See also:

• COPERNICUS (or KOPPERNIGK), NICOLAUS (1473-1543)

COPERNICUS (or KOPPERNIGK), NICOLAUS (1473-1543)  , See also:

• POLISH

Polish astronomer, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born on the 19th of See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 1493, at See also:

• THORN (O. Eng. porn, cf. Du. doorn, Ger. Dorn, &c)
• THORN (Polish Torun)

Thorn in Prussian See also:

• POLAND (Polish Polska, Ger. Polen), (see POLAND, RUSSIAN, below)
• POLAND, RUSSIAN

Poland, where his See also:

• FATHER

father, a native of See also:

• CRACOW (Pol. Krakov; Ger. Krakau)

Cracow, had settled as a wholesale trader . His See also:

• MOTHER

mother, See also:

• BARBARA, SAINT

Barbara Watzelrode, belonged to a See also:

• FAMILY

family of high See also:

• MERCANTILE (or COMMERCIAL) AGENCIES

mercantile and civic See also:

• STANDING

standing . After the See also:

• DEATH

death of his father in 1483, Nicolaus was virtually adopted by his See also:

• UNCLE

uncle See also:

• LUCAS, CHARLES (1713–1771)
• LUCAS, JOHN SEYMOUR (1849– )
• LUCAS, SIR CHARLES (d. 1648)

Lucas Watzelrode, later (in 1489) See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop of See also:

• ERMELAND, or ERMLAND (Varmia)

Ermeland . Placed at the university of Cracow in 1491, he devoted himself, during three years, to mathematical See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science under See also:

• ALBERT
• ALBERT (1490'1545)
• ALBERT (149o-1568)
• ALBERT (1522–1557)
• ALBERT (FRANCIS CHARLES AUGUSTUS ALBERT EMMANUEL) (1819—1861)
• ALBERT (FRIEDRICH RUDOLF ALBRECHT)
• ALBERT, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS
• ALBERT, MADAME (c. 2805—2846)

Albert Brudzewski (1445-1497), and incidentally acquired some skill in See also:

• PAINTING

painting . At the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of twenty-three he repaired to See also:

• BOLOGNA
• BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI DA (1524–1608)

Bologna, and there varied his studies of See also:

• CANON

canon See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law by attending the astronomical lectures of Domenico Maria See also:

• NOVARA

Novara (1454-1504) . At See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, in the See also:

• JUBILEE (or JUBILE), YEAR OF

Jubilee See also:

• YEAR

year 1500, he himself lectured with See also:

• APPLAUSE (Lat. applaudere, to strike upon, clap)

applause; but having been nominated in 1497 canon. of the See also:

• CATHEDRAL

cathedral of See also:

• FRAUENBURG

Frauenburg, he recrossed the See also:

• ALPS

Alps in 1501 with the purpose of obtaining further leave of See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence for the completion of his See also:

• ACADEMIC

academic career . See also:

• LATE

Late in the same year, accordingly, he entered the medical school of See also:

• PADUA (Lat. Patavium ; Ital. Padova)

Padua, where he remained until 1505, having taken meanwhile a See also:

• DOCTOR (Lat. for " teacher ")

doctor's degree in- canon law at See also:

• FERRARA

Ferrara on the 31st of May 1503 . After his return to his native See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country he resided at the episcopal See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace of See also:

• HEILSBERG

Heilsberg as his uncle's physician until the latter's death on the 29th of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 1512 . He then retired to Frauenburg, and vigorously attended to his capitular duties . He never took orders, but acted continually as the representative of the See also:

• CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head)

chapter under harassing conditions, administrative and See also:

• POLITICAL

political; he was besides See also:

• COMMISSARY (from Med. Lat. commissaries, one to whom a charge or trust is committed)

commissary of the See also:

• DIOCESE (formed on Fr. diocese, in place of the Eng. form diocess—current until the 19th century—from Lat. dioecesis, med. Lat. variant diocesis, from Gr. Swucio•tc, " house-keeping," " administration," &miceas, " to keep house," " to govern ")

diocese of Ermeland; his medical skill, always at the service of the poor, was frequently in demand by the See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich; and he laid a See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme for the reform of the currency before the See also:

• DIET

Diet of See also:

• GRAUDENZ (Polish Grudziadz)

Graudenz in 1522 . Yet he found See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, amid these multifarious occupations, to elaborate an entirely new See also:

• SYSTEM

system of See also:

• ASTRONOMY (from Gr. &arpov, a star, and v ,usiv, to classify or arrange)

astronomy, by the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of which See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man's outlook on the universe was fundamentally changed . The See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main lines of his See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• WORK

work were laid down at Heilsberg; at Frauenburg, from 1513, he sought, with scanty instrumental means, to test by observation the truth of the views it embodied (see ASTRONOMY: See also:

• HISTORY

History) .

His dissatisfaction with Ptolemaic doctrines was of See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early date; and he returned from See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, where so-called See also:

• PYTHAGOREAN

Pythagorean opinions were then freely discussed, in strong and irrevocable See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of the See also:

• HELIOCENTRIC

heliocentric theory . The See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch-making See also:

• TREATISE

treatise in which it was set forth, virtually finished in 1530, began to be known through the circulation in See also:

• MANUSCRIPT

manuscript of a Commentariolus, or brief popular See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of its purport written by See also:

• COPERNICUS (or KOPPERNIGK), NICOLAUS (1473-1543)

Copernicus in that year . Johann Albrecht Widmanstadt lectured upon it in Rome; See also:

• CLEMENT (Lat. Clemens, i.e. merciful; Gr. K)4gs)
• CLEMENT, FRANCOIS (1714-1793)
• CLEMENT, JACQUES (1567-1589)

Clement VII. approved, and See also:

• CARDINAL (Lat. cardinalis)

Cardinal Schonberg transmitted to the author a formal demand for full publication . But his assent to this was only extracted from him in 1540 by the importunities of his See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends, especially of his enthusiastic See also:

• DISCIPLE

disciple See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George See also:

• JOACHIM, JOSEPH (1831—1907)

Joachim See also:

• RHETICUS, or RRAETICUS (1514-1576)

Rheticus (1514-1576), who printed, in the Narratio prima (See also:

• DANZIG, or DANTSIC (Polish Gdansk)

Danzig, 1540), a preliminary account of the Copernican theory, and simultaneously sent to the See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press at See also:

• NUREMBERG (Ger. Nurnberg)

Nuremberg his See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master's See also:

• COMPLETE

complete exposition of it in the treatise entitled De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543) . But the first printed copy reached Frauenburg barely in time to be laid on the writer's death-See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed . Copernicus was seized with See also:

• APOPLEXY (Gr. arov n i.a, from aroaMvvew, to strike down, to stun)

apoplexy and See also:

• PARALYSIS, or PALSY (from Gr. aapal,6a , to relax; Wycliffe has palesy, and another old form of the word is parlesy)

paralysis towards the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of 1542, and died on the 24th of May 1543, happily unconscious that the See also:

• FINE

fine See also:

• EPISTLE

Epistle, in which he had dedicated his See also:

• LIFE

life's work to See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul III., was marred of its effect by an See also:

• ANONYMOUS

anonymous -See also:

• PREFACE (Med. Lat. prefatia, for classical praefatio, praefari, to speak beforehand)

preface, slipt in by Andreas See also:

• OSIANDER, ANDREAS (1498–1552)

Osiander (1498-1552), with a view to disarming See also:

• PREJUDICE (Lat. praejudicium)

prejudice by insisting upon the purely hypothetical See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the reasonings it introduced . The trigonometrical See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section of the See also:

• BOOK

book had been issued as a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate treatise (See also:

• WITTEN

Witten-See also:

• BERG (Ducatus Montensis)

berg, 1542) under the care of Rheticus . The only work published by Copernicus on his own initiative was a Latin version of the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek Epistles of See also:

• THEOPHYLACT (d. c.. 1110)

Theophylact (Cracow, 1509) . His treatise De monetae cudendae ratione, 1526 (first printed in 1816), written by See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King See also:

• SIGISMUND (1368-1437)

Sigismund I., is an exposition of the principles on which it was proposed to reform the currency of the Prussian provinces of Poland . It See also:

• ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF

advocates unity of the monetary system throughout the entire See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, with strict integrity in the quality yof the See also:

• COIN
• COIN (older forms of the word are coyne, quoin and coign, all derived through the O. Fr. coing, and cuigne from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

coin, and the See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of a See also:

• SEIGNIORAGE

seigniorage sufficient to See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover the expenses of mintage . See also:

• AUTH0RITIES

AuTH0RITIEs.—Rheticus was the only contemporary biographer of Copernicus, and his narrative perished irretrievably . Gassendi's jejune Life (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1654) is thus the earliest extant of any See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note .

It was supplemented, during the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, by the various publications of J . Sniadecki (See also:

• WARSAW
• WARSAW (Polish Warszawa, Ger. Warschau, Fr. Varsovie)

Warsaw, 18o3—1818); of J . H . W . See also:

• WESTPHAL, RUDOLF (1826—1892)

Westphal, J . Czynski, M . Curtze, H . A . Wolynski, F . Hipler, and others, but their efforts were overshadowed by Dr See also:

• LEOPOLD (M.H. Ger. Liupolt; O.H. Ger. Liupald, from hut, Mod. Ger. Leute, " people," and paid, " bold," i.e. " bold for the people ")

Leopold Prowe's exhaustive Nicolaus Coppernicus (See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, 1883—1884), embodying the outcome of researches indefatigably prosecuted for over See also:

• THIRTY

thirty years . The first See also:

• VOLUME

volume (in two parts) is a detailed See also:

• BIOGRAPHY (from the Gr. (3ios, life, and yp&4 , writing)

biography of the great astronomer; the second includes some of his See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor writings and See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence, family records, and See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical documents of See also:

• LOCAL

local See also:

• INTEREST

interest . The effects of his See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian sojourn upon the nascent ideas of Copernicus may be profitably studied in Domenico Berti's Copernico e le vicende del sistema Copernicano in Italia (See also:

• ROMA

Roma, 1876), and in G .

V . See also:

• SCHIAPARELLI, GIOVANNI VIRGINIO (1835-191o)

Schiaparelli's I Precursori del Copernico nell' antichild (Milano, 1873) . A See also:

• CENTENARY (from Lat. centenarius, of or belonging to a hundred, from centeni, distributive of centum, hundred)

centenary edition of De revolutionibus orbium coelestium was issued at Thorn in 1873, and a See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation by C . L . Menzzer in 1879 . (A . M . C.) COPIAPb, a See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• CHILE, or CHILI (derived, it is said, from the Quichua chin , cold, or tchili, snow)

Chile, See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of See also:

• ATACAMA
• ATACAMA, DESERT OF

Atacama, about 35 M. from the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast on the Copiapo See also:

• RIVER

river, in See also:

• LAT

lat . 27° 36' S., See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long . 70° 23' W . Pop . (1895) 9301 .

The Caldera & Copiapo railway (built 1848—1851 and one of the first in See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• AMERICA

America) extends beyond Copiapo to the Chanarcillo mines (5o m.) and other See also:

• MINING

mining districts . Copiapo stands 1300 ft. above See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea-level and has a mean temperature of about 67° in summer and 51° in See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter . Its See also:

• PORT

port, Caldera, 50 M. distant by See also:

• RAIL

rail, is situated on a well-sheltered See also:

• BAY

bay with See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• SHIPPING

shipping facilities about 6 m . N. of the mouth of the Copiapo river . Copiapo is perhaps the best built and most attractive of the See also:

• DESERT

desert region cities . The river brings down from the mountains enough See also:

• WATER

water to See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply the See also:

• TOWN

town and irrigate a considerable See also:

• AREA

area in its vicinity . Beyond the small fertile valley in which it stands is the barren desert, on which See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain rarely falls and which has no economic value apart from its minerals (especially saline compounds) . Copiapo was founded in 1742 by Jose de Manso (afterwards See also:

• CONDE
• CONDE, LOUIS DE BOURBON, PRINCE
• CONDE, LOUIS II
• CONDE, PRINCES OF

Conde, de Superunda, See also:

• VICEROY (from O. Fr. viceroy, mod. viceroi, i.e. Lat. vice, in place of, and roy or roi, king)

viceroy of See also:

• PERU
• PERU (apparently from Biru, a small river on the west coast of Colombia, where Pizarro landed)

Peru) and took its name from the Copayapu See also:

• INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN

Indians who occupied that region . It was primarily a military station and transport See also:

• POST

post on the road to Peru, but after the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery of the rich See also:

• SILVER

silver deposits near Chanarcillo by Juan See also:

• GODOY, ALVAREZ DE FARIA, RIOS SANCHEZ Y ZARZOSA, MANUEL DE (1767-1851)

Godoy in 1832 it became an important mining centre . It has a good mining school and reduction See also:

• WORKS

works, and is the supply station for an extensive mining See also:

• DISTRICT

district . For many years the Famatina mines of See also:

• ARGENTINA

Argentina received supplies from this point by way of the Come-Caballo pass .