities, See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing in the time of See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James I., says that he was called " furcifer " (evidently in contemptuous jest) by his See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends, from his using those " Italian neatnesses called forks." The use of the See also:

• FORK (Lat. furca)

fork and See also:

• SPOON (O. Eng. span, a chip or splinter of wood, cf. Du. spoon, Ger. Spahn, in same sense, probably related to Gr. r4 v, wedge)

spoon marked an See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch in the progress of dining, and consequently of cookery . Under See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis XIV. further advances were made . His vial tre d'hb'tel, Bechamel, is famous for his sauce; and Vatel, the great See also:

• CONDE
• CONDE, LOUIS DE BOURBON, PRINCE
• CONDE, LOUIS II
• CONDE, PRINCES OF

Conde's See also:

• COOK
• COOK, ALBERT STANBURROUGH (1853– )
• COOK, EDWARD DUTTON (1829–1883)
• COOK, ELIZA (1818–1889)
• COOK, JAMES (1728-1779)
• COOK, THOMAS (1808-1892)

cook, was a celebrated artist, of whose See also:

• SUICIDE (from Lat. sui, of oneself, and cidium, from cued ere, to kill)

suicide in despair at the tardy arrival of the See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish which he had ordered, Madame de See also:

• SEVIGNE, MARIE DE

Sevigne relates a moving See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story . The See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince de See also:

• SOUBISE, BENJAMIN DE ROHAN

Soubise, immortalized by his See also:

• ONION (Fr. oignon, Lat. unio, liberally unity, oneness, applied to a large pearl and to a species of onion)

onion sauce, also had a famous chef . In See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England the names of certain cookery-books may be noted, such as See also:

• SIR

Sir J . See also:

• ELLIOTT, EBENEZER (1781–1849)

Elliott's (1539), Abraham Veale's (1575), and the Widdowe's Treasure (1625) . The Accomplisht Cook, by See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

Robert May, appeared in 1665, and from its See also:

• PREFACE (Med. Lat. prefatia, for classical praefatio, praefari, to speak beforehand)

preface we learn that the author (who speaks disparagingly of French cookery, but more gratefully of Italian and See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish) was the son of a cook, and had studied abroad and under his See also:

• FATHER

father (c . 1610) at See also:

• LADY (0. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. ldfdi, lavedi; the first part of the word is hldf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development fr

Lady See also:

• DORMER (from Lat. dormire, to sleep)

Dormer's, and he speaks of that time as " the days wherein were produced the triumphs and trophies of cookery." From his description they consisted of most fantastic and elaborately built up dishes, intended to amuse and startle, no less than to satisfy the appetite and palate . Louis XV. was a great gourmet; and his reign saw many developments in the culinary art . The mayonnaise (originally mahonnaise) is ascribed to the duc de See also:

• RICHELIEU, ARMAND EMMANUEL SOPHIE SEPTEMANIE DU PLESSIS
• RICHELIEU, ARMAND JEAN DU PLESSIS
• RICHELIEU, LOUIS FRANCOIS ARMAND DU PLESSIS

Richelieu . Such dishes as " potage a la See also:

• XAVIER, FRANCISCO DE (1506-1552)

Xavier," " cailles a la Mire poix," " chartreuses d la Mauconseil," " poulets a la Villeroy," " potage a la Conde," " gigot d la See also:

• MAILLY, LOUISE JULIE, COMTESSE DE (1710-1751)

Mailly," owe their titles to celebrities of the day, and the See also:

• POMPADOUR, JEANNE ANTOINETTE POISSON LE NORMANT

Pompadour gave her name to various others . The See also:

• JESUITS

Jesuits Brunoy and Bougeant, who wrote a preface to a See also:

• CON

con-temporary See also:

• TREATISE

treatise on cookery (1739), described the modern art as " more simple, more appropriate, and more cunning, than that of old days," giving the ingredients the same See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union as painters give to See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours, and harmonizing all the tastes .

The very phrase " See also:

• CORDON (a French derivative of corde, cord)

cordon bleu" (strictly applied only to a woman cook) arose from an enthusiastic recognition of See also:

• FEMALE

female merit by the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king himself . Madame du See also:

• BARRY
• BARRY, ELIZABETH (1658—1713)
• BARRY, JAMES (1741—1806)
• BARRY, SIR CHARLES (1795-1860)
• BARRY, SIR REDMOND (1813-188o)
• BARRY, SPRANGER (1719-1777)

Barry, piqued at his See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion that only a man could cook to perfection, had a See also:

• DINNER

dinner prepared for him by a cuisiniere with such success that the delighted monarch demanded that the artist should be named, in order that so See also:

• PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium)

precious a cuisinier might be engaged for the royal See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household . "Allons donc, la France/ " retorted the ex-grisette, " have I caught you at last ? It is no cuisinier at all, but a cuisiniere, and I demand a recompense for her worthy both of her and of your See also:

• MAJESTY (Fr. majeste; Lat. majestas, grandeur, greatness, from the base mag-, as in magnus, great, major, greater, &c.)

majesty . Your royal See also:

• BOUNTY (through O. Fr. bontet, from Lat. bonitas, goodness)

bounty has made my See also:

• NEGRO (from Lat. eager, black)

negro, Zamore, See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor of I.uciennes, and I cannot accept less than a cordon bleu " (the Royal Order of the See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

Saint Esprit) " for my cuisiniere." The French Revolution was temporarily a See also:

• BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

blow to Parisian cookery, as to everything else of the ancien regime . " Not a single turbot in the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market," was the lament of Grimod de la Reyniere, the great gourmet, and author of the See also:

• MANUEL, EUGENE (1823–1901)
• MANUEL, JACQUES ANTOINE (1775-1827)
• MANUEL, LOUIS PIERRE (1751-1793)

Manuel See also:

• DES

des amphitryons (18o8) . But while it See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell heavily on the class of See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble amphitryons it had one remarkable effect on the art which was epoch-making . It is from that time that we See also:

• NOTICE

notice the rise of the Parisian restaurants . To 1770 is ascribed the first of these, the Champ d'oiseau in the See also:

• RUE (Fr. rue, Lat. ruta, from Gr. pur)

rue des Poulies . In 1789 there were a See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred . In 1804 (when the Almanach des gourmands, the first sustained effort at investing gastronomy with the dignity of an art, was started) there were between 500 and 600 . And in 1814, to such an extent had the restaurants attracted the culinary See also:

• TALENT (Lat. talentum, adaptation of Gr. TaXavrov, balance, ! Recollections of a First Visit to the Alps (1841); Vacation Rambles weight, from root raX-, to lift, as in rXi vac, to bear, 1-aXas, and Thoughts, comprising recollections of three Continental

talent of Paris, that the allied monarchs, on arriving there, had to See also:

• CONTRACT
• CONTRACT (Lat. contract us, from contrahere, to draw together, to bind)

contract with the two See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

brothers Very for the See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of their table .

Among the great gastronomic names of See also:

• NAPOLEON

Napoleon's day was that of his See also:

• CHANCELLOR (M. Eng. and Anglo-Fr. canceler, chanceler, Fr. chancelier, Lat. cancellarius)

chancellor See also:

• CAMBACERES, JEAN JACQUES REGIS DE

Cambaceres, of whose dinners many stories are told . Robert (the eponym of the sauce Robert), Rechaud and Merillion were at this See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period esteemed the See also:

• RAPHAEL (Hebrew smm, " God heals ")

Raphael, See also:

• MICHELANGELO (MICHELAGNIOLO BUONARROTI) (1475-1564)

Michelangelo and See also:

• RUBENS, PETER PAUL (1577-164o)

Rubens of cookery; while A . Beauvilliers (author of Art des cuisines) and Careme (author of the Maitre d'hetel See also:

• FRANCAIS, ANTOINE, COUNT (1756-1836)

francais, and chef at different times to the See also:

• TSAR, or CZAR

Tsar See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander I., Talleyrand, See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George IV. and See also:

• BARON
• BARON (1835-1895)
• BARON, MICHEL (1653—1729)

Baron See also:

• ROTHSCHILD

Rothschild) were no less celebrated) . Perhaps the greatest name of all in the history of the literature of cookery is that of Anthelme Brillat-Savarin (1755-1826), the French See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge and author of the Physiologie du See also:

• GOAT (a common Teut. word; O. Eng. gat, Goth. gaits, Mod. Ger. Geiss, cognate with Lat. haedus, a kid)

goat (1825), the classic of gastronomy . In England Louis Eustache Ude, See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles Elme Francatelli, and See also:

• ALEXIS
• ALEXIS, WILLIBALD

Alexis See also:

• SOYER, ALEXIS BENOIT (1809-1858)

Soyer carried on the tradition, all being not only cooks but authors of See also:

• TREATISES

treatises on the art . The See also:

• ORIGINAL

Original (1835) of See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas See also:

• WALKER, FRANCIS AMASA (1840-1897)
• WALKER, FREDERICK (184o--1875)
• WALKER, GEORGE (c. 1618-169o)
• WALKER, HENRY OLIVER (1843— )
• WALKER, HORATIO (1858– )
• WALKER, JOHN (1732—1807)
• WALKER, OBADIAH (1616-1699)
• WALKER, ROBERT (d. c. 1658)
• WALKER, ROBERT JAMES (1801-1869)
• WALKER, SEARS COOK (1805—1853)
• WALKER, THOMAS (1784—1836)
• WALKER, WILLIAM (1824-1860)

Walker, the See also:

• LAMBETH

Lambeth See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police See also:

• MAGISTRATE (Lat. magistratus, from magister, master, properly a public office, hence the person holding such an office)

magistrate, is another work which has inspired later pens . Like the Physiologie du goat, it is no mere cookery-See also:

• BOOK

book, but a See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound of observation and See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy . Among simple See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand-books, Mrs Glasse's, Dr See also:

• KITCHENER, HORATIO HERBERT KITCHENER, VISCOUNT (1850- )

Kitchener's and Mrs Rundell's were See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• WORKS

works in the 18th and See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early 19th centuries; and in France the Cuisiniere de la campagne (1818) went through edition after edition . An interesting old English work is Dr Pegge's Forme of Cury (178o), which includes some See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical reflections on the subject . " We have some See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good families in England," he says, " of the name of Cook or See also:

• COKE (a northern English word, possibly connected with " colk," core)
• COKE, SIR EDWARD (1552-1634)
• COKE, SIR JOHN (1563-1644)
• COKE, THOMAS (1747-1814)

Coke . . . . Depend upon it, they all originally sprang from real professional cooks, and they need not be ashamed of their extraction any more than Porters, Butlers, &c." He points out that cooks in early days were of some importance; See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William the Conqueror bestowed See also:

• LAND

land on his coquorum praepositus and coquus regius; and Domesday Book records the bestowal of a See also:

• MANOR

manor on Robert Argyllon, by the service of a dish called " de la Groute" on the king's See also:

• CORONATION (Lat. corona, crown)

coronation day .

At the present time, whatever the See also:

• LOCAL

local varieties of cooking, and the difference of See also:

• NATIONAL

national See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom, French cooking is admittedly the ideal of the culinary art, directly we leave the plain • See Lady S . O . See also:

• MORGAN
• MORGAN, DANIEL (1736-1802)
• MORGAN, EDWIN DENNISON (1811-1883)
• MORGAN, JOHN HUNT (1825-1864)
• MORGAN, JOHN PIERPONT (1837–1913)
• MORGAN, LEWIS HENRY (1818-1881)
• MORGAN, SYDNEY, LADY (c. 1783-1859)
• MORGAN, THOMAS (d. 1743)

Morgan's France, 1829-183o, ii . 414, for an See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of a dinner by Careme.roast and boiled . And the spread of See also:

• COSMOPOLITAN (Gr. Kbvµos, world, and IroXirgs, citizen)

cosmopolitan hotels and restaurants over England, See also:

• AMERICA

America and the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent, has largely accustomed the whole civilized See also:

• WORLD

world to the Parisian type . The improvements in the appliances and appurtenances of the kitchen have made the whole world See also:

• KIN (0. E. cyn, a word represented in nearly all Teutonic languages, cf. Du. kunne, Dan. and Swed. kon, Goth kuni, tribe; the Teutonic base is kunya; the equivalent Aryan root gan- to beget, produce, is seen in Gr. 'yEvos, Lat. genus, cf. "kind")

kin in the arts of dining, but the French chef remains the typical See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master of his See also:

• CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf. Ger. Kraft)

craft . See also:

• SCHOOLS

Schools of cookery have been added to the educational See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

machine . The literature of the subject has passed beyond enumeration . It is unnecessary here to pursue so vast a See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical subject into detail; but the following notes on broiling, roasting, See also:

• BAKING

baking, boiling, stewing and frying may be useful . Broiling.—The earliest method of cooking was probably burying seeds and flesh in hot ashes, a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of broiling on all the surfaces at the same time, which when properly done is the most delicate kind of cooking . Broiling is now done over a clear See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire extending at least 2 in. beyond the edges of the gridiron, which should slightly incline towards the cook . It is usual to rub the bars with a piece of See also:

• SUET (M. Eng. sewet, a diminutive of O. Fr. seu, suis, mod. suif, lard, from Lat. sebum, or sebum, tallow, grease, probably allied to sago, soap)

suet for meat, and See also:

• CHALK

chalk for fish, to prevent the thing broiled from being marked with the bars of the gridiron .

In this kind of cookery the See also:

• OBJECT

object is to coagulate as quickly as possible all the albumen on the See also:

• SURFACE

surface, and See also:

• SEAL
• SEAL, FUR
• SEAL, HAIR

seal up the pores of the meat so as to keep in all the juices and flavour . It is, therefore, necessary thoroughly to warm the gridiron before putting on the meat, or the heat of the fire is conducted away while the juices and flavour of the meat run into the fire . Broiling is a simple kind of cookery, and one well suited to invalids and persons of delicate appetites . There is no other way in which small quantities of meat can be so well and so quickly cooked . Broiling cannot be well done in front of an open fire, because one See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the meat is exposed to a current of See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air . A pair of See also:

• TONGS (O. Eng. Lange, M. Eng. tonge, cf. Du. tang, Ger. Zange, from base tang, to bite, cf. Gr. SaKVeiv)

tongs should be used instead of a fork for turning all broiled meat and fish . Roasting.—Two conditions are necessary for good roasting—a clear See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

bright fire and frequent basting . Next to boiling or stewing it is the most economical method of cooking . The meat at first should be placed See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close to a brisk fire for five minutes to coagulate the albumen . It should then be See also:

• DRAWN

drawn back a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short distance and roasted slowly . If a meat See also:

• SCREEN (usually, but very doubtfully, connected with Lat. scrinium, a box for holding books, from scribere, to write; a connexion with Ger. Schranke, barrier, has been suggested)

screen be used, it should be placed before the fire to be moderately heated before the meat is put to roast . The centre of gravity of the fire should be a little above the centre of gravity of the See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint .

No kitchen can be See also:

• COMPLETE

complete without an open range, for it is almost impossible to have a properly roasted joint in closed kitcheners . The heat radiated from a good open fire quickly coagulates the albumen on the surface, and thus to a large extent prevents that which is fluid in the interior from solidifying . The connective See also:

• TISSUE (Fr. tissu, tissue, participle of tisser, Lat. texere, to weave)

tissue which unites the See also:

• FIBRES
• FIBRES (or FIBERS, in American spelling; from Lat. fibra, apparently connected either with filum, thread, or findere, to split)

fibres is gradually converted into See also:

• GELATIN, or GELATINE

gelatin, and rendered easily soluble . The See also:

• FIBRIN, or FIBRINE

fibrin and albumen appear to undergo a higher oxidation and are more readily dissolved . The See also:

• FAT (O.E. fdett; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vet, Ger. Fett, &c., and may be ultimately related to Greek Irian, and =apos, and Sanskrit pivan)

fat cells are gradually broken, and the liquid fat unites to a small extent with the chloride of See also:

• SODIUM [symbol Na, from Lat. natrium; atomic weight 23.00 (0=16)]

sodium and the tribasic phosphate of sodium contained in the serum of the See also:

• BLOOD

blood . It is easily seen that roasting by coagulating the See also:

• EXTERNAL

external albumen keeps together the most valuable parts of the meat, till they have gradually and slowly undergone the desired See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change . This surface coagulation is not sufficient to prevent the See also:

• FREE

free See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access of the See also:

• OXYGEN (symbol 0, atomic weight 16)

oxygen of the surrounding air . The empyreumatic See also:

• OILS (adopted from the Fr. oile, mod. huile, Lat. oleum, olive oil)

oils generated on the surface are neither wholesome nor agreeable, and these are perhaps better removed by roasting than any other method except broiling . The chief object is to retain as much as possible all the sapid juicy properties of the meat, so that at the first cut the See also:

• GRAVY

gravy flows out of a See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich reddish See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour, and this can only be accomplished by a See also:

• QUICK

quick coagulation of the surface albumen . The time for roasting varies slightly with the kind of meat and the See also:

• SIZE

size of the joint . As a See also:

• RULE

rule See also:

• BEEF (through O. Fr. boef, mod. boeuf, from Lat. bos, bovis, ox, Gr. f3oiir, which show the ultimate connexion with the Sanskrit go, gaits, ox, and thus with " cow")

beef and mutton require a See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of an See also:

• HOUR

hour to the See also:

• POUND
• POUND (2)—(a)

pound; veal and pork about 17 minutes to the pound . To tell whether the joint is done, See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press the fleshy See also:

• PART

part with a spoon; if the meat yield easily it is done .

Baking meat is in many respects objectionable, and should never be done if any other method is available . The See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual disuse of open grates for roasting has led to a practice of first baking and then See also:

• BROWNING, ELIZABETH BARRETT (z8o6-r861)
• BROWNING, OSCAR (1837- )
• BROWNING, ROBERT (1812-1889)

browning before the fire . This method completely reverses the true order of cooking by beginning with the lowest temperature and See also:

• FINISHING

finishing with the highest . Baked meat has never the delicate flavour of roast meat, nor is it so digestible . The vapours given off by the charring of the surface cannot freely See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape, and the meat is cooked in an See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere charged with empyreumatic oil . A See also:

• BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French brique, originally a " broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic brikan, to break)

brick or earthenware See also:

• OVEN (O. Eng. of n,Ger. Ofen, cf. Gr. Irvin, oven)

oven is preferable to See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron, because the porous nature of the bricks absorbs a good See also:

• DEAL

deal of the vapour . When potatoes are baked with meat, they should always be first parboiled, because they take a longer time to See also:

• BAKE, JAN (1787-1864)

bake, arid the moisture rising from the potatoes retards the See also:

• PROCESS

process of baking, and makes the meat sodden . A baked meat See also:

• PIE

pie, though not always very digestible, is far less objectionable than plain baked meat . In the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of a meat pie the surfaces of the meat are protected by a See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad conductor of heat from that charring of the surface which generates empyreumatic vapours, and the fat and gravy, gradually rising in temperature, assist the cooking, and such cooking more nearly resembles stewing than baking . The process may go on for a long time after the removal of the meat from the oven, if surrounded with See also:

• FLANNEL

flannel, or some 76 bad conductor of heat . The Cornish pasty is the best example of this kind of cooking . Meat, fish, See also:

• GAME

game, parboiled vegetables, apples or anything that See also:

• FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of " fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fantasie, modern fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. cbavraoia, Oavrai'ecv, Oat Pais, to show)

fancy suggests, are surrounded with a thick See also:

• FLOUR

flour and See also:

• WATER

water crust and slowly baked .

When removed from the oven, and packed in layers of flannel, the pasty will keep hot for See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours . When baked dishes contain eggs, it should be remembered that the albumen becomes harder and more insoluble, according to the time occupied in cooking . About the same time is required for baking as roasting . Boiling is one of the easiest methods of cooking, but a successful result depends on a number of conditions which, though they appear trifling, are nevertheless necessary . The fire must be watched so as properly to regulate the heat . The saucepan should be scrupulously clean and have a closely-fitting lid, and be large enough to hold sufficient water to well See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover and surround the meat, and all scum should be removed as it comes to the surface; the addition of small quantities of cold water will assist the rising of the scum . For all cooking purposes clean See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain water is to be preferred . Among cooks a great difference of opinion exists as to whether meat should be put into cold water and gradually brought to the boiling point, or should be put into boiling water . This, like many other unsettled questions in cookery, is best decided by careful scientific experiment and observation . If a piece of meat be put into water at a temperature of 6o°, and gradually raised to 212°, the meat is undergoing a gradual loss of its soluble and nutritious properties, which are dissolved in the water . From the surface to the interior the albumen is partially dissolved out of the meat, the fibres become hard and stringy, and the thinner the piece of meat the greater the loss of all those sapid constituents which make boiled meat savoury, juicy and palatable . To put meat into cold water is clearly the best method for making soups and broth; it is the French method of preparing the pot an See also:

• FEU

feu; but the meat at the end of the operation has lost much of that juicy sapid See also:

• PROPERTY

property which makes boiled meat so acceptable .

The practice of soaking fresh meat in cold water before cooking is for the same reasons highly objectionable; if necessary, wipe it with a clean See also:

• CLOTH

cloth . But in the case of salted, smoked and dried meats soaking for several hours is indispensable, and the water should be occasionally changed . The other method of boiling meat has the authority of Baron See also:

• LIEBIG, JUSTUS VON, BARON (1803-1873)

Liebig, who recommends putting the meat into water when in a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of ebullition, and after five minutes the saucepan is to be drawn aside, and the contents kept at a temperature of 162° (5o° below boiling) . The effect of boiling water is to coagulate the albumen on the surface of the meat, which prevents,but not entirely,the juices from passingintothe water, and meat thus boiled has more flavour and has lost much less in See also:

• WEIGHT

weight . To obtain well-flavoured boiled meat the idea of soups or broth must be a secondary See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration . It is, however, impossible to cook a piece of meat in water without extracting some of its juices and nutriment, and the liquor should in both cases be made into a soup . Stewing.—When meat is slowly cooked in a close See also:

• VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel it is said to be stewed; this method is generally adopted in the preparation of made dishes . Different kinds of meat may be used, or only one kind according to taste . The better the meat the better the stew; but by carefully stewing the coarsest and roughest parts will become soft, See also:

• TENDER

tender and digestible, which would not be possible by any other kind of cooking . See also:

• ODD (in middle English odde, from old Norwegian oddi, an angle of a triangle; the old Norwegian oddamann is used of the third man who gives a casting vote in a dispute)

Odd pieces of meat and trimmings and bones can often be See also:

• PURCHASED

purchased cheaply, and may be turned into good food by stewing . Bones, although containing little meat, contain from 39 to 49 % of gelatin . The large bones should be broken into small pieces, and allowed to simmer till every piece is See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white and dry .

Gelatin is largely used both in the form of jellies and soups . Lean meat, free from blood, is best for stewing, and, when cut into convenient pieces, it should be slightly browned in a little See also:

• BUTTER (Lat. butyrum, Gr. 0obrvpov, apparently connected with $ous, cow, and rvpbs, cheese, but, according to the New English Dictionary, perhaps of Scythian origin)

butter or dripping . See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

Constant attention is necessary during this process, to prevent burning . The meat should be covered with soft water or, better, a little stock, and set aside to simmer for four or five hours, according to the nature of the material . When vegetables are used, these should also be slightly browned and added at intervals, so as not materially to See also:

• LOWER

lower the temperature . Stews may be thickened by the addition of See also:

• PEARL
• PEARL, THE

pearl See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley, See also:

• SAGO

sago, See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

rice, potatoes, oatmeal, flour, &c., and flavoured with herbs and condiments according to taste . Although stewing is usually done in a stewpan or saucepan with a close-fitting cover, a good See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone See also:

• JAR

jar, with a well-fitting lid, is prefer-able in the homes of working See also:

• PEOPLE

people . This is better than a See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal saucepan, and can be more easily kept clean; it retains the heat longer, and can be placed in the oven or covered with hot ashes . The See also:

• COMMON

common red jar is not suitable; it does not stand the heat so well as a See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey jar; and the red glaze inside often gives way in the presence of See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt . The lid of a vessel used for stewing should be re-moved as little as possible . An occasional shake will prevent the meat from sticking . At the end of the operation all the fat should be carefully removed .

Frying.—See also:

• LARD (Fr. lard, from Lat. laridum, bacon fat, related to Gr. Naptvos fat, Napos dainty or sweet)

Lard, oil, butter, or dripping may be used for frying . There are two methods of frying—the dry method, as in frying a pancake, and the wet method, as when the thing fried is immersed in a See also:

• BATH
• BATH, THOMAS THYNNE
• BATH, WILLIAM

bath of hot fat . In the former case a frying See also:

• PAN (" pasturer ")
• PAN (common in various forms to many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Pfanne; it is generally taken to be an early adaptation in a shortened form of Lat. patina, shallow bowl or dish, from patere, to lie open)

pan is used, in the other a frying See also:

• KETTLE, SIR RUPERT ALFRED (1817-1894)

kettle or stewpan . It is usual for most things to have a See also:

• WIRE (A.S. wir, a wire; cf. Swed. vire, to twist, M.H.G. wiere, a gold ornament, Lat. viriae, armlets, ultimately from the root wi, to twist, bind)

wire frying See also:

• BASKET

basket; the things to be fried are placed in the basket and immersed at the proper temperature in the hot fat . The fat should gradually rise in temperature over a slow fire till it attainsnearly 400° Fahr . Great care is required to See also:

• FRY
• FRY, ELIZABETH (178o-1845)
• FRY, SIR EDWARD (1827– )

fry properly . If the temperature is too See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low the things immersed in the fat are not fried, but soddened; if, on the other hand, the temperature is too high, they are charred . The temperature of the fat varies slightly with the nature of things to be fried . Fish, cutlets, croquets, rissoles and fritters are well fried at a temperature of 380° Fahr . Potatoes, chops and white bait are better fried at a temperature of 400° Fahr . Care must be taken not to lower the temperature too much by introducing too many things . The most successful frying is when the fat rises two or three degrees during the frying .

Fried things should be of a See also:

• GOLDEN

golden See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown colour, crisp and free from fat . When fat or oil has been used for fish it must be kept for fish . It is customary first to use fat for croquets, rissoles, fritters and other delicate things, and then to take it for fish . Everything fried in fat should be placed on bibulous See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper to absorb any fat on the surfaces .