See also:

• CORUNNA
• CORUNNA (Span. La Coruna; Fr. La Corogne; Eng. formerly often The Groyne)

CORUNNA (Span. La Coruna; Fr. La Corogne; Eng. formerly often The Groyne)  , the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province described above; in 430 22' N., and 8° 22' W.; on the See also:

• BAY

bay of See also:

• CORUNNA
• CORUNNA (Span. La Coruna; Fr. La Corogne; Eng. formerly often The Groyne)

Corunna, an inlet of the See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic Ocean . Pop . (1900) 43,971 . The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways of See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-western See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain converge on Corunna, and afford See also:

• DIRECT

direct communication with See also:

• MADRID

Madrid and See also:

• OPORTO (i.e. o Porto, " the port ")

Oporto . Corunna consists of an upper and a See also:

• LOWER

lower See also:

• TOWN

town, built respectively on the eastern See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of a small See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula, and on the See also:

• ISTHMUS (Gr.io0pbs, neck)

isthmus connecting the peninsula with the mainland . The upper town is the more See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient, and is still surrounded by walls and bastions, and defended by a citadel; but it has been gradually outgrown by the lower, which, though at first a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere fishing See also:

• VILLAGE

village, as its name of Pescaderia implies, is now comparatively well built, and has many broad and See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand-some streets . There is little remarkable in the public buildings, although the churches of See also:

• SANTIAGO, or SANTIAGO DE CHILE

Santiago and the Colegiata date respectively from the 12th and 13th centuries, and there are several convents, two hospitals, a See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace for the See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

captain-See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general of See also:

• GALICIA (Ger. Galizien; Pol. Halicz)
• GALICIA (the ancient Gallaecia or Callaecia, KaMauci,a or KaXau da)

Galicia, a See also:

• THEATRE (BEarpov, " a place for seeing," from OeacOae)

theatre, a school of See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation, an See also:

• ARSENAL

arsenal and See also:

• BARRACKS (derived through the French from the Late Lat. barra, a bar)
• BARRACKS, CAMP

barracks . The See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

harbour is on the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east . Though difficult to approach in stormy See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather, it is completely sheltered, and accommodates vessels See also:

• DRAWING

drawing 22 ft . It is defended by several forts, of which the most important are See also:

• SAN

San Diego, on the east, and San See also:

• ANTONIO
• ANTONIO (1429—1498)
• ANTONIO, NICOLAS (1617-1684)

Antonio, on the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west . These fortifications are of little See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical value on the landward side, as they are commanded by a See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill which over-looks the town . The so-called See also:

• TOWER (Lat. turris; Fr. tour, clocker; Ital. torre; Ger. Thurm)

Tower of See also:

• HERCULES
• HERCULES (0. Lat. Hercoles, Hercles)

Hercules, on the north, has been increased by See also:

• MODERN

modern additions to a height of nearly 400 ft., and is surmounted by a See also:

• FINE

fine revolving See also:

• LIGHT

light .

Many See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign steamers See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call here, for emigrants or mails, on their way to See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• AMERICA

America . Upwards of 1200 See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

merchant See also:

• SHIPS

ships, mostly See also:

• BRITISH

British, entered the See also:

• PORT

port in 1905 . The exports are chiefly agricultural produce, See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine and See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish; the imports are See also:

• COAL

coal, colonial products, and manufactured goods . See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

Chief among the See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial establishments is a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco factory; the sardine and See also:

• HERRING (Clupea harengus, Haring in German, le hareng in French, sill in Swedish)

herring See also:

• FISHERIES

fisheries also employ alarge number of the inhabitants . Corunna, possibly at first a Phoenician See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement, is usually identified with the ancient Ardobrica, a seaport mentioned by the 1st-See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century historian, See also:

• POMPONIUS, LUCIUS

Pomponius See also:

• MELA, POMPONIUS (ft. c. A.D. 43)

Mela, as in the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country of the Artabri, from whom the name of See also:

• PORTUS

Portus Artabrorum was given to the bay on which the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city is situated . In the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages, and probably at an earlier See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period, it was called Caronium; and this name is much more probably the origin of the See also:

• PRESENT

present designation than the Latin Columna which is sometimes put forward . The harbour has always been of considerable importance, but it is only in comparatively modern times that it has made a figure in See also:

• HISTORY

history . In 1588 it gave shelter to the Invincible See also:

• ARMADA, THE

Armada; in 1598 the town was captured and burned by the British under See also:

• DRAKE, NATHAN (1766-1836)
• DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS (c. 1545-1595)

Drake and See also:

• NORRIS
• NORRIS, FRANK (1870—1902)
• NORRIS, HENRY NORRIS
• NORRIS, JOHN (1657-1711)
• NORRIS, SIR JOHN (c. 1547-1597)
• NORRIS, WILLIAM EDWARD (1847– )

Norris . In 1747, and again in 18o5, the bay was the See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene of a See also:

• NAVAL

naval victory of the British over the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French; and on the 16th of See also:

• JANUARY

January 1809 a See also:

• BATTLE

battle took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in the neighbourhood, which is celebrated in British military See also:

• ANNALS (Annales, from annus, a year)

annals (see See also:

• PENINSULAR

PENINSULAR See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

WAR) . The French under See also:

• MARSHAL (med. Lat. marescalcus, from O.H.Ger. marah, horse, and scalc, servant)

Marshal See also:

• SOULT, NICOLAS JEAN DE DIEU

Soult attempted to prevent the embarcation of the See also:

• ENGLISH

English under See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• MOORE, A
• MOORE, ALBERT JOSEPH (1841–1893)
• MOORE, EDWARD (1712–1757)
• MOORE, GEORGE (1853– )
• MOORE, GEORGE FOOT (1851– )
• MOORE, HENRY (1831–1895)
• MOORE, JOHN (1729-1802)
• MOORE, SIR JOHN (1761-1809)
• MOORE, THOMAS (1779-1852)

Moore, but were successfully repulsed in spite of their See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers . Moore was mortally wounded and died shortly afterwards . He was hastily buried in the ramparts near the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea; a See also:

• MONUMENT (Lat. monumentum or monumentum; from monere, to advise, bring to mind, remind; the German equivalent is Denkmal)

monument in the Jardin de San See also:

• CARLOS, DON (1545-1568)
• CARLOS, DON (1788-1855)
• CARLOS, DON (CHARLES MARIA DE LOS DOLORES JUAN ISIDOR.E JOSEPH FRANCIS QUIRIN ANTONY MICHAEL GABRIEL RAPHAEL) (1848—1909)

Carlos raised by the British See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government commemorates his See also:

• DEATH

death .

The town joined the revolutionary See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement of 182o, but in 1823 it was forced to capitulate by French troops . In 1836 it was captured by the Carlists . Corunna suffered heavily when Spain was deprived of See also:

• CUBA (the aboriginal name)

Cuba and See also:

• PORTO

Porto Rico by the See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish-See also:

• AMERICAN

American War of 1898, for it had hitherto had a thriving See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade with these colonies . CORV$E, in feudal See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, the See also:

• TERM

term used to designate the unpaid labour due from tenants, whether See also:

• FREE

free or unfree, to their See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

lord; hence any forced labour, especially that exacted by the state, the word being applied both to each particular service and to the See also:

• SYSTEM

system generally . Though the corvee formed a characteristic feature of the feudal system, it was, as an institution, much older than See also:

• FEUDALISM
• FEUDALISM (from Late Lat. feodum or feudum, a fee or fiel; see FEE)

feudalism, and was already See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed in its See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main features under the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire . Thus, under the Roman system, See also:

• PERSONAL

personal services (operae) were due from certain classes of the See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population not only to the state but to private proprietors . Apart from the obligations (operae officiales) imposed on freed-men as a See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of their enfranchisement, which in the country usually took the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of unpaid See also:

• WORK

work on the landlord's domain, the semi-servile coloni were See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound, besides paying See also:

• RENT

rent in See also:

• MONEY

money or See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind, to do a certain number of days' unremunerated labour on that See also:

• PART

part of the See also:

• ESTATE (through O. Fr. estat, mod. flat, from Lat. status, state, condition, position, stare, to stand)

estate reserved by the landed proprietor . The state also exacted personal labour (operae publicae), in lieu of taxes, from certain classes for such purposes as the upkeep of roads, See also:

• BRIDGES
• BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844– )

bridges and dykes; while the inhabitants of the various regions were responsible for the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of the posting system (cursus publicus), for which horses, carts or labour would be requisitioned . Under the Frankish See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings, who in their See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration followed the Roman tradition, this system was preserved . Thus for the repair of roads, or other public See also:

• WORKS

works, within their See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction the See also:

• COUNTS

counts were empowered to requisition the labour of the inhabitants of the pagus, while the missi and other public functionaries on their travels were entitled to demand from the population en route entertainment and the means of transport for themselves and their belongings . It was, however, the economic revolution which between the 6th and loth centuries converted the Gallo-Roman estates into the feudal See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model, and the See also:

• POLITICAL

political conditions under which the officials of the Frankish empire developed into hereditary feudal nobles, that evolved the system of the corvee as it existed throughout the middle ages and, in some countries, survived far into the 19th century . The Roman estate had been cultivated by free farmers, by coloni, and by slave labour .

Under Frankish See also:

• RULE

rule the farmers became coloni or hospites, the slaves, See also:

• SERFS, SERROS

serfs . The estate was now habitually divided into the lord's domain (terra indominicata, dominicum) and a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of allotments (mansi), parcels of See also:

• LAND

land distributed by See also:

• LOT
• LOT (Lat. Oltis)

lot to the cultivators of the domain, who held them, partly by See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment of rent in money or kind, partly by personal service and labour on the domain, these obligations both as to their nature and amount being very rigorously defined and permanently fixed in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of each mansus and passing with the land to each new See also:

• TENANT (from Lat. tenere, to hold)

tenant . They varied, of course, very greatly according to the See also:

• SIZE

size of the holding and the needs of the particular estate, but they possessed certain See also:

• COMMON

common characteristics which are everywhere found . See also:

• LUCHAIRE, DENIS JEAN ACHILLE (1846-1908)

Luchaire (See also:

• MANUEL, EUGENE (1823–1901)
• MANUEL, JACQUES ANTOINE (1775-1827)
• MANUEL, LOUIS PIERRE (1751-1793)

Manuel, p . 346) divides all corvees into two broad categories, (1) corvees properly so called, (2) military services . The second of these, so far as the See also:

• OBLIGATION

obligation to serve in the See also:

• HOST

host (Hostis et equitatus) is concerned, was common to all classes of feudal society; though the obligation of villeins to keep See also:

• WATCH (in O. Eng. wcecce, a keeping guard or watching, from wacian, to guard, watch, wacan, to wake)

watch and See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

ward (gueta, warda) and to labour at the See also:

• BUILDING

building or strengthening of fortifications (muragium, munitio castri) are See also:

• SPECIAL

special corvees . We are, however, mainly concerned with the first See also:

• CATEGORY (Gr. Karrlyopia, " accusation ")

category; which may again be subdivided209 into two main See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups, (1) personal service of men and See also:

• WOMEN

women (manoperae, manuum operae, Fr. manoeuvres, See also:

• MANUAL

manual labour), (2) See also:

• CARRIAGE

carriage (carroperae, carragia, carrata, &c., Fr. charrois), i.e. service rendered by means of carts, barrows or See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught animals . These again were divided into fixed services (operae rigae) and exceptional services, demanded when the others proved in-sufficient . To these latter was given in the 8th century the name of operae corrogatae (i.e. requisitioned works, from rogare, to See also:

• REQUEST, LETTERS OF

request . From this term (corrupted into corvatae, curvadae, corveiae, &c.) is derived the word corvee, which was gradually applied as a general term for all the various services . As to the nature of these corvees it must be noted that in the middle ages the feudal lords had replaced the centralized state for all administrative purposes, and the services due to them by their tenants and serfs, were partly in the nature of rent in the form of labour, partly those which under the Roman and Frankish monarchs had been exacted in lieu of taxes, and which the feudal lords continued to impose as sovereigns of their domains . To the former class belonged the service of personal labour in the See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields, of repairing buildings, See also:

• FELLING

felling trees, threshing See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn, and the like, as well as the hauling of corn, wine or See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood; to the latter belonged that of labouring on the roads, of building and repairing bridges, castles and churches, and of carrying letters and despatches .

Corvees were further distinguished as real, i.e. attached to certain parcels of land, and personal, i.e. due from certain persons . In spite of the fact that the corvees were usually strictly defined by See also:

• LOCAL

local See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom and by the contracts of tenancy, and that, in an See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age when currency was rare, payment in personal labour was a convenience to the poor, the system was open to obvious abuses . With the growth of communal See also:

• LIFE

life in the towns the townsmen See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early managed to rid themselves of these burdensome obligations either by See also:

• PURCHASE

purchase, or by exchanging the obligation of personal work for that of supplying carts, draught animals and the like . In the country, however, the system survived all but intact; and, so far as it was modified, was modified for the worse . Whatever safeguards the free cultivators may have possessed, the serfs were almost everywhere—especially in the loth and 11th centuries—actually as well as nominally in this respect at the See also:

• MERCY (adapted from Fr. merci, Lat. merces, reward)
• MERCY (or MERCI), FRANZ, FREIHERR VON

mercy of their lords (corveables a merci) , there being no limit to the amount of money or work that could be demanded of them . The system was oppressive even when the nobles to whom these services were paid gave something in return, namely, See also:

• PROTECTION

protection to the See also:

• CULTIVATOR

cultivator, his See also:

• FAMILY

family and his land; they became intolerable when the development of the modern state deprived the land-owners of their duties, but not of their rights . In the case of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, in the 17th century the so-called corvee royale was added to the See also:

• BURDEN, or BURTHEN

burden of the peasants, i.e. the obligation to do unpaid labour on the public roads, an obligation made general in 1738; and this, together with the natural resentment of men at the fact that the land which their ancestors had bought was still subject to burdensome personal obligations in favour of See also:

• PEOPLE

people whom they rarely saw and from whom they derived no benefit, was one of the most potent causes of the Revolution . By the Constituent See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

Assembly personal corvees were abolished altogether, while owners of land were allowed the choice of continuing real corvees or commuting them for money . The corvee as an incident of land See also:

• TENURE (Fr. tenure, from Lat. tenere, to hold)

tenure has thus disappeared in France . The corvee royale of repairing the roads, however, abolished in 1789, was revived, under the name of prestation, under the Consulate, by the law of 4 See also:

• THERMIDOR (from Gr. BEpµrt, heat, and & pov, gift)

Thermidor an X., modified by subsequent legislation in 1824, 1836 and 1871 . Under these See also:

• LAWS

laws the See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty of keeping the roads in repair is still vested in the local communities, and all able-bodied men are called upon either to give three days' work or its See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent in money to this purpose . It is precisely the same system as that in force under the Roman Empire, and if it differ from the corvee it is mainly in the fact that the burden is equitably distributed, and that the work done is of actual value to those who do it .

As regards other countries, the corvee was everywhere, sooner or later, abolished with the See also:

• SERFDOM (from Fr. serf, Lat. servus, a servant or slave)

serfdom of which it was the principal incident (see SERFDOM) . Though so early as 1772 Maria See also:

• THERESA, ST (1515-1582)

Theresa had endeavoured to mitigate its hardships in her dominions (in See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary unpaid labour was only to be demanded of the serfs on 52 days in the See also:

• YEAR

year!) it survived longest in the See also:

• AUSTRIAN

Austrian empire, being finally abolished by the revolution of 1848 . The duty of personal labour on the public roads is, however, still maintained in other countries besides France . This was formerly the case in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England also, where the occupiers of each See also:

• PARISH (Gr. irapouda, district, neighbourhood; 7r&poucos, one dwelling near or beside, from crap&, OtKOS, house; Lat. paroecur, Late Lat. parochia; cf. Fr. paroisse)

parish who, by the common law, had See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access to the roads were responsible also for their upkeep . An See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of 555 imposed four days of forced labour for the repair of roads, and an act of See also:

• ELIZABETH
• ELIZABETH (1533-1603)
• ELIZABETH (1596-1662)
• ELIZABETH (1635–1650)
• ELIZABETH [ AMELIE EUGENIE ] (1837—1898)
• ELIZABETH [1lisabeth Philippine Marie Helene of France] (1764—1794)
• ELIZABETH [PAULINE ELIZABETH OTTILIE LOUISE] (1843– )
• ELIZABETH [PETROVNA] (1709-1762), EMPRESS
• ELIZABETH, SAINT (1207-1231)

Elizabeth (5 Eliz. c . 13) raised the number of days to six, or the payment of a See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition instead . Ths system of turnpikes, dating from 1663, which gradually extended over the whole of England, lessened the burden of this system of See also:

• TAXATION
• TAXATION (from " tax," derived, through the French, from Lat. taxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same root as tangere, to touch)

taxation, so far as main roads were concerned, but the greater number of the local roads were subject to repair by statutory labour until the Highways Act 1835, by which highways were put under the direction of a parish surveyor, and the necessary expenses met by a See also:

• RATE

rate levied on the occupiers of land . In See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland, statutory labour on highways was created by an act of 1719, and abolished in 1883 . In See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt, the corvee has been employed from See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time immemorial, more especially for the purpose of cleaning out the See also:

• IRRIGATION (Lat. in, and rigare, to water or wet)

irrigation canals . In the days when only one See also:

• HARVEST (A.S. hcerfest " autumn," O.H. Ger. herbist, possibly through an old Teutonic root representing Lat. car pere, " to pluck ")

harvest a year was reaped, this forced labour was not a very See also:

• GREAT

great burden, but the introduction of See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton and the See also:

• SUGAR

sugar-See also:

• CANE

cane under Mehemet See also:

• ALI

Ali changed the conditions . These latter are crops which require watering at various seasons of the year, and very often the See also:

• FELLAH (pl. Fellahin)

fellah was called away for work in the canals at times when his own crops required the utmost See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention . Moreover, the inequality of the corvee added to the evil .

In some districts it was possible to purchase exemption, and the more wealthy paid no more for the See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege than the humblest fellah, consequently the corvee See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell with undue hardship on the poorer classes . Under the premiership of Riaz See also:

• PASHA

Pasha the corvee was gradually abolished in Egypt between the years 1888 and 1891, and a small rate on the land substituted to provide the labour necessary for cleaning the canals . The corvee is now employed only to a limited extent to guard the See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks of the See also:

• NILE
• NILE, BATTLE OF THE
• NILE, SOBAT

Nile during See also:

• FLOOD (in O. Eng. flod, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Flut, Dutch vloed, from the same root as is seen in " flow," " float ")
• FLOOD, HENRY (1732-1791)

flood . See Du Cange, Glossarium inf. et med . See also:

• LAT

Lat. s.v . " Corvatae "; A Luchaire, Manuel See also:

• DES

des institutions francaiscs (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1892), pp . 346-349 ; La Grande Encyclopedie, s. v., with bibliography . For further works see the bibliography to the See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article SERFDOM .