See also:

• COSTUME
• COSTUME (through the Fr. costume, from Ital. costume, Late Lat. costuma, a contracted form of Lat. consuetudinem, ace. of consuetudo, custom, habit, manner, &c.)

COSTUME (through the Fr. costume, from Ital. costume, See also:

• LATE

Late See also:

• LAT

Lat. costuma, a contracted See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of Lat. consuetudinem, See also:

• ACE (derived through the Lat. as, from the Tarentine form of the Gr. etc)

ace. of consuetudo, See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom, See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit, manner, &c.)  , See also:

• DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

dress or clothing, ,especially the distinctive clothing worn at different periods by different peoples or different classes of See also:

• PEOPLE

people . The word appears in See also:

• ENGLISH

English in the 18th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, and was first applied to the correct See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation, in literature and See also:

• ART

art, of the See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

manners, dress, See also:

• FURNITURE (from " furnish," Fr. fournir)

furniture and See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general surroundings of the See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene represented . By the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• PART

part of the 19th century it became restricted to the See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion or See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style of See also:

• PERSONAL

personal See also:

• APPAREL (from O. Fr. aparail, aparailler, mod. appareil, from Low Lat. adpariculare, to make fit. or equal)

apparel, including the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head-dresses, See also:

• JEWELRY (O. Fr. jouel, Fr. joyau, perhaps from joie, joy; Lat. gaudium; retranslated into Low Lat. jocale, a toy, from jocus, by misapprehension of the origin of the word)

jewelry and the like . The subject of clothing is far wider than appears at first sight . To the See also:

• AVERAGE

average See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man there is a distinction between clothing and See also:

• ORNAMENT (Lat. ornare, to adorn)

ornament, the first being regarded as that covering which satisfies the claims of modesty, the second as those appendages which satisfy the aesthetic sense . This distinction, however, does not exist for See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science, and indeed the first See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition involves a See also:

• FALLACY (Lat. fall-ax, apt to mislead)

fallacy of which it will be as well to dispose forthwith . Modesty is not innate in man, and its conventional nature is easily seen from a See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of the different ideas held by different races on this subject . With See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

Mahommedan peoples it is sufficient for a woman to See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover her See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face; the See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese See also:

• WOMEN

women would think it extremely indecent to show their artificially compressed feet, and it is even improper to mention them to a woman; in See also:

• SUMATRA

Sumatra and See also:

• CELEBES

Celebes the See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild tribes consider the exposure of the See also:

• KNEE (O. E. cneow, a word common to Indo-European languages, cf. Ger. Knie, Fr. genou, Span. hinojo, Lat. genu, Gr. ybvv, Sansk. janu)

knee immodest; in central See also:

• ASIA

Asia the See also:

• FINGER

finger-tips, and in See also:

• SAMOA

Samoa the See also:

• NAVEL (O. Eng. nafela, a word common to Teutonic languages; of. Ger. Nobel, Swed. nafvel; the Sanskrit is nabhila; the English root is also seen in " nave," the hub of a wheel)

navel are similarly regarded . In See also:

• TAHITI

Tahiti and See also:

• TONGA, or FRIENDLY ISLANDS (so called by Captain Cook)

Tonga clothing might be discarded without offence, provided the individual were tattooed; and among the Caribs a, woman might leave the hut without her See also:

• GIRDLE (O. Eng. gyrdel, from gyrdan, to gird; cf. Ger. Gurtel, Dutch gordel, from giirten and gorden; "gird" and its doublet " girth " together with the other Teutonic cognates have been referred by some to the root ghar—to seize, enclose, seen in Gr. )(s

girdle but not unpainted . Similarly, in See also:

• ALASKA

Alaska, women See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt See also:

• GREAT

great shame when seen without the plugs they carried in their lips . Europeans are considered indelicate in many ways by other races, and a remark of Peschel' is to the point: " Were a pious Mussulman of See also:

• FERGHANA, or FERGANA

Ferghana to be See also:

• PRESENT

present at our balls and see the See also:

• BARE

bare shoulders of our wives and daughters, and the semi-embraces of our See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round dances, he would silently wonder at the See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long-suffering of See also:

• ALLAH

Allah who had not long i The Races of Man . by the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court; and under some statutes still unrepealed, See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double or See also:

• TREBLE (a doublet of " triple," three-fold, from Lat. triplus, triple; cf. " double " from duplus)

treble See also:

• COSTS

costs are to be allowed .

Besides the rules above stated, there is also a See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision, adopted from the practice of courts of See also:

• EQUITY (Lat. aequitas)

equity, that if See also:

• TENDER

tender was made before See also:

• ACTION

action of a sum sufficient to satisfy the See also:

• PLAINTIFF

plaintiff's just demand and is followed by See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment into court in the action of the sum tendered, the court will make the plaintiff pay the costs of action as having been unnecessarily brought . Costs of interlocutory proceedings in the course of a litigation are sometimes said to be " costs in the cause," that is, they abide the result of the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal issue . A party succeeding in interlocutory proceedings, and paying the costs therein made " costs in the cause," would recover the amount of such costs if he had a See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment for costs on the result of the whole trial, but not otherwise . But it is usual now not to tax the costs of interlocutory proceedings till after final judgment . See also:

• TAXATION
• TAXATION (from " tax," derived, through the French, from Lat. taxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same root as tangere, to touch)

Taxation.—When an See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to pay the costs of litigation is made the costs are taxed in the central See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office of the High Court, unless the court when making the order fixes the amount to be paid (R.S.C.,O . 65, r.23) . See also:

• RECENT

Recent changes in the organization for taxing have tended to create a uniformity of See also:

• SYSTEM

system and method which had long been needed . The taxation is effected, under an elaborate set of regulations, by reference to the prescribed scales, and on what is known as the See also:

• LOWER

lower See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale, unless the court has specially ordered taxation on the higher scale (R.S.C., O . 65, rr . 8, 9, appendix N) . In the taxation of litigious costs two methods are still adopted, known as " between party and party " and " between See also:

• SOLICITOR

solicitor and client." Unless a See also:

• SPECIAL

special order is made the first of the two methods is adopted . Until very recently " party and party " costs were found to be a very imperfect See also:

• INDEMNITY (through Fr. indemnite, Lat. indemnis, free from damage or loss; in-, negative, and damnum, loss)

indemnity to the successful litigant; because many items which his solicitor would be entitled to See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge against him for the purposes of the litigation were not recoverable from his unsuccessful opponent .

The High Court can now, in exercise of the equitable See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction derived from the court of See also:

• CHANCERY

chancery, make orders on the losing party to pay the costs of the winner as between solicitor and client . These orders are not often made except in the chancery See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division . But even where party and party costs only are ordered to be paid under the present practice (dating from 1902), the taxing office allows against the unsuccessful party all costs, charges and expenses necessary or proper for the attainment of. See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice or defending the rights of the successful party, but not costs incurred through over-caution, See also:

• NEGLIGENCE (Lat. negligentia, from negligere, to neglect, literally " not to pick up ")

negligence, or by paying special fees to counsel or special fees to witnesses or other persons, or by any other unusual expenses (R.S.C.,O.65, rr . 27, 29) . This practice tends to give an approximate indemnity, while preventing oppression of the losing party by making him pay for lavish See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure by his opponent . The taxation is subject to See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

review by a See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge on formal objections carried on, and an See also:

• APPEAL

appeal lies to the Court of Appeal . See also:

• COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. comae, cf. O. Fr. cunte, conk', Mod. Fr. comae, from Lat. comitatus, cf. Ital. comitato, Prov. comtat; see COUNT)

County Courts.—The costs of all proceedings in county courts follow the event, unless the judge in his discretion otherwise orders . The amount allowed is regulated by scales included in the county court rules, and is ascertained by the registrar of the court subject, to any special direction by the judge, and to review by him . The costs are allowed as between party and party, but the registrar on the application of solicitor or party, and subject to the like review, taxes costs as between solicitor and client . Nothing is allowed which is not sanctioned by the scales, unless it is proved that the client has agreed in See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing to pay (County Courts See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

Act 1888, § 11S) . Costs in Criminal Cases.—In criminal cases the right to recover the expenses of See also:

• PROSECUTION

prosecution or See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence from public funds or the opposite party depends wholly on See also:

• STATUTE

statute . According to the See also:

• COMMON

common See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law See also:

• RULE

rule the See also:

• CROWN

crown neither pays nor receives costs, but the rule is in some cases altered by statute (See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas v .

See also:

• PRITCHARD, CHARLES (1808–1893)
• PRITCHARD, HANNAH (1711-1768)

Pritchard, 1903, I K.B . 209) . Courts of See also:

• SUMMARY

summary jurisdiction may order costs to be paid by the unsuccessful to the successful party (Summary Jurisdiction Act 1848, § 18) . On prosecutions for See also:

• TREASON (Fr. trahison, Lat. traditio)

treason or See also:

• FELONY (0. Fr. felonie, from felon, a word meaning " wicked," common to Romanic languages, cf. Italian fella, fellone, the ultimate origin of which is obscure, but is possibly connected either with Lat. fel, gall, or fallere, to deceive. The English " fel

felony the court may order the ago poured See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire and See also:

• BRIMSTONE

brimstone on this sinful and shameless See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation." Another point of See also:

• INTEREST

interest lies in the difference of outlook with which nudity is regarded by the English and See also:

• JAPANESE

Japanese . Among the latter it has been common for the sexes to take See also:

• BATHS

baths together without clothing, while in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England mixed bathing, even in full See also:

• COSTUME
• COSTUME (through the Fr. costume, from Ital. costume, Late Lat. costuma, a contracted form of Lat. consuetudinem, ace. of consuetudo, custom, habit, manner, &c.)

costume, is even now by no means universal . Yet in England the representation of the nude in art meets with no reproach, though considered improper by the Japanese . Even more striking is the fact that in civilized countries what is permitted at certain times is forbidden at others; a woman will expose far more of her See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person at See also:

• NIGHT

night, in the ballroom or See also:

• THEATRE (BEarpov, " a place for seeing," from OeacOae)

theatre, than would be considered seemly by See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day in the See also:

• STREET
• STREET, GEORGE EDMUND (1824-1881)

street; and a bathing costume which would be thought modest on the See also:

• BEACH

beach would meet with reprobation in a See also:

• TOWN

town . Modesty therefore is highly conventional, and to discover its origin the most See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive tribes must be observed . Among these, in See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa, See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• AMERICA

America, See also:

• AUSTRALIA

Australia and so forth, where clothing is at a minimum, the men are always more elaborately ornamented than the women . At the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time it is noticeable that no cases of spinsterhood are found; See also:

• CELIBACY (Lat. caelibatus, from caelebs, unmarried)

celibacy, rare as it is, is confined to the male See also:

• SEX (Lat. sexes; possibly connected with secure, to cut)

sex . It is reasonable, therefore, to conclude that ornament is a stimulus to sexual selection, and this conclusion is enforced by the fact that among many comparatively nude peoples clothing is assumed at certain dances which have as their confessed See also:

• OBJECT

object the excitation of the passions of the opposite sex . Many forms of clothing, moreover, seem to See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to those parts of the See also:

• BODY

body of which, under the conditions of Western See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization at the present day, it aims at the concealment; certain articles of dress worn by the New Hebrideans, the Zulu-Xosa tribes, certain tribes of See also:

• BRAZIL
• BRAZIL, or BRASIL

Brazil and others, are cases in point .

Clothing, moreover—and this is true also of the present day—almost always tends to accentuate rather than to conceal the difference between the sexes . Looking at the question then from the point of view of sexual selection it would seem that a See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage in the progress of human society is marked by the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery that concealment affords a greater stimulus than See also:

• REVELATION, BOOK OF

revelation; that the fact is true is obvious, even to See also:

• MODERN

modern eyes a figure partially clad appears far more indecent than a nude . That the stimulus is real is seen in the fact that among nude races flagrant immorality is far less common than among the more clothed; the contrast between the Polynesians and Melanesians, living as neighbours under similar conditions, is striking See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence on this point . Later, when the novelty of clothing has spent its force, the stimulus is supplied by nudity See also:

• COMPLETE

complete or partial . One more point must be considered: there is the evidence of competent observers to show that members of a tribe accustomed to nudity, when made to assume clothing for the first time, exhibit as much confusion as would a See also:

• EUROPEAN

European compelled to See also:

• STRIP

strip in public . This fact, considered together with what has been said above, compels the conclusion that modesty is a feeling merely of acute self-consciousness due to appearing unusual, and is the result of clothing rather than the cause . In the words of Westermarck: " The facts appear to prove that the feeling of shame, far from being the cause of man's covering his body, is, on the contrary, a result of this See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom; and that the covering, if not used as a See also:

• PROTECTION

protection from the See also:

• CLIMATE

climate, owes its origin, at least in a great many cases, to the See also:

• DESIRE

desire of men and women to make themselves mutually attractive." Primitive adornment in its earliest stages may be divided into three classes; first the moulding of the body itself to certain See also:

• LOCAL

local See also:

• STANDARDS

standards of beauty . In this See also:

• CATEGORY (Gr. Karrlyopia, " accusation ")

category may be placed head-deformation, which reached its extreme development among the See also:

• INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN

Indians of See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West America and the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient Peruvians; See also:

• FOOT

foot-constriction as practised by the Chinese; tooth-chipping among many See also:

• AFRICAN

African tribes; and See also:

• WAIST

waist-See also:

• COMPRESSION

compression common in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe at the present day . Many forms of deformation, it may be remarked in passing, emphasize some natural See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical characteristic of the people who practise them . Secondly, the application of extraneous See also:

• MATTER

matter to the body, as See also:

• PAINTING

painting and See also:

• TATTOOING (Tahitian, tatu, from ta, mark)

tattooing, and the raising of ornamental scars often by the introduction of See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign matter into flesh-wounds vii . 8(this practice belongs partly to the first category also) . Thirdly, the suspension of foreign bodies from, or their See also:

• ATTACHMENT

attachment to, convenient portions of the body .

This category, by far the largest, includes See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

ear-, See also:

• NOSE (O.Eng. nosu, cf. Dutch neus, Swed. nos, snout; the Aix in Provence. Both at Aix and at Lyons he acquired great connexion with O.Eng. nasu is obscure, cf. Ger. Nase, Lat. pares, distinction by his labours during outbreaks of the plague. In nostrils,

nose- and See also:

• LIP (a word common in various forms, to Teutonic languages, cf Ger. Lippe, Dan. laebe; Lat. labium is cognate)

lip-ornaments, head-dresses, necklets, armlets, wristlets, leglets, anklets, finger- and toe-rings and girdles . The last are important, as it is from the waist-ornaments chiefly that what is commonly considered clothing at the present day has been See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed . Setting aside for the moment the less important, historically, of these, nearly all of which exist in Western civilization of the present day, it will be as well to consider that See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of dress which is marked by the greatest See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution . It is generally supposed that man originated in tropical or subtropical latitudes, and spread gradually towards the poles . Naturally, as the temperature became lower, a new See also:

• FUNCTION

function was gradually acquired by his clothing, that of protecting the body of the wearer . Climate then is one of the forces which See also:

• PLAY

play an important part in the evolution of dress; at the same time care must be taken not to attribute too much See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence to it . It must be remembered that the See also:

• ARABS

Arabs, who inhabit an extremely hot See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country, are very fully clothed, while the Fuegians at the extremity of Cape See also:

• HORN
• HORN (a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. cornu; cf. Gr. Kipas)
• HORN (Lat. cornu; corresponding terms being Fr. cor, trompe; Ger. Horn; Ital. corno)
• HORN, ARVID BERNHARD, COUNT (1664-1742)
• HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY, COUNT

Horn, exposed to all the rigours of an See also:

• ANTARCTIC
• ANTARCTIC (Gr. &vri, opposite, and apKTos, the Bear, the northern constellation of Ursa Major)

antarctic climate, have, as See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole protection, a skin attached to the body by cords, so that it can be shifted to either See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side according to the direction of the See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind . Dr . C . H . Stratz divides clothing climatically into two classes: tropical, which is based on the girdle (or, when the attachment is fastened round the See also:

• NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch ride, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word was heals; cf. Ger. Hals)

neck, the cloak), and the See also:

• ARCTIC (Gr. "ApKroc, the Bear, the northern constellation of Ursa Major)

arctic, based on the trouser . This See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification is ingenious and convenient as far as it goes, but it seems probable that the trouser, which also has the waist as its point of attachment, may itself be a further development of the girdle .

Certainly, however, in See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical times the division holds See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good, and it is worthy of remark that one of the points about the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern barbarians which struck the ancient Greeks and See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans most forcibly was the fact that they wore See also:

• TROUSERS

trousers . Amongst the most northerly races the latter garb is worn by both sexes alike; farther south by the men, the women retaining the tropical form; farther south still the latter reigns supreme . No distinct See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude can be assigned as a boundary between the two forms, from the See also:

• SIMPLE

simple fact that where See also:

• MIGRATION

migration in comparatively recent times has taken See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place a natural conservatism has prevented the more See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar garb from being discarded; at the same time the two forms can often be seen within the limits of the same country; as, for instance, in See also:

• CHINA

China, where the women of See also:

• SHANGHAI

Shanghai commonly See also:

• WEAR

wear trousers, those of Hong-See also:

• KONG

Kong skirts . The retention by women in Europe of the tropical garb can be explained by the fact that her See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere has been mainly confined to the See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house, and her See also:

• LIFE

life has been less active than that of man; consequently the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of the arctic dress has been in her See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case less necessary . But it is See also:

• NOTICE

notice-able that where women engage in occupations of a more than usually strenuous nature, they frequently See also:

• DON
• DON (anc. Tanais)

don male costume while at their See also:

• WORK

work; as, for instance, women who work in mines (See also:

• BELGIUM
• BELGIUM (Fr. Belgique; Flem. Belgic)

Belgium) and who tend See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle (See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland, See also:

• TIROL (or TYROL 1)

Tirol) . The retention of the tropical See also:

• PATTERN

pattern by the Highlanders is due directly to environment, since the See also:

• KILT

kilt is better suited than trousers for walking over wet heather . Another See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor besides climate which has exerted a powerful influence on dress—more perhaps on what is commonly regarded as " jewelry " as distinct from " clothing "—is superstition . Doubtless many of the smaller See also:

• OBJECTS

objects with which primitive man adorned himself, especially trophies from the See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal See also:

• WORLD

world, were supposed to exert some beneficial or protective influence on the wearer, or to produce in him the distinguishing characteristics attributed to the object, or to the whole of which the object was a part . Such objects might be imitated in other materials and by successive copying lose their identity, or their first meaning might be otherwise forgotten, and they would ultimately exercise a purely decorative function . Though this factor may be responsible for much, or even the greater part, of primitive " jewelry," yet it does not seem likely that it is the cause of all forms of ornament; much must be attributed to the desire to satisfy an innate aesthetic sense, which is seen in See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children iQ and of which some glimmerings appear among the lower animals also . See Ed . Westermarck, The See also:

• HISTORY

History of Human See also:

• MARRIAGE

Marriage (See also:

• LONDON

London, 1901) ; Racinet, Le Costume historique (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1888) ; C .

H . Stratz, Frauenkleidung (See also:

• STUTTGART

Stuttgart) . (T . A . J.) I . ANCIENT COSTUME i . Ancient See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental.—Although the numerous discoveries of monuments, sculptures, See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall-paintings, See also:

• SEALS

seals, gems, &c., combine with the evidence from See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions and from biblical and classical writers to furnish a considerable See also:

• ACCUMULATION (from Lat. accumulare, to heap up)

accumulation of material, the methodical study of costume (in its widest sense) in the ancient oriental world (western Asia and See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt) has several difficulties of its own . It is often difficult to obtain quite accurate or even adequate reproductions of scenes and subjects, and, when this is done, it is obviously necessary to refrain from treating the work of the old artists and sculptors as See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to photo-graphic representations . Art tended to become schematic, artists were See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound by certain limitations and conventions (Egypt under Amenophis IV. is a notable exception), and their work was See also:

• APT

apt to be See also:

• STILTED

stilted . In Egypt, too, the spirit of See also:

• CARICATURE (Ital. caricatura, i.e. "ritratto ridicolo," from caricare, to load, to charge; Fr. charge)

caricature occasionally shows itself . But when every See also:

• ALLOWANCE (from "allow,' derived through 0. Fr. alouer from the two Lat. origins adlaudare, to praise, and allocare, to assign a place; so that the English word combined the general idea of "assigning with approval")

allowance is made for the imperfections or the cunning of the workman, one need only examine any collection of antiquities to see that there was a distinct appreciation of foreign physical types (not so much for personal See also:

• PORTRAITURE

portraiture), costumes, See also:

• TOILET

toilet, See also:

• ARMOUR, PHILIP DANFORTH (1832-1901)

armour and decoration, often markedly different from native forms, and that a single scene (e.g. See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war, See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute-bearers, captives) will represent varieties of dress which are consistently observed in other scenes or which can be substantiated from native See also:

• SOURCES

sources.' Important evidence can thus be obtained on ethnological relations, foreign influences and the like . Speaking generally, it has been found that the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East as opposed to the West has undergone relatively little alteration in the principal constituents of dress among the bulk of the See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population, and, although it is often difficult to interpret or explain some of the details as represented (one may contrast, for example, worn sculptures or seals with the vivid See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian paintings), comparison with later descriptions and even with modern usage is frequently suggestive .

The vocabulary of old oriental costume is surprisingly large, and some perplexity is caused by the See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent evolution both of the technical terms (where they are intelligible) and of the articles of dress themselves . In reality there were numerous See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations in the cut and See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour of ancient dress even as there are in the present day in or around See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine . These See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences have depended upon climate, occupation, occasion (e.g. marriage, See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship, feasts), and especially upon individual status and See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste . See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

Rank has accounted for much, and ceremonial dress—the apparel Romans, naturally See also:

• LEFT

left its See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark, and there have been ages of increasing luxury followed by periods of reaction, with a general levelling and nationalization on religious grounds (Judaism, See also:

• ISLAM

Islam) . All in all the study of oriental costume down to the days of See also:

• HELLENISM
• HELLENISM (from Or. EAXspiL'sty, to imitate the Greeks, who were known as "EAAi7ves, after "EAA17v, the son of Deucalion)

Hellenism proves to be something more than that of See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere apparel, and any See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close survey of the evidence speedily raises questions which concern old oriental history and thought . The simplest of all coverings is the See also:

• LOIN (through O. Fr. loigne or logne, mod. lunge, from Lat. Iambus)

loin-See also:

• CLOTH

cloth characteristic of warm climates, and a necessary protection where there are trying extremes of temperature . Clothing did not originate in ideas of decency (Gen. ii . 25, iii. q) . Children oveitng. ran and still run about naked, the industrious work-man upon the Egyptian monuments is often nude, and the worshipper would even appear before his deity in a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute innocence.2 The See also:

• HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE

Hebrews held that the leaves of the fig-See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree (the largest available tree in Palestine) served primitive man and that the Deity gave them skins for a covering—evidently after he had slain the animals (Gen. iii . 21) . With this one may compare the Phoenician myth (now in a See also:

• LATE

late source) which ascribed the novelty of the use of skins to the See also:

• HERO (Gr. open)
• HERO, THE YOUNGER

hero Usoos (cf. the biblical See also:

• ESAU

Esau, q.v.) . The loin- or waist-cloth prevailed under a very great variety of minor differentiated forms .

In Egypt it was the See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short See also:

• LINEN

linen cloth wrapped around the loins and tied in front (see fig . 1) . It was the usual garb of See also:

• SCRIBES

scribes, servants and peasants, and in the earlier dynasties was worn even by men of rank . Sometimes, however, it was of See also:

• MATTING

matting or was seated with See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather, or it would take the form of a narrow fringed girdle resembling that of many African tribes . The Semites who visited Egypt wore a larger and coloured cloth, ornamented with parallel stripes of patterns similar to those found upon some early specimens of Palestinian pottery . The border was fringed or was ornamented with bunches of tassels . But a close-fitting skirt or See also:

• TUNIC (0. Eng. tunice, tunical, taken, before the Norman con-quest, directly from Lat. tunica, of which the origin is unknown)

tunic was more usual, and the Semites on the famous Beni-See also:

• HASAN

Hasan tombs (about the loth or 19th century B.C.) wear richly decorated cloth (pattern similar to the above), while the See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader is arrayed in a magnificent wrapper in See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue, red and See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white, with fringed edges, and a neck-ribbon to keep of the gods, their representatives and their ministers—opens out several interesting lines of inquiry . The result of intercourse, whether with other Orientals, or (In later times) with Greeks and ' The comprehensive description by See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus (vii . 61 sqq.) of the costumes of the mercenaries of See also:

• XERXES (the Greek form of the Pers. Khshayarsha; Old Testament Ahasverus, Akhashverosh—i.e. Ahasuerus (q.v.)—with wrong vocalization and substitution of y for v, instead of Akhshavarsh; in Aramaic inscriptions and papyri from Egypt the name is written Khs

Xerxes is classical (see See also:

• RAWLINSON, GEORGE (1812-1902)
• RAWLINSON, RICHARD (169o-1755)
• RAWLINSON, SIR HENRY CRESWICKE (1810—1895)
• RAWLINSON, SIR ROBERT (1810—1898)

Rawlinson's edition, iv . 56 sqq.) . For archaeological See also:

• PARALLELS

parallels one may compare the tombs of Rekhmire (15th cent . B C.) and Harmhab (14th cent.) in Egypt, the " See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black See also:

• OBELISK (Gr. b/3EXivrcos, diminutive of OEMs, a spit)

Obelisk " of the See also:

• ASSYRIAN

Assyrian See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king See also:

• SHALMANESER [Ass. Sulmanu-afarid, " the god Sulman (Solomon) is chief "]

Shalmaneser II .

!9th cent.) or his famous See also:

• GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806)

gates at Balawat (ed . W . See also:

• BIRCH
• BIRCH (Betula)
• BIRCH, SAMUEL (1813–1885)
• BIRCH, THOMAS (1705-1766)

Birch and T . G . Pinches, and with See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical description and plates by A . Billerbeck and F . See also:

• DELITZSCH
• DELITZSCH, FRANZ (1813–1890)

Delitzsch, Beitrage z . Assyriologie, vi . 1 ; See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, 1908).it in position (see fig . 4.3 In See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony with prevailing custom the women's dress is rather longer than that of the men, but both sexes have the arms See also:

• FREE

free and the right See also:

• SHOULDER (in O.E. sculder, cognate with Ger. Schulter, Dutch schouder, Swed. skuldra, &c; the root is unknown)

shoulder is exposed . Returning to Egypt we find that the loin-cloth developed down-wards into a skirt falling below the knees . Among the upper classes it was unusually broad and was made to stand out in 2 Old Babylonian sculptors who represent the enemy as naked (See also:

• MEYER, CHRISTIAN ERICH HERMANN VON (18or-1869)
• MEYER, HEINRICH AUGUST WILHELM (1800-1873)
• MEYER, JULIUS LOTHAR (183o-1895)
• MEYER, KONRAD FERDINAND (1825-1898)
• MEYER, VICTOR (1848-1897)
• MEYER, [MARIE] PAUL HYACINTHE (184o- )

Meyer [see bibliography below], pp .

12, qo seq., 116), conventionally anticipate the usual treatment of the slain and wounded warriors . 3 Edited P . C . See also:

• NEWBERRY, JOHN STRONG (1822-1892)

Newberry (Archaeol . Survey of Egypt, 1893) . Cf. also the Palestinian short coloured skirt with black tassels of the 14th century (Zeit. f . Agypt . Sprache, 1898, pp . 126 sqq.) . front in triangular form . In the See also:

• MIDDLE

Middle See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom an See also:

• OUTER

outer See also:

• FINE

fine See also:

• LIGHT

light skirt was worn over the loin-cloth; See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary people, however, used thicker material . Egyptian women had a tight foldless tunic which exposed the breasts; it was generally kept up by means of braces over the shoulders .

This plain diaphanous garment, without distinction of colour (white, red or yellow), and with perhaps only an embroidered hem at the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top, was worn by the whole nation, princess and See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

peasant, from the IVth to the XVIIIth Dynasties (See also:

• ERMAN, PAUL (1764-1851)

Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt, p . 212) . Variation, such as it was, consisted of a sleeveless dress covering From Hil precht's Ex plorat ions in See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible Lands, by permission of A . J . See also:

• HOLMAN, JAMES (1786–1857)

Holman & Co. and T . & T . See also:

• CLARK, FRANCIS EDWARD (1851- )
• CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS (1752—1818)
• CLARK, JOHN BATES (1847— )
• CLARK, JOSIAH LATIMER (1822—1898)
• CLARK, SIR ANDREW
• CLARK, SIR JAMES (1788—1870)
• CLARK, THOMAS (1801—1867)
• CLARK, WILLIAM (1770-1838)
• CLARK, WILLIAM GEORGE (1821—1878)

Clark . the shoulders, the neck being cut in the shape of a V . See also:

• FEMALE

Female servants and peasants when engaged at work, however, had a short skirt which left the legs free and the upper part of the body bare; a like simplicity was probably customary among female servants or captives throughout (cf . Isa. xlvii . 2) . Even at the present day the See also:

• WARDROBE

wardrobe of the Sinaitic Bedouin is much more complicated than that of their female folk .

The earliest dress of Babylonia also covered only the lower See also:

• HALF

half of the body . As worn by gods and men it was a long and rather loose See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of skirt suspended from a girdle . It is sometimes smooth; but sometimes it is a shaggy skin (or woollen) skirt with See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal rows of vertically furrowed stuff . It allowed a certain freedom to the legs, but .. ±~,;; . ,ai .r• ~ u- '~; 4C;; `i~ .~•~f„' often it is not clear whether it was joined down the middle . An instructive development shows the upper part of the skirt See also:

• HANGING

hanging over the girdle so that an elementary See also:

• MANTLE

mantle would be obtained by See also:

• DRAWING

drawing the loose end up over the shoulders (Meyer, p . 93, cf. pp . 55, 76) . The characteristic skirt is sometimes supplemented by a coarse cloth, perhaps a fleece, thrown over the shoulders; and in later times it is seen fastened outside a tunic by means of a girdle (see fig . 3) . The favourite attitude, one See also:

• LEG
• LEG (a word of Scandinavian origin, from the Old Norwegian leggr, cf. Swed. lagg, Dan. laeg; the O. Eng. word was sceanca, shank)

leg planted firmly before the other, shows the right leg fully exposed .

A tunic or skirt is found as early as the time of Naram-See also:

• SIN
• SIN (O. Eng. syn: a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zonde, Ger. Siinde)

Sin, son of the great See also:

• SARGON

Sargon; it reaches to his knees and appears to be held up by ornamental shoulder- bands (Meyer, pp . If, 115; fig . 4) . Egyptian monuments depict Semites with long bordered tunics reaching from neck to See also:

• ANKLE

ankle; they have sleeves, which' are sometimes curiously decorated, and are tied at the neck with tasselled cords; some- times there is a See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design at the neck resembling a See also:

• CROSS

cross (See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller, Asien and See also:

• EUROPA (or rather, EUROPE)

Europa, pp . 298 seq.) . The Hittite warriors upon north Syrian sculptures (Zenjirli, perhaps 11th to 9th centuries) have a short-sleeved tunic which ends above the knees, and this type of garment recurs over a large See also:

• AREA

area with numerous small variations (with or without girdle, slits at the neck, or bordering) . An interesting example of the long plain variety is afforded by the prisoners of See also:

• LACHISH

Lachish before See also:

• SENNACHERIB (Ass. Sin-akhi-erba, " the Moon-god has increased the brethren ")

Sennacherib (7o1 B.C.); the circumstances and a comparison of the details would point to its being essentially a simple dress indicative of See also:

• MOURNING (from the verb " to mourn," to be sorrowful, 0. Eng. murnan; cf. O.H.G. mornen, Goth. maurnan, to be anxious, O.N. morna, to pine away; by some referred to root seen in Gr. jdptpva, sorrow, by others to root mer-, to die)

mourning and humiliation . It may be compared in its general form with the woollen jubba of See also:

• ARABIA

Arabia, which reached to the knees and was sewn down the front (except at the top and bottom) . A modern Bedouin equivalent has long sleeves; it is common to both sexes, the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief difference lying in the colour—white for men, dyed with See also:

• INDIGO (earlier indico, from Lat. indicum, the Indian sub-stance or dye; the Sans. name was niti, from nila, dark blue, and this through Arab. al-nil, annil, gives " aniline ")

indigo for women . t.14 pl i i !U XI; !I I I gi fi Another very characteristic garment suggests an See also:

• ORIGINAL

original loin-cloth considerably longer than the elementary See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article which was noticed above . The Arab izdr, though now a large outer wrapper, was once a loin-cloth (like the See also:

• HEBREW

Hebrew &zor), which, however, was long enough to be trodden upon . At the present day male and female pilgrims at See also:

• MECCA (Arab. Makkah)

Mecca wear such a cloth (the ilzrdm); it covers the knees and one end of it may be See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast over the shoulder .

In Egyptian tombs have been found linen bands no less than 30 ft. in length and 3 ft. in width . The distinctive feature is the See also:

• SPIRAL

spiral arrangement of the garment,the body being wrapped to a greater or less extent with a bandage of varying length in more or less parallel stripes . In old Babylonia both the arms and the whole of the right shoulder were originally uncovered, and one end of the garment was allowed to hang loose over the left See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm . It is frequently found upon deities, See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings and magnates, and appears to have been composed of some thick furrowed or fluted material, sometimes of See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

bright and variegated design . Not seldom it is difficult to distinguish between the true spiral garment and a dress with parallel horizontal stripes, and ^dlg YI;L ! I ,IJI 1!1 . . I! i!!0!h!III!'lICi6! rr n,u i 1'I li(u ,)ilk(!@I`'!li' the one could sometimes suppose that the flounced dress with volants, well known in the See also:

• AEGEAN

Aegean area, had its parallel in Babylonia.' Egypt furnishes admirable painted and sculptured representa- tions of the forms taken by the Semitic spiral dress in the XVIIIth and XIXth Dynasties; the highly-coloured and See also:

• GAY, JOHN (1685-1732)
• GAY, MARIE FRANCOISE SOPHIE (1776-1852)
• GAY, WALTER (1856– )

gay apparel of Palestine and See also:

• SYRIA

Syria See also:

• STANDING

standing in the strongest contrast to the plain, simple and often scanty garments of the Egyptians (fig . 5) . While the common Semite wore a short skirt, often with tassels and sometimes with an upper tunic, the more important had an elaborate See also:

• SCARF

scarf (extending from waist to knee) See also:

• WOUND (O. Eng. wund,connected with a Teutonic verb, meaning to strive, fight, suffer, seen in O. Eng. winnan, whence Eng. " win ")

wound over the long tunic, or a longer and close-fitting variety coloured blue and red and generally adorned with See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich See also:

• EMBROIDERY (M.E. embrouderie, from O. Fr. embroder, Mod. Fr. broder)

embroidery . A significant feature is the kind of cape which covers the shoulders; it would not and no doubt was not intended to leave play for the arms; it was the dress of the leisured classes, and a typical FIG . 6.-An Egyptian scene depicts the chiefs of See also:

• LEBANON
• LEBANON (from Semitic laban, " to be white," or " whitish," probably referring not to snow, but to the bare white walls ofchalk or limestone which form the characteristic feature of the whole range)

Lebanon thus Officer. arrayed submissively See also:

• FELLING

felling cedars for Seti I . (about 1300 B.C.) .

Not until the XVIIIth and XIXth Dynasties does a See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change come over Egyptian costume . The See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic conquests made Egypt politically_ supreme, the centre of life and intercourse, and the tendency arose to pay some attention to outward See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance . From the highest to the lowest—with the important exception of the priests—the new See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of luxury wiped out the earlier simplicity . The upper part of the body was covered with a tunic fastened over the girdle . Often the left arm had a short See also:

• SLEEVE (O. Eng. slieve, slyf, a word allied to " slip," cf. Dutch sloof, apron)

sleeve while the right was bare, but flowing sleeves came into use and various pleated skirts became customary . Garments were multiplied, and the cape and long mantle, which had previously been uncommon, were now usual . Fashions changed in See also:

• QUICK

quick See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession; upper clases were successively copied by those beneath them and were forced to ensure their dignity by as- suming new styles . Whether for ordinary or for special occa- sions a great variety of costume prevailed, and several types can be distinguished among both sexes (Er- man, pp . 207 seq., 213 sqq.; see fig . 6) . The fashionable material was linen, and al- though, according to Herodotus (ii . 81), a woollen mantle was worn over the fringed linen skirt, See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

wool was forbidden to the priests in the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple .

The preference for fine white Iinen, quite in keeping with the exaggerated Egyp- tian ideas of cleanli- ness, brought the art of See also:

• SPINNING (from O. Eng. spinnen, to spin, cf. Ger. spinnen, &c., the Teut. root is seen, to draw out, cf. span, spider)

spinning and See also:

• WEAVING

weaving to a singularly high level; in embroidery, as in See also:

• TAPESTRY

tapestry, however, it is prob- able that western Asia more than held its own (see See also:

• FIGS

figs . 7 and 8) . Quite distinct from the spiral is the old Babylonian cloak, which was thrown over the left shoulder, passed under the right ' See e.g . See also:

• BALL (in Mid. Eng. bal; the word is probably cognate with " bale," Teutonic in origin, cf. also Lat. falls, and Gr. 7raXXa)
• BALL, JOHN (1585-1640)
• BALL, JOHN (1818-1889)
• BALL, JOHN (d. 1381)
• BALL, SIR ALEXANDER JOHN, BART
• BALL, THOMAS (1819- )

Ball, Light from the East, p . 36 . On the Aegean dress (whether a development from spiral swathes or perhaps rather from a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of skirts one above the other), see the discussion of the Aegean loin-cloth by D . See also:

• MACKENZIE
• MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER (1822-1892)
• MACKENZIE, HENRY (1745-1831)
• MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER (c. 1755-1820)
• MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (1847— )
• MACKENZIE, SIR GEORGE (1636-1691)
• MACKENZIE, SIR MORELL (1837-1892)
• MACKENZIE, WILLIAM LYON (1795-1861)

Mackenzie, See also:

• ANNUAL

Annual of the See also:

• BRITISH

British School at See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens, Xii . 233-249 (esp . 242 seq.) . armpit, and hung down, leaving sufficient freedom for the legs . It is often decorated with a fringed border from top to bottom . In time this mantle covered both shoulders and assumed sleeves, and in one form or another it is frequently represented .

So See also:

• JEHU

Jehu's tribute-bearers wear short sleeves, trimmed border, and the general effect could even suggest an Assyrian dress (see fig . 9) . Not unlike this is the style on the bilingual Hittite See also:

• BOSS

boss of Tarkudimme, where the skirt ends in a point nearly to the ground and one leg stands out bare to the front—the very favourite attitude . Long fringed See also:

• ROBES (Fr. robe, Late Lat. roba, raupa, meaning (1)

robes were worn by See also:

• HITTITES

Hittites of both sexes, and the women represented at See also:

• MAR, EARLDOM OF
• MAR, JOHN ERSKINE, 1ST OR 6TH EARL OF (d. 1572)
• MAR, JOHN ERSKINE, 2ND OR 7TH EARL
• MAR, JOHN ERSKINE, 6TH OR 11TH EARL OF (1675-1732)

Mar'ash and Zenjirli wear Assyrian See also:

• OFFICERS

Officers . it hung over the characteristic Hittite cylindrical head-dress (fig. lo) . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, the unhappy See also:

• FEMALES

females of Lachish have a long plain mantle which covers the head and forehead (fig . I I), and the same principle recurs in modern usage, where the tunic will be supplemented by a See also:

• VEIL (O.Fr. veile, mod. voile, from Lat. velum, cloth, awning, sail)

veil or See also:

• SHAWL

shawl which (generally bound to the head by a See also:

• BAND

band) frames the face and falls back to the waist . A large mantle could thus serve as a veil, and Rebekah covered her face with her square or oblong wrapper on See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting See also:

• ISAAC (Hebrew for " he laughs," on explanatory references to the name, see ABRAHAM)

Isaac (Gen. See also:

• XXIV

xxiv . 65) . Veiling was ceremonial (1 See also:

• COR

Cor. xi . 5), and customary on meeting a future bridegroom or at marriage (see Gen. See also:

• XXIX

xxix . 23-25) .

Nevertheless veils were not usually worn out of doors, the countrywoman of to-day is not veiled, and it is uncertain whether there is any early parallel for the yashmak, the narrow strip which covers the face below the eyes and hangs down to the feet . Before passing to the special covering for the feet and head some further reference to the Old Testament usage may be made . Among the Hebrews the outer garment, as distinct from the inner loin wrapper (We) or tunic, evidently took many forms . See also:

• DRAWN

Drawn from a photo by Giraudon . The tunic (kuttoneth, cf . Xrrwv, tunica) , like its See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek counterpart, was apparently of two kinds, for, although essentially a simple and probably sleeveless garment, there was a special variety worn by royal maidens and men of distinction, explicitly described as a tunic of palms or soles (passim), that is, one presumably reaching to the hands and feet (Gen. See also:

• XXXVII

xxxvii . 3; 2 Sam. xiii . 18 sq.).' The kuttoneth could be removed at night (Cant. v . 3) . For the outer garments the most distinctive See also:

• TERM

term From Der alte Orient, by permission of J . C . See also:

• HINRICHS, HERMANN FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1794–1861)

Hinrichs'sche Buchhandlung .

is the simlah . This was worn by both sexes, though obviously there was some difference as regards length, &c . (Deut. xxii . 5) . See also:

• RUTH, BOOK OF

Ruth put one on before going out of doors, and its folds could be used for carrying small loads (Ruth iii . 9; Ex. xii . 34) . The law forbade the creditor to retain it over-night as a See also:

• PLEDGE

pledge (Ex. xxii . 26 sq.), and consequently we may assume that it was a large outer wrapper which could be dispensed with out of doors by men, or indoors by women . The simlah of the See also:

• WARRIOR

warrior (Isa. ix . 5) can be illustrated from the Assyrian sculptures (Ency . Bib., art .

" See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

Siege "); according to Herodotus (vii . 69) the Arabs under Xerxes wore a long cloak fastened by a girdle . The outer girdle (Heb . Itagorah; the Arabic equivalent term is a kilt from thigh to knee) varied, as the monuments show, in richness and design, and could be used as a See also:

• SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

sword-See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

belt or See also:

• POCKET

pocket much in the same way as the modern native uses the long cloth twined twice or thrice around his body . The more ornate variety, called abnet, was worn by prominent officials (Isa. xxii . 21) and by the high See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest . The modern oriental open waistcoat finds its FIG . 1I.-Prisoners of Lachish. See also:

• FELLOW

fellow in the jacket or bolero from ancient See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

Crete, and seems to have been distinctively Aegean . The same may also be true of breeches . The pantaloons worn by modern females, with short tunic and waistcoat, are not found among the Bedouin (e.g. of See also:

• SINAI

Sinai), trousers being considered undignified even for men . But a baggy kind of knickerbockers is represented in old 1 See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph's familiar " coat of many See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours," which we owe to the See also:

• SEPTUAGINT, THE (Gr. of 0', Lat. LXX.)

Septuagint, can perhaps be justified: R . Eisler, Orient .

Lit . Zeitung, See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August, 1908.229 Aegean scenes, and it is noteworthy that the Arab mi'zar (drawers such as were worn by wrestlers or sailors) takes its name from the iziir or loin-cloth (Ency . Bib . 1734) . Such a cloth may once have passed between the legs, being kept in position by the waistband (examples in See also:

• PERROT, SIR JOHN (c. 1S27–1592)

Perrot and Chipiez, See also:

• GREECE

Greece, ii . 198 sq., 456) . On the other hand, among the Africans of See also:

• PUNT (from Lat. ponto, pontoon; connected with pons, bridge)

Punt the waistcloth passes from each knee to the opposite thigh, and two sashes hang down to conceal the parts where they intersect (Muller, l08) . The people of Keft (Aegeans) wore a similar arrangement which is a step in the direction of the proper drawers . The latter are found exceptionally upon Semitic Bedouin with an upper covering of bands wound round the body (Muller, 140) . However, the See also:

• WOVEN

woven decorated drawers in See also:

• CYPRUS
• CYPRUS, CHURCH OF

Cyprus do not appear to be of Semitic origin (J . L . Myres, Classical Review, x .

355), and it is not until later that they were prescribed to the Israelite priests (Ezek. xliv . 18) . But the garment as explained by See also:

• JOSEPHUS, FLAVIUS (c. 37-C. 95?)

Josephus (See also:

• ANT
• ANT (O. Eng. aemete, from Teutonic a, privative, and maitan, cut or bite off, i.e. " the biter off "; aemete in Middle English became differentiated in dialect use to (mete, then amte, and so ant, and also to emete, whence the synonym " emmet," now only u

Ant. iii . 7 . 1) was properly a See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

lion-cloth (cf. the examples from Punt), and the See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason given for its use (Ex. See also:

• XXVIII

xxviii . 42) points to a later date than the law which enforced the same regard for decency by forbidding the priests to ascend altars with steps (ib. xx . 26) . As trousers were distinctively See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian—though the Persians had the reputation for borrowing Median and foreign dress (See also:

• HEROD
• HEROD (surnamed THE GREAT)

Herod. i . 71, vii . 61)—they were no doubt familiar in Palestine in the See also:

• POST

post-exilic age, and in the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period the braccae and feminalia were certainly known . On supposed references to breeches in See also:

• DAN

Dan. iii . 21, see Journ. of See also:

• PHILOLOGY

Philology, See also:

• XXVI

xxvi .

307-313 . Special protection for the feet was chiefly necessary in rocky districts or upon long journeys . In early Egypt men of rank would be followed by a servant carrying a pair of Footgear. sandals in case of need; but in the New Kingdom they were in common use, although a typical difference is observed when princes appear unshod in the presence of the See also:

• PHARAOH (Par'oh)

Pharaoh, who wears sandals him- self . The simplest kind was a See also:

• PAD

pad or sole of V. leather or See also:

• PAPYRUS

papyrus bound to the foot by two straps, one passing over the in-step, the other between the toes.2 A third was sometimes fastened be-See also:

• HIND

hind the See also:

• HEEL

heel, and the front is often turned up to protect the toe (Egypt and elsewhere) . The Semites of the XIIth See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

Dynasty wore on their journeys sandals of black leather, those 'of the women and children being more serviceable, and, in the case of women, parti-coloured . Practically the same simple See also:

• SANDAL (from the Latinized form of Gr. vavb4Atov or vav&aAov: this probably represents the Persian sandal, slipper; it is not to be referred to Gr. stasis, board)

sandal came into use everywhere when required . But the warrior had something stouter, and the Hittites wore a turned-up See also:

• SHOE (a word appearing in the Teutonic languages in various forms, as Ger. Schuh, Swed. and Dan. sko, sometimes supposed to come from an unknown root ska or sku, cover)

shoe bound round the legs with thongs . Among the latter is also found a piece of protecting leather reaching halfway up the shin, and similar developments with tight-fitting bandages, buskins or laced garters were worn in See also:

• ASSYRIA

Assyria and Asia Minor (see fig . 12) . Such coverings find their analogies among the peasants of modern See also:

• CILICIA

Cilicia and See also:

• CAPPADOCIA

Cappadocia . Stockings, it may be added, do not appear. and are quite exceptional at the present day The treatment of the See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair, See also:

• MOUSTACHE, or MUSTACHIO

moustache and See also:

• BEARD (A.S. beard, O. H. and Mod. Ger. Bart, Dan. beard, Icel. bar, rim, edge, beak of a ship, &c., O. Slay. barda, Russ. barodd. Cf. Welsh barf, Lat.. barba, though, according to the New English Dictionary, the connexion is for phonetic reasons doubtful)
• BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK (1825-1900)

beard is extremely interesting in the study of oriental See also:

• ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. &pxa1a, ancient things, and Xoyos, theory or science)

archaeology (see Muller, Meyer, opp. cilt.) . A special covering for the head Headgear. was not indispensable .

The Semites often bound their bushy locks with a See also:

• FILLET (through Fr. filet, from the med. Lat. filettum, diminutive of filum, a thread)

fillet, which varies from a single band (so often, e.g . Palestinian captives, loth century) to a fourfold 2 Erman, 226 sqq., cf. the modern Bedouin shoe, Jennings-Bramley, Quart . Stat. of Palest . Explor . Fund (1908), p . 115 sq . (on dress of Sinaitic Bedouin generally) . captured Idols . one, from a plain band to highly decorated diadems . The Ethiopians of Tirhakah's See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army (7th cent.) See also:

• STUCK, FRANZ (1863— )

stuck a single See also:

• FEATHER (0. Eng. (ether, Ger. Feder, from an Indo-European root seen also in Gr. lrrepov, and aEreo-Oat, to fly)

feather in the front of their fillet, and a feathered ornament recurs from the old Babylonian goddess with two large feathers on her head to the feathered crown common from See also:

• ASSUR
• ASSUR (Auth. Vera. Asshur)

Assur-bani-See also:

• PAL, KRISTO DAS (1839–1884)

pal's Arabians to See also:

• ARARAT
• ARARAT (Armen. Massis, Turk. Egri Dagh, i.e. " Painful Mountain," Pers. Koh-i-Nuh, i.e. " Mountain of Noah,")

Ararat, and is familiar from the later distinctive Persian head- dress.' But the ordinary Semitic head covering was a cloth which sometimes appears with two ends tied in front, the third falling behind . Or it falls over the nape of the neck and is kept in position with a band; or again as a cloth cap has lappets to protect the ears . Sometimes it has a more bulky appearance .

In general, the use of a square or rectangular cloth (whether folded diagonally or not) corresponds to the modern kefftyeh woven with long fringes which are plaited into cords knitted at the ends or worked into little balls sewn over with coloured silks and See also:

• GOLDEN

golden From Palestine Exploration Fund threads.2 The kefiyeh covering Quarterly Statement, Oct., 1907, cheek, neck and See also:

• THROAT (O. Eng. protu, prote or }Prota, possibly from preotan, to press, whence threat, or, with loss of initial s, connected with strut, to swell)

throat, is worn on a See also:

• SEAL
• SEAL, FUR
• SEAL, HAIR

Seal from See also:

• GEZER

Gezer. be accompanied with the relatively modern See also:

• FEZ (Fes)

fez (See also:

• TARBUSH (Arab tarbush)

tarbush) and a woollen cloth . Probably the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest head-dress is the circular close-fitting cap (plain or braided), which, according to Meyer, is of Sumerian (non-Semitic) origin . But it has a long history . Palestinian captives in the Assyrian age wear it with a plain close-fitting tunic, and it appears upon the See also:

• GOD

god See also:

• HADAD

Hadad in north Syria (cf. also the Gezer seal, fig . 13) . With some deities (e.g. the See also:

• MOON (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maan, Dan. maane, &c., and cognate with such Indo-Germanic forms as Gr. µlip, Sans. ma's, Irish mi, &c.; Lat. uses luna, i.e. lucna, the shining one, lucere, to shine, for the moon, but preserves the word i
• MOON, SIR RICHARD, 1ST BARONET (1814-1899)

moon-god Sin) it has a kind of straight brim which gives it a certain resemblance to a See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low-crowned " bowler." Very characteristic is the conical cap which, like the Persian See also:

• HAT

hat (Gr. kurbasia), resembled a See also:

• COCK, EDWARD (1805-1892)

cock's See also:

• COMB (a word common in various forms to Teut. languages, cf. Ger. Kamm, the Indo-Europ. origin of which is seen in yoµros, a peg or pin, and Sanskrit, gambhas, a tooth)

comb . It is worn by gods and men, and with the latter sometimes has ear-flaps (at Lachish, with other varieties, Ball, Igo) or is surmounted by a feather or See also:

• CREST
• CREST (Lat. crista, a plume or tuft)

crest . It was probably made of plaited leather or felt . Veritable helmets of See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal, such as Herodotus ascribes to Assyrians and Chalybians (vii . 63, 76), and metal armour, though known farther west, scarcely appear in old oriental costume, and the passage which attributes See also:

• BRONZE

bronze helmets and coats of See also:

• MAIL

mail to the See also:

• PHILISTINE

Philistine See also:

• GOLIATH

Goliath and the Israelite See also:

• SAUL (Heb. shd'ul, " asked ")

Saul cannot be held (on other grounds) to be necessarily reliable for the middle or close of the iith century (r Sam. xvii.) . A loftier head-covering was sometimes spherical at the top and narrowed in the middle; with a brim or border turned up back and front it is worn by Hittite warriors of ZenjIrli and by their god of See also:

• STORM (in O. Eng..storm, and so in Du. and Low Ger.; in O. H. Ger. and mod. Ger. Sturm; the root is probably that seen in " stir," to rouse, move, disturb, cf. Ger. storen)
• STORM, THEODOR WOLDSEN (1817-1888)

storm and war (fig . 14) .

Elongated and more pointed it is the archaic crown of the Pharaohs (symbolical of upper Egypt), is. worn by a Hittite god of the 14th century, and finds parallels upon old See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

Weather-god . Cyprus . Later, Herodotus describes it as distinctively Scythian (vii . 64) . Finally the cylindrical hat of Hittite kings and queens reappears with lappets in See also:

• PHOENICIA

Phoenicia (Perrot and Chipiez, Phoen. ii . 77); without the brim it resembles the crown of the Babylonian Merodach-nadin-akhi, with afeathered top it distinguishes See also:

• ADAD

Adad (god of storm, &c.) at Babylonia . Narrower at the top and surmounted by a spike it distinguishes the Assyrian kings . 1 Meyer, 97, see F . Hommel, Aufsalze u . Abhandlungen (See also:

• MUNICH (Ger. Munchen)

Munich, 596o), 16o sqq., 214 sqq . For other feathered head-dresses in western Asia, see Muller, 361 sqq . Such tasselled or fringed caps were used by the Syrians in the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian era, see W .

Budge, See also:

• BOOK

Book of See also:

• GOVERNORS

Governors, ii, 339, 367 . When the deities were regarded as anthropomorphic they naturally wore clothing which, on the whole, was less subject to change of fashion and was apt to be symbolical of their attributes . The old Babylonian hero Gilgamesh coostume and the Egyptian See also:

• BES, or BESAS (Egyp. Bes or Besa)

Bes (perhaps of foreign extraction) otse gods . are nude, and so in general are the figurines of the See also:

• ISHTAR

Ishtar-See also:

• ASTARTE

Astarte type . Numerous bronze images of a kneeling god at Telloh give him only a loin-cloth, and often the deity, like the monarch, has only a skirt . In course of time various plaids or mantles are assumed, and in Babylonia the goddesses were the first to have both shoulders covered . Distinctive features are found in the head-dress, e.g. crowns (cf. the Ammonite god, 2 Sam. xii . 30) or horns (a single pair or an arrangement of four pairs), and in Babylonia symbolical emblems are attached to the shoulders (e.g. the rays of the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun-god, stalks, See also:

• RUNNING

running See also:

• WATER

water) . Long garments ornamented with symbolical designs (stars, &c.) are worn by See also:

• MARDUK (Bib'. MERODACH2)

Marduk and Adad . The custom of clothing images is well known in the ancient world, and at the restoration of an Egyptian temple care was taken to anoint the divine limbs and to prepare the royal linen for the god . The ceremonial clothing of the god on the occasion of festal processions, undertaken in Egypt by the " See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master of See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret things," may be compared with the well-known Babylonian representations of such promenades . The Babylonian temples received garments as payment in kind, and the Egyptian lists in the Papyrus See also:

• HARRIS, GEORGE, 1ST BARON (1746–1829)
• HARRIS, JAMES (1709-1780)
• HARRIS, JOEL CHANDLER (1848-1908)
• HARRIS, JOHN (c. 1666-1719)
• HARRIS, SIR WILLIAM SNOW
• HARRIS, THOMAS LAKE (1823-1906)
• HARRIS, WILLIAM TORREY (1835-1909)

Harris (See also:

• RAMESES, or RAMESSES (Gen. xlvii. r1; Exod. xii. 37; Num. xxxiii. 3)

Rameses III.) enumerate an enormous number of skirts, tunics and mantles, dyed and undyed, for the various deities .

A priest, " master of the wardrobe," is named as early as the Vlth Dynasty, and later texts refer to the weavers and See also:

• LAUNDRY

laundry servants of the temple . It is probable that 2 Kings See also:

• XXIII

xxiii . 7 originally referred to the women who wove garments for the goddess in the temple at See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem . In Egypt the king was regarded as the incarnation of the deity, his son and earthly likeness . The underlying conception shows itself under differing though not unrelated forms over Royal western Asia, and in their light the question of religious costume. and ceremonial dress is of great interest . Throughout Egyptian history the See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official costume was conventionalized, and the latest kings and even the Roman emperors are arrayed like their predecessors of the IVth Dynasty . The crook which figures among royal and divine insignia may go back to the See also:

• BOOMERANG

boomerang-like object which was a prominent weapon in antiquity (Muller, 123 sq.) . It appears in old Babylonia as a curved stick, and, like the See also:

• CLUB (connected with " clump ")

club, is a distinctive See also:

• SYMBOL (Gr. o-uµ(3oXov, a sign)

symbol of god and king . It resembles the See also:

• SCEPTRE

sceptre curved at the end, which was carried by old Hittite gods . The Pharaoh's characteristic crown (or crowns) symbolized his royal domains, the sacred uraeus marked his divine ancestry, and he sometimes appeared in the costume of the gods with their fillets adorned with double feathers and horns . In Babylonia Naram-Sin in the See also:

• GUISE
• GUISE, HOUSE OF

guise of a god wears the pointed See also:

• HELMET (from an obsolete diminutive of O. Fr. helme, mod. heaume; the English word is " helm," as in O. Eng., Dutch and Ger.; all are from the Teutonic base hal-, pre-Teut. kal-, to cover; cf. Lat. celare, to hide, Eng. " hell," &c.)

helmet and two great horns distinctive of the deities.3 This relationship between the gods and their human representatives is variously expressed . Khammurabi and the sun-god See also:

• SHAMASH, or AMAS

Shamash, on the former's famous See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code of See also:

• LAWS

laws, have the same features and almost the same frizzled beard, and, according to Meyer, the king in claiming supremacy over See also:

• SUMER

Sumer and See also:

• AKKAD (Gr. versions apxat and hXab)

Akkad wears the costume of the lands.4 Ordinary folk could not claim these honours, and in Egypt, where shaving was practically universal, artificial beards were worn upon See also:

• SOLEMN (Lat. sollemnis, sollemnis, less correctly solennis, yearly, annual; from sollus = totus, whole, entire, Gr. Mos., and annus, year)

solemn occasions as a peculiar See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty .

But the appendage of the official was shorter than that of the king, and the gods had a distinctive shape for themselves; if it appears upon the dead it is because they in their See also:

• DEATH

death had become identified with the god See also:

• OSIRIS

Osiris (Erman, 59, 225 sq.) . See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

Young Egyptian princes and youthful kings had 'Comp. the horns of Bau (" See also:

• MOTHER

mother of the gods "), Samas (Shamash), (H)adad, and (in Egypt) of the Asiatic god assimilated to Set (so, too, Rameses III. is styled " strong-horned " like See also:

• BAAL

Baal) . With the band dependent from the conical hat of Marduk-bal-iddin II . (Meyer, 8) and other kings, cf. the tail on the head-dress of this foreign Set (e.g . Proc . See also:

• SOC

Soc. of Bibl . See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

Arch. xvi . 87 sq.) . The See also:

• CONSORT (Lat. consors, a companion)

consort of the Pharaoh, in turn, wore the sacred See also:

• VULTURE

vulture head-dress . 4 On the resemblance between divine and royal figures in costume, &c., see further Meyer, 9, 14 sq., 17, 23, 53 sq., 67, 79, toe, 105 sq . a long plaited See also:

• LOCK (from the O. Eng. loc.; the word appears, in different forms, in many Teutonic languages, but with such various meanings as " hole," Ger. Loch, " lid," Swed. lock, &c.; probably the original was a root meaning " to enclose ")
• LOCK, MATTHIAS

lock (or later a lappet) on the side of their head in See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

imitation of the youthful See also:

• HORUS (Egyptian Hor)

Horus, and the peculiar See also:

• TONSURE (Lat. tonsura, from tondere, to shave)

tonsure adopted by the later Arabs of Sinai was inspired by the desire to copy their god Orotal-See also:

• DIONYSUS (probably = " son of Zeus," from & Os and vv(7os, a Thracian word for " son ")

Dionysus.' Thus we perceive that ancient costume and toilet involves the relations between the gods and men, and also, what is extremely important, the See also:

• POLITICAL

political conditions among the latter . When the king symbolizes both the god and the exttnt of his kingdom, ceremonies which could appear See also:

• COMMONPLACE

commonplace often acquire a new significance, any discussion of which belongs to the intricacies of the history of See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion and pre-monarchical society .

It must suffice, therefore, to See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record the Pharaoh's simple girdle (with or without a tunic) from which hangs the lion's tail, or the tail-like band suspended from the extremity of his head-dress (above), or the See also:

• PANTHER

panther or See also:

• LEOPARD

leopard skin worn over the shoulders by the high priest at See also:

• MEMPHIS

Memphis, subsequently a ceremonial dress of men of rank . That the Pharaoh's skirt, sometimes decorated with a pleated golden material, should become an honorific garment, the right of wearing which was proudly recorded among the See also:

• BEARER

bearer's titles, is quite intelligible, but many difficulties arise when one attempts to identify the individuals represented, or to trace the evolution of ideas.' The well-known conservatism of religious practice manifests itself in ceremonial festivals (where there is a tendency for the original religious meaning to be obscured) and among the priests, and it is interesting to observe that despite the great changes in Egyptian costume in the New Kingdom the priests still kept to the simple linen skirt of earlier days (Erman, 206) . Religious dress (whether of priests or worshippers) was regulated by certain fundamental ideas concerning See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access to the deity and its consequences . That it was proper to wear special garments (or at least to rearrange one's weekday clothes) on the Jewish See also:

• SABBATH

sabbath was recognized in the See also:

• TALMUD

Talmud, and Mahommedans, after discussing at length the most suitable raiment for See also:

• PRAYER (from Lat. precari, entreat; Ital. pregaria, Fr. priere)
• PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON

prayer, favoured the use of a single simple garment (Bukhari, viii.) . It was a deep-seated belief that those who took part in religious functions were liable to communicate this " holiness " to others (compare the complex ideas associated with the Polynesian See also:

• TABOO (also written tapu and tabu)

taboo) . Hence priests would remove their ceremonial dress before leaving the See also:

• SANCTUARY (from the late Lat. sanctuarium, a sacred place)

sanctuary " that they sanctify not the people with their garments " (Ezek. xliv . 19; cf. xlii . 14), and every precaution was taken on religious occasions to ensure purity by special ablutions and by cleansing the clothes.' In the old See also:

• RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom)

ritual at Mecca, the man who wore his own garments must leave them in the sanctuary, as they had become " taboo "; hence the sacred circumambulation of the Ka'ba was performed naked (prohibited by See also:

• MAHOMET (strictly MUHAMMAD, commonly also MOHAMMED)

Mahomet), or in clothes provided for the occasion . The old archaic waist-cloth was used, and at the present day both male and female pilgrims enter bare-footed and clad in the scanty ihram (C . M . Doughty, Arabia Deserta, ii . 479, 481, 537)• In several old Babylonian representations the priests or worshippers appear before the deity in a state of nature.4 It is known that laymen were required to wear special garments, and the priests (who wore dark-red or See also:

• PURPLE

purple) were sometimes called upon to change their garments in the course of a ceremony .

Thus the temples required clothing not merely for the gods but also for the attendants (so at See also:

• SAMARIA

Samaria, 2 Kings x . 22) . In the late usage at See also:

• HARRAN, HARAN

Harran the worshipper, after purifying his garments and his See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart, was advised to put on the clothing of the particular god he addressed (de See also:

• GOEJE, MICHAEL JAN DE (1836—1909)

Goeje, Oriental See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

Congress, See also:

• LEIDEN

Leiden, 1 Herod. iii . 8 . If the bald Sumerians wore wigs in time of war, (Meyer, 81, 86), war itself from beginning to end was essentially a religious rite; see W . R . See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith, Rel. of Semites, pp . 401 sqq., 491 sq.; F . Schwally, Semitische Kriegsaltertumer, i . On the importance attached to the beard, see Ency . Bib., s.v . 2 A typical example is afforded by the solitary representation of a Moabite (Perrot and Chipiez, Phoen. ii .

45) whose helmet and dress suggest a god or king . Equally perplexing is the Egyptian style on the Phoenician statue, ib . 28 . ' Cf . Lev. xvi . 23 sq.; Ex. xix . 10; Herod. ii . 37 (ed . See also:

• WIEDEMANN, GUSTAV HEINRICH (1826-1899)

Wiedemann) ; See also:

• LAGRANGE, JOSEPH LOUIS (1736-1813)

Lagrange, Etudes sur See also:

• LES

les relig. sem . 239 . ' M . Jastrow, Relig. of Bab. and See also:

• ASS (O.E. assa; Lat. asinus)
• ASS, FEAST OF THE

Ass. p .

666; cf . Rev. biblique, 1908, p . 466 sq., and Meyer, 59, 86, 97, 101 . According to the latter Sumerian priests served naked (p . 112) . 1883, pp . 341 sqq.) . The reason is obvious, and the principle could be variously expressed . But we are not told whether the prophetess who wore bands on her arm and See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew a mantle over her head (so read in Ezek. xiii . 17-23) actually used the clothing peculiar to some deity, nor is it quite clear what is meant when a Babylonian ritual See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text refers to the magical use of the linen garment of See also:

• ERIDU

Eridu (seat of the cult of See also:

• EA(nar...), (p.s„,.,.)
• EA(psr...), (p, „...)• (pqr...)

Ea) . The See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

Bishop Gregentius denounced as heathenish the See also:

• RITES

rites in which the Arabs wore masks (W . R .

Smith, 438), and one is tempted to compare the use of masks elsewhere in animal worship . Next, one may observe upon old Babylonian seals, See also:

• EAGLE (Fr. aigle, from the Lat. aquila)

eagle-headed deities with short feathered skirts attended by human beings similarly arrayed (Ball, 151) or figures draped in a See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish skin (See also:

• MENANT, JOACHIM (1820—1899)

Menant, Rev. de l'hist. See also:

• DES

des relig. x1 . 295-301) or a worshipper arrayed somewhat like a cock (Meyer, 63; cf . See also:

• LUCIAN (d. 312)
• LUCIAN [Aowaavos] (c. A.D. 120-180)

Lucian's De Dea Syria, § 48; for " bees," &c., as titles of sacred attendants, see J . G . Frazer, See also:

• PAUSANIAS

Pausanias, iv . 223, v . 621) . Although there is much that is obscure in this See also:

• LINE

line of See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research, it is a natural See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption that, in those ritual functions where the gods were supposed to participate, the role was taken by men, and the general See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of assimilating oneself to the god (and the See also:

• REVERSE

reverse See also:

• PROCESS

process) manifests itself in too many ways to be ignored (cf . W . R . Smith, 293, 437 sq., 474; C .

J . Ball, Ency . Bib., art . ' Cuttings ") . But the deities were not originally anthropomorphic, and it is with the earlier stages in their development that some of the more remarkable costumes are apparently concerned . Of all priestly costumes 6 the most interesting is undoubtedly that of the Jewish Levitical high-priest . In addition to a tunic (kuttoneth) and a seamless mantle or robe (me'il), he wore the breastplate (hoshen), the See also:

• EPHOD

ephod, and a rich outer girdle . Breeches were assumed on the Day of See also:

• ATONEMENT

Atonement . His head-dress was as distinctive as that of the high priest at See also:

• HIERAPOLIS

Hierapolis, who wore a golden See also:

• TIARA (Gr. -papa)

tiara and a purple dress, while the ordinary priests had a pilos (conical cap, also worn in See also:

• ISRAEL (Hebrew for " God strives " or " rules "; see Gen. xxxii. 28; and the allusion in Hosea xii. 4)

Israel, Ex. xxviii . 40) and white garments . But the various descriptions cannot be easily reconciled.' The robe had pomegranates and golden bells that the See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound might give warning as he went in and out of the sanctuary, and that he died not " (Ex. xxviii . 35) .

According to Josephus they symbolized the See also:

• LIGHTNING

lightning and See also:

• THUNDER

thunder respectively . The " ephod of prophecy " (so Test. of See also:

• LEVI, HERMANN (1839-1900)
• LEVI, LEONE (1821-1888)

Levi, viii . 2) was essentially once an object of See also:

• DIVINATION
• DIVINATION, OMEN, ASTROLOGY

divination (see EPHOD) . The " breastplate of judgment " was set with twelve jewels engraved with the names of the tribes; the foreordained covering of the semi-divine being in the See also:

• GARDEN (from O. Fr. garden, mod. Fr. jardin; this, like our words " garth," a paddock attached to a building, and " yard," comes from a Teutonic word for an enclosure which appears in Gothic as gards and O. H. Ger. gart, cf. Dutch gaarde and Ger. .garten)

garden of the gods See also:

• BORE

bore the same number of stones (Ezek. xxviii . 1J1 Septuagint) . This See also:

• BREAST (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. the Ger. Brust, possibly connected with an O. Sax. brustian, to bud)

breast ornament finds analogies in the royal and high priestly dress of Egypt, and in the six jewels of the Babylonian king.' The sacred lots which gave " judgment " in accordance with the divine See also:

• ORACLE (Lat. oraculum, from ora' to pray; the corresponding Greek word is uavreiov or Xpnuri7pwov)

oracle (Num. See also:

• XXVII

xxvii . 21) have been plausibly compared with the Babylonian tablets of destiny worn by the gods and the mystic lots upon the bosom of See also:

• NOAH (ni, rest; Septuagint, New Testament, Philo, Josephus, Na*, N&i os, Nweos: Vulg. Noe)

Noah.' The two jewels also engraved with the names of the tribes in a suitable setting, worn upon the shoulder (see p . 102, c.), served, like the twelve mentioned, for a memorial before the Deity, effectively bringing them to remembrance, without any action on the part of the bearer, and thus tacitly involving supernatural intervention as amulets are regularly expected to do . The golden See also:

• PLATE

plate inscribed " See also:

• HOLY

holy to Yahweh " placed over the head (the details are discrepant) had a mystic atoning force (Ex. xxviii: 38), and in general writers recognized the peculiar efficacy of the costume and its symbolical meaning (See also:

• PHILO
• PHILO, HERENNIUS

Philo, Vita Mosis, iii . 14; Jos . Ant. iii . 7 .

7; Talm . Zeb . 88b) . Although Jewish tradition ascribed this gorgeous and significant See also:

• ARRAY (from the O. Fr. areyer, Med. Lat. arredare, to get ready)

array to the See also:

• MOSAIC (corresponding to Lat. opus musivum, from Gr. µovoeiov, an artificial grotto often decorated with mosaics; the word is only found in the sense of mosaic in late Greek, which generally uses k oXI yrlµa)

Mosaic age (if not to the pre-Mosaic days of Levi, so the Test. of Levi), its very See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, in common with the high priest's status, combines kingly and priestly See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers in a manner which is impossible for the period (about 15th—13th cent.) . Where the king is the human representative of the Deity he is theoretically and officially, the priesthood, although the priests carry on the ordinary subordinate functions . The Hebrew 6 For the conspicuous dress of Syrian and Phrygian priests in See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome and for other incidental references, see D . Chwolsohn, See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die Ssabier (1856), ii . 655, 712 sq . 6 Ex. xxviii., xxix . 5; Lev. viii . 6-9, xvi . ; F_cclus. xlv .

; Joseph . Ant. iii . 7, See also:

• WARS

Wars, v . 5, 7; see commentaries and special dictionaries of the Bible . Zimmern, Keilinschrift. u . Alte Test . 629, n . 5; cf. the Bab. priests' See also:

• PECTORAL

pectoral; Lagrange, op. cit., 236, n. i . 6 See also:

• JUBILEES, BOOK OF

Jubilees, viii. i 1, see W . Muss-Arnolt, Amer . Journ. of Semit . See also:

• LANG, ANDREW (1844— )
• LANG, KARL HEINRICH, RITTER VON (1764-1835)

Lang., 1900, pp .

207-212 . Ceremonial costume . kings, at all events, undertook priestly duties, and not until after the fall of Jerusalem does the history allow that usurpation of monarchical rights upon which the See also:

• PROPHET (Irpo4i ri7s)

prophet See also:

• EZEKIEL (SKpm', " God strengthens" or " God is strong "; Sept. 'IE'EKL?)X; Vulg. Ezechiel)

Ezekiel (q.v.) encroaches . The embodiment of political and religious supremacy displayed in the high priest's authority, clothing and symbols can only reflect exilic or rather post-exilic conditions.' (See further PRIEST.) In the Maccabaean age the high priest See also:

• JONATHAN
• JONATHAN (Heb. " Yah [weh] gives ")

Jonathan received the purple robe and crown and the See also:

• BUCKLE, HENRY THOMAS (1821–1862)

buckle of See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold worn on the shoulder as a sign of priestly and See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular rank (1 Macc . X . 20, 38, 89, xi . 58) . His See also:

• BROTHER

brother See also:

• SIMON, ABRAHAM (1622-1692)
• SIMON, JULES FRANCOIS (1814–1896)
• SIMON, RICHARD (1638–1712)
• SIMON, SIR JOHN (1816–1904)
• SIMON, THOMAS (c. 1623-1665)

Simon received similar honours (xiv . 48 sq.), and See also:

• HYRCANUS ('Tp,av6s)

Hyrcanus, the " second See also:

• DAVID
• DAVID (a Hebrew name meaning probably beloved 1)
• DAVID, FELICIEN (1810—1876)
• DAVID, GERARD [GHEERAERT DAVIT], (?=1523)
• DAVID, PIERRE JEAN (1789–1856)
• DAVID, ST (Dewi, Sant)

David," was supposed to have had two crowns, one royal and the other priestly (Talm . See also:

• KIDD, JOHN (1775-1851)
• KIDD, THOMAS (1770-185o)
• KIDD, WILLIAM

Kidd . 66a) . The later Rabbis wore most sumptuous apparel, and were crowned until the death of Eliezer See also:

• BEN (from Old Eng. bennan, within)

ben Azarya .

Thus there was a real significance in ceremonial See also:

• INVESTITURE (Late Lat. investitura)

investiture (cf . Num. xx . 26, 28) and in the transference of clothes (cf . See also:

• ELISHA (a Hebrew name meaning " God is deliverance ")

Elisha and See also:

• ELIJAH (a Hebrew name meaning " Yah[weh] is God ")

Elijah's mantle, 2 Kings ii . 13) . Further the See also:

• EXCHANGE

exchange of garments was not meaningless, and the See also:

• PROHIBITION (Lat. prohibere, to prevent)

prohibition in Deut. xxii . 5 points to religious or superstitious beliefs, on which see J . G . Frazer, See also:

• ADONIS

Adonis, See also:

• ATTIS

Attis and Osiris (2nd ed.), pp . 428-435 . On t e claim involved by the act of throwing a garment over another (Ruth iii . 9; cf. r Kings xix .

19), see W . R . Smith, Kinship and Marriage2, 105 sq.; J . See also:

• WELLHAUSEN, JULIUS (1844— )

Wellhausen, Archiv f . Religionswiss . (2907), pp . 40 sqq . ; and on some interesting ideas associated with sandals, see Ency . Bib., s.v." Shoes." As a sign of grief, or on any occasion when the individual felt himself brought into closer contact with his deity, the garments were See also:

• RENT

rent (subsequently a conventional slit at the breast sufficed) and he donned the sak, a loin-cloth or wrapper which appears to be a survival of older and more primitive dress.2 Later tradition (Mish., Kil. ix . 1) does not endorse Ezekiel's prohibition of woollen garments among the priests in the sanctuary (xliv . 17 sq.) . Why the layman was forbidden a mixture of wool and linen (sha'atnez, Deut. xxii. i I) is difficult to explain, though See also:

• MAIMONIDES

Maimonides perhaps correctly regarded the law as a protest against heathenism (on the magical use of representatives of the animal and See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable kingdom, in See also:

• CONJUNCTION (from Lat. conjungere, to join together)

conjunction with a metal See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring, see I .

See also:

• GOLDZIHER, IGNAZ (1850– )

Goldziher, Zeit. f. alttest . Wissens. xx . 36 sq.) . Ancient oriental costume then cannot be severed from the history and development of thought . On the one side we may see the increase of rich apparel and the profusion of clothes by which people of rank indicated their position . On the other are such figures as the Hebrew prophets, distinguished by their hairy garment and by their denunciation of the luxury of both sexes.3 Superfluous clothing was both weakening and deteriorating; this formed the point of the See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice of See also:

• CROESUS

Croesus to See also:

• CYRUS
• CYRUS (Gr. KDpos; Pers. Kuru-sh; Babyl. Kurash; Hebr. Koresh)

Cyrus (Herod. i . 155) . But " foreign apparel " was only too apt to involve ideas of foreign worship (Zeph. i . 8. sq.), and the recognition that See also:

• NATIONAL

national costume, custom and morality were inseparable underlay the objection to the Greek cap (theirratros) introduced among the See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews under See also:

• ANTIOCHUS

Antiochus Epiphanes (2 Macc. iv . Io-17, with the parallel 1 Macc. i 11-15) . The Israelite distinctive costume and toilet as part of a distinctive national religion was in harmony with oriental thought, and, as a people chosen and possessed by Yahweh, " a kingdom of priests and an holy nation " (Ex. xix . 5 sq.; cf .

Is. lxi . 6), certain outward signs . assumed a new significance and continued to be cherished by orthodox Jews as tokens of their faith . The tassels attached by blue threads to the four corners of the outer garment were unique only as regards the special meaning attached to them (Num. xv . 37-41; Deut. xxii . 12), and when in the middle ages they marked out the See also:

• JEW, THE WANDERING

Jew for persecution they were transferred to a small under-garment (the little tdlith), the proper tdlith being .worn over the head in the See also:

• SYNAGOGUE (avvaywyii)
• SYNAGOGUE, UNITED

synagogue . Similarly, sentences bound on the left arm or placed upon the forehead (Deut. xi . ' The relations between sacerdotal and civic authority may be seen in the See also:

• VESTMENTS

vestments of the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church (See also:

• CHASUBLE

chasuble, See also:

• ALB (Lat. alba, from albus, white)

alb, See also:

• STOLE (Lat. stela and orarium, Fr. etole, It. stola, Sp. estola, Ger. Stela)

stole), which probably were once the official garments of magistrates . 2 See articles on mourning customs in the Bible Dictionaries, and, for special studies, Biichler, Zeit. f. alttest . Wissens., 1901, pp . 81-92; M . Jastrow, ib., 1907, 117 sqq . ; and in Journ .

Amer . Or . Soc. xx . 133 sqq., xxi . 23-39 . For the Babylonian evidence see Zimmern, op. cit., 603 . The sculptures of Sennacherib show the bare-headed and bare-footed suppliants of Lachish meanly clad before Sennacherib (Ball, p . 192, contrast the warriors with caps and helmets, ib. p . 19o, and on the simple dress, cf. above) . 3 Ezek. xvi. xxiii . ; Isa. iii . 16-iv .

1 . For the hairy garb, cf . See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John the Baptist (Matt. iii . 4) ; it became the ascete's dress . The founder of the Jacobite Church in Asia owed his surname (Burde'See also:

• ANET

anet) to his rough See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse-cloth . Here may be mentioned the archaic revival in Egypt in the 8th century B.C., which also extended to the costume.18, cf. the high priest's plate) find analogies in the means taken elsewhere to ensure the protection of or to See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

manifest one's adherence to a deity; the novelty lies in the part these sentences took in the religion (see See also:

• PHYLACTERY (4 vXaKTipwv)

PHYLACTERY) . While the particular prohibition regarding the beard and hair in Lev. xix . 27 (cf . Ezek. xliv . 2o) was for the avoidance of See also:

• HEATHEN

heathen customs, the peyoth or long curls which became typical in the middle ages are reminiscent of the Horus-curl of Egypt and the Maholiimedan " See also:

• HEAVEN (0. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel, Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the sugges

heaven lock " and evidently served as See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive distinctive marks . Apart from these details later Jewish dress does not belong to this See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section . In the Greek and Roman period foreign influence shows itself very strongly in the introduction of novelties of costume and of classical terms, and the subject belongs rather to the Greek and Roman dress of the age.4 Two conflicting tendencies were constantly at work, and reached their See also:

• CLIMAX, JOHN (c. 525–600 A.D.)

climax in the middle ages .

There was an anxiety to avoid articles of dress peculiar to other religions, especially when these were associated with religious practices; and there was a willingness to refrain from costume contrary to the customs of an unsympathetic See also:

• LAND

land . On the one hand, there was a conservatism which is exemplified when the Jews in course of See also:

• IMMIGRATION (from Lat. in, into, and tnigrare, to depart)

immigration took with them the characteristic dress of their former adopted See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home, or when they remained unmoved by the changes of the See also:

• RENAISSANCE, THE

Renaissance . On the other hand, the prominent badge enforced by See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

Pope See also:

• INNOCENT (INNOCENTIUS)
• INNOCENT (POPES)

Innocent III. in 1215 was intended to prevent Jews from being mistaken for Christians, and similarly in Mahommedan lands they were compelled to wear some distinctive indication of their See also:

• SECT

sect . Thus the many See also:

• QUAINT (O. Fr. cointe, from Lat. cognitus, known, probably influenced by association with Lat. corn plus, neat)

quaint and interesting features of later Jewish costume have arisen from certain specific causes, any consideration of which concerns later and See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval costume generally . See I . Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages (1896), See also:

• CHAP

chap. xv. sq.; and especially the Jew . Encyc., s.v . " Dress " (with numerous illustrations) . ii . Aegean Costume.—The discoveries made at See also:

• MYCENAE

Mycenae and other centres of " Mycenaean" civilization, and those of more recent date due to the excavations of Dr A . J . See also:

• EVANS, CHRISTMAS (1766-1838)
• EVANS, EVAN HERBER (1836-1896)
• EVANS, OLIVER (1755–1819)
• EVANS, SIR GEORGE DE LACY (1787–1870)
• EVANS, SIR JOHN (1823-1908)

Evans and others in Crete, have shown that Hellenic culture was preceded in the Aegean by a civilization differing from it in many respects (see AEGEAN CIVILIZATION), and not least in costume .

The essential feature both of male and female dress during the "Minoan " and " Mycenaean " periods was the loin-cloth, which is best represented by the votive terra-See also:

• COTTA
• COTTA, BERNHARD VON (1808—1879)
• COTTA, GAIUS AURELIUS (c. 124—73 B.c.)

cotta statuettes from Petsofa in Crete discovered by See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor J . L . Myres and published in the ninth See also:

• VOLUME

volume of the Annual of the British School at Athens (fig . 15) . J . L . Myres shows that the costume consists of three parts—the loin-cloth itself, a white wrapper or kilt worn over it, and a knotted girdle which secured the whole and perhaps played its part in producing and maintaining the See also:

• WASP (Lat. vespa)

wasp waists characteristic of the Aegean See also:

• RACE

race . The loin-cloth was the only costume (except for high boots, probably made of See also:

• PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

pale leather, since they are represented 4 See for details, A . Briill, Trachten d . Juden (1873) . From Petsofa (Annual of the Brit . School at Athens) .

with white paint) regularly worn by the male sex, though we sometimes find a See also:

• HOOD,
• HOOD, JOHN BELL (1831–1879)
• HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD, VISCOUNT (1724–1816)
• HOOD, SIR SAMUEL (1762-1814)
• HOOD, THOMAS (1799-1845)
• HOOD, TOM (1835–1874)

hood or wrapper, as on a See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead statuette found in See also:

• LACONIA
• LACONIA (Gr. AaKWVLK1])

Laconia (fig . 16), but the Aegean women developed it into a bodice-and-skirt costume, well represented by the frescoes of See also:

• CNOSSUS

Cnossus and the statuettes of the snake-goddess and her votaries there discovered . This trans-formation of the loin-cloth has been illustrated by Mr D . Mackenzie(see below) from Cretan seal-impressions . In place of the belted kilt of the men we find a belted panier or See also:

• POLONAISE (i.e. Polish, in French)

polonaise, considerably elongated in front, worn by Aegean women; and Mackenzie shows that this was repeated several times until it formed the See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound skirt with a number of flounces which is represented on many Mycenaean gems.' On a See also:

• FRESCO (Ital. for cool, " fresh ")

fresco discovered at Phaestus (Hagia Triada) (fig . 17) and a sealing from the same place this multiple skirt is clearly shown as divided; but this does not seem to have been the general rule . On other sealings we find a single overskirt with a pleated underskirt . The skirts were held in place by a thick rolled belt, and the upper part of the body remained quite nude in the earliest times; but from the middle Minoan period onward we often find an important addition in the shape of a low-cut bodice, which sometimes has sleeves, either tight-fitting or puffed, and ultimately develops into a laced corsage . A figurine from Petsofa (fig . 18) shows the bodice-and-skirt costume, together with a high pointed head-dress, in one of its most From Monumenti antiahi (Acad . Lincei) . elaborate forms .

The bodice has a high peaked See also:

• COLLAR

collar at the back . Other forms of head-dress are seen on the great signet from Mycenae . The fact that both male and female costume amongst the primitive Aegean peoples is derivable from the simple loin-cloth with additions is rightly used by Mackenzie as a See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof that their original home is not to be sought in the colder regions of central Europe, but in a warm climate such as that of North Africa . It is not until the latest Mycenaean period that we find brooches, such as were used in historical Greece, to fasten woollen garments, and their presence in the tombs of the lower See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of Mycenae indicates the coming of a northern race . See Annual of the British School at Athens, ix . 356 sqq . (Myres) ; xii . 233 sqq . (Mackenzie) ; Tsountas and Manatt, The Mycenaean Age, ch. vii . iii . Greek Costume.—All articles of Greek costume belong either to the class of Epjtara, more or less close-fitting, sewn garments, or of irept.(3Xilµara, loose pieces of stuff draped round the body in various ways and fastened with pins or brooches . For the former class the generic name is xtrwv, a word of Semitic origin, which denotes the Eastern origin of the garment; for the latter we find in See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

Homer and early See also:

• POETRY

poetry irbirXos, in later times 1 shrtov .

The irEirXos (also called t`avos and ¢apos in Homer) was the sole indispensable article of dress in early Greece, and, as it was always retained as such by the women in Dorian states, is often called the " Doric dress " (EQBits Owpls) . It was a square piece of woollen stuff about a foot longer than the height of the wearer, and equal in breadth to twice the span of the arms measured from See also:

• WRIST

wrist to wrist . The upper edge was folded over for a distance equal to the space from neck to waist—this folded portion was called letr&rv7pa or &irAots,and the whole garment was then doubled and wrapped round the body below the armpits, the left side being closed and the right open . The back and front were then pulled up over the shoulders and fastened together with brooches like safety-pins (irepovat) . This was the Doric costume, which left the right side of the body exposed and provoked the censure of See also:

• EURIPIDES (48o–4o6 B.C.)

Euripides (Andr . 598) . It was usual, however, to hold the front and back of the irEirXos together by a girdle V)vn), passed round the waist below the ttrOTrrvyya; the superfluous length of the garment was pulled'up through the girdle and allowed to fall over in a baggy See also:

• FOLD

fold (KOAaos) (see GREEK ART, fig . 75) . Sometimes the ciirOirrvy,ua was made long enough to fall below the waist, and the girdle passed outside it (cf. the figure of See also:

• ARTEMIS

Artemis on the See also:

• VASE
• VASE (through Fr. from Lat. vas, a vessel, pl. vasa, of which the singular vasum is rarely found; the ultimate root is probably was-, to cover, seen in Lat: vestis, clothing, Eng. " vest," Gr. to-th c, and also in " wear," of garments)

vase shown in GREEK ART, fig . 29); this was the fashion in which the See also:

• ATHENA (the Attic form of the Homeric Athene, also called Athenaia, Pallas Athene, Pallas)

Athena Parthenos of See also:

• PHEIDIAS

Pheidias was draped . The " See also:

• ATTIC (i.e. "in the Attic style ")

Attic " or " Corinthian " ireir) os was sewn together on the right side from below the arm, and thus became an EvSvya . The irEirXos was worn in a variety of colours and often decorated with bands of ornament, both horizontal and See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical; Homer uses the epithets KpotcOireirXos and KvavOireirXos, which show that yellow and dark blue lretr)^ot were worn, and speaks of embroidered srEirXot (=am) .

Such embroideries are indicated by painting on the statues from the See also:

• ACROPOLIS (Gr. aKpos, top, a6)Xts, city)

Acropolis and are often shown on vase paintings . The See also:

• CHITON

chiton, xtrwv, was formed by sewing together at the sides two pieces of linen, or a double piece folded together, leaving spaces at the top for the arms and neck, and fastening the top edges together over the shoulders and upper arm with buttons or brooches; more rarely we find a plain sleeveless chiton . The length of the garment varied considerably . The xtrwvit1KOS, worn in active exercise, as by the so-called " See also:

• ATALANTA

Atalanta " of the Vatican, or the well-known See also:

• AMAZON

Amazon statues (GREEK ART, fig . 4o), reached only to the knee; the xtrc'ov i1'ot7'7Pns covered the feet . This long, trailing garment was especially characteristic of See also:

• IONIA

Ionia; in the Homeric poems (Il. xiii . 685) we read of the 'Iaoves AKEXirWVES . If worn without a girdle it went by the name of xtrwv OpOoorti&ws . The long chiton was regularly used by musicians (e.g . See also:

• APOLLO (Gr. 'A2r6XXwv,'Airkkhwv)

Apollo the See also:

• LYRE (Gr. Xupa)

lyre-player) and charioteers . In ordinary life it was generally pulled up through the girdle and formed a KOXiros (GREEK ART, fig . 2) .

Herodotus (v . 82–88) tells a See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story (cf . See also:

• AEGINA
• AEGINA (EGINA or ENGIA)

AEGINA), the details of which are to all appearance legendary, in order to See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account for a change in the fashion of female dress which took place at Athens in the course of the 6th century B.C . Up to that time the " Dorian dress " had been universal, but the Athenians now gave up the use of garments fastened with pins or brooches, and adopted the linen chiton of the See also:

• IONIANS

Ionians . The statement of Herodotus is illustrated both by Attic vase-paintings and also by the series of archaic female statues from the Acropolis of Athens, which (with the exception of one clothed in the Doric irEirXos) wear the Ionic chiton, together with an outer garment, sometimes laid over both shoulders like a cloak (GREEK ART, fig . 3), but more usually fastened on the right shoulder only, and passed diagonally across the body so as to leave the left arm Perrot et Chipiez's Art in Primitive Greece, by permission of See also:

• CHAPMAN (from O. Eng. ceap, and Mid. Eng. ,heap, to barter, cf. " Cheapside " in London, and Ger. Kaufmann)
• CHAPMAN, GEORGE (? 1559–1634)

Chapman & See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

Hall . From Annual of the Brit . School at Athens . free . The garment (which resembles the Doric it rXos, but seems to have been rectangular rather than square) is folded over at the top, and the central part is drawn up towards the right shoulder to produce an elaborate system of zigzag folds (GREEK ART, fig . 22) . The See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders of the garment are painted with geometrical patterns in vivid colours; a broad stripe of ornament runs down the centre of the skirt.' This fashion of dress was only temporary .

See also:

• THUCYDIDES (OovavMns)

Thucydides (i . 6) tells us that in his own time the linen chiton of Ionia had again been discarded in favour of the Doric dress, and the monuments show that after the Persian wars a reaction against Oriental-ism showed itself in a return to simpler fashions . The long linen chiton, which had been worn by men as well as women, was now only retained by the male sex on religious and festival occasions; a short chiton was, however, worn at work or in active exercise (GREEK ART, fig . 3) and often fastened on the left shoulder only, when it was called vs-clip 41-epopi6axaXos or iEcoyts . But the garment usually worn by men of mature age was the iµaTLov, which was (like the IiisrXos) a plain square of woollen stuff . One corner of this was pulled over the left shoulder from the back and tucked in under the left arm; the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the garment was brought round the right side of the body and either carried under the right shoulder, across the See also:

• CHEST (Gr. Kiarl, Lat. cista, O. Eng. cist, test, &c.)

chest and over the left shoulder, if it was desired that the right arm should be free, or wrapped round the right arm as well as the body, leaving the right hand in a fold like a See also:

• SLING (from M. Eng. slingen, to fling, throw with a jerk, Icel. slyngva, cf. Ger. schlingen, to twist)

sling (GREEK ART, fig . '2) . The lyivn.ov was also worn by women over the linen chiton, and draped in a great variety of ways, which may be illustrated by the terra-cotta figurines from Tanagra (4th-3rd cent . B.C.) and the numerous types of female statues, largely represented by copies of Roman date, made to serve as See also:

• GRAVE

grave-monuments . The upper part of the iaartov was often drawn over the head as in the example here shown (Plate, fig . 21), a statue formerly in the See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of See also:

• SUTHERLAND, EARLS AND DUKES OF

Sutherland's collection at Trentham and now in the British Museum . A lighter garment was the xXaybs, chlamys, a mantle worn by young men, usually over a short chiton girt at the waist, and fastened on the right shoulder (cf. the figure of See also:

• HERMES
• HERMES, GEORG (1775-1831)

Hermes in GREEK ART, fig .

2) . The xXaiva was a heavy woollen cloak worn in See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold weather . Peasants wore sheepskins or garments of hide called ,3aLTri or o-iovpa; slaves, who were required by custom to conceal their limbs as much as possible, wore a sleeved chiton and long See also:

• HOSE (a word common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch, hoes, stocking, Ger. Hose, breeches, tights; the ultimate origin is unknown)

hose . A woman's head was usually covered by drawing up the iµaTLov (see above), but sometimes instead of this, a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate piece of cloth was made to perform this service, the end of it falling over the himation . This was the KaXinrr pa, or veil called xpii&eyvov in Homer . A cap merely intended to cover in the hair and hold it together was called KeKpbOa)os . When the object was only to hold up the hair from the neck,. the vdsevSovai was used, which, as its name implies, was in the form of a sling; but in this case it was called more particularly arrro-Oovdev&ovn, as a distinction from the sphendone when worn in front of the head . The head ornaments include the SeaSriµa, a narrow band bound round the hair a little way back from the brow and temples, and fastened in the See also:

• KNOT
• KNOT (O.E. cnotta, from a Teutonic stem knutt; cf. " knit," and Ger. knoten)

knot of the hair behind; the aµirvE, a variety of the diadem; the a.me.:kiii, a crown worn over the forehead, its highest point being in the centre, and narrowing at each side into a thin band which is tied at the back of the head . It is doubtful whether this should be distinguished from the 7T4avor, a crown of the same breadth and design all round, as on the coins of See also:

• ARGOS

Argos with the head of See also:

• HERA

Hera, who is expressly said by Pausanias to wear a stephanos . This word is also employed for crowns of See also:

• LAUREL

laurel, See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive or other plant . High crowns made of wicker-work exam, KaXaeot) were also worn (see See also:

• GERHARD
• GERHARD, FRIEDRICH WILHELM EDUARD (1795-1867)

Gerhard, Antike Bildwerke, pls . 303-305) .

When the hair, as was most usual, was gathered back from the temples and fastened in a knot behind, hair-pins were required, and these were mostly of See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

bone or See also:

• IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur)
• IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842)

ivory, mounted with gold or plain; so also when the hair was 1 These ornamental bands are carefully described and reproduced in colour by A . Lermann, Altgriechische Plastik (19o7), pp . 85 if., pls. i.-xx . Some authorities hold that the skirt forms part of the over-garment, but it seems clear that it belongs to the xtrc s.tied in a large knot above the forehead, as in the case of Artemis, or of Apollo as leader of the See also:

• MUSES, THE (Gr. Mo6o-at, the thinkers)

Muses . The early Athenians wore their hair in the fashion termed KpW(3vXos, with fastenings called " grasshoppers " (TETTLyes), in allusion to their claim of having originally sprung from the See also:

• SOIL

soil (Thuc. i . 6) . The TerTLyes have been identified by Helbig with small spirals of gold See also:

• WIRE (A.S. wir, a wire; cf. Swed. vire, to twist, M.H.G. wiere, a gold ornament, Lat. viriae, armlets, ultimately from the root wi, to twist, bind)

wire, such as are found in early See also:

• ETRUSCAN

Etruscan tombs lying near the head of the See also:

• SKELETON

skeleton . Such spirals were used in early Athens to confine the back hair, and this fashion may therefore be identified as the Kpw(3vXos . In archaic figures the hair is most frequently arranged over the brow and temples in parallel rows of small curls which must have been kept in their places by artificial means . Ear-rings ($vdrrLa, E)^l\o/3ca, ALeri pes) of gold, See also:

• SILVER

silver, or bronze plated with gold, and frequently ornamented with pearls, See also:

• PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium)

precious stones, or See also:

• ENAMEL (formerly " amel," derived through the Fr. amail, emmll, esmail, from a Latin word smaltum, first found in a 9th-century life of Leo IV.)

enamel, were worn attached to the lobes of the ear . For neck-laces (opµoe), bracelets (64ets), brooches (rrepovcu), and finger-rings (SaKTVAcoc or o-¢payZSes) the same variety and preciousness of material was employed . For the feet the sandal (aavlaXov, 7ri&Xov) was the usual wear; for See also:

• HUNTING (the verbal substantive from " hunt "; O. Eng. huntian, hunta; apparently connected with O. Eng. hentan, Gothic hinpan, to capture, O.H.G. hunda,booty)

hunting and travelling high boots were worn .

Thehunting-See also:

• BOOT

boot (Evhpoµis) was laced up the front, and reached to the calves; the KhOopvos (cothurnus) was a high boot reaching to the middle of the leg, and as worn by tragic actors had high soles . Slippers (irepoocai) were adopted from the East by women; shoes (Eµ$d&es) were worn by the poorer classes . Gloves (xeepISer) were worn by the Persians, but apparently never by the Greeks unless to protect the hands when working (Odyssey, xxiv . 230) . Hats, which were as a rule worn only by youths, workmen and slaves, were of circular shape, and either of some stiff material, as the Boeotian hat observed in terra-cottas from Tanagra, or of pliant material which could be See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

bent down at the sides like the 'See also:

• IRIS

iris-cams worn by Hermes and sometimes even by women . The Kavo ia, or Macedonian hat, seems to have been similar to this . The Kvpf3avia, or KLbapcs, was a high-pointed hat of Persian origin, as was also the ndpa, which served the double purpose of an ornament and a covering for the head . Workmen wore a close-fitting felt cap (2riXos) . See F . Studniczka, " Beitrage zur Geschichte der altgriechischen Tracht " (Abhandlungen des arch.-epigr . Seminars in Wien, vii . 1886) ; See also:

• LADY (0. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. ldfdi, lavedi; the first part of the word is hldf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development fr

Lady Evans, Chapters on Greek Dress (1893) ; W .

Kalkmann, " Zur Tracht archaischer Gewandfiguren " (.Iahrb. des k. deutschen arch . Instituts, 1896, pp . 19 ff.); S . Cybulski, Tabulae quibus antiquitates Graecae et Romanae sllustrantur, Nos . 16-18 (19o3), with text by W . Amelung; Ethel B . Abrahams, Greek Dress (1908) . iv . Etruscan Costume.—The female dress of the Etruscans did not differ in any important respect from that of the Greeks; it consisted of the chiton and himation, which was in earlier times usually worn as a shawl, not after the fashion of the Doric 7riirlXoc . Two articles of costume, however, were peculiar to the Etruscans —the high conical hat known as the tutulus,' and the shoes with turned-up points (Latin calcei repandi) . These have oriental analogies, and lend support to the tradition that the Etruscans came from Asia . Both are represented on a small bronze figure in the British Museum (fig .

19) . On a celebrated terra-cotta See also:

• SARCOPHAGUS (Gr. vapsorg yos, literally " flesh-eating," from vapt, flesh, ¢ayeiv, to eat)

sarcophagus in the British Museum of much later date (fig . 20), the female figure reclining on the lid wears a Greek chiton of a thin white material, with short sleeves fastened on the outside of the arm, by means of buttons and loops; a himation of 'dark purple thick stuff is wrapped round her hips and legs; on her feet are sandals, consisting of a sole F10 . 19. apparently of leather, and attached to the foot and leg with leather straps; under the straps are thin socks which do not cover the toes; she wears a necklace of heavy pendants; her ears are pierced for ear-rings; her hair is partly gathered together with a ribbon at the roots behind, and partly hangs in long tresses before and behind; a See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat diadem is bound round her head a little way back from the brow and 2 The tutulus was worn at Rome by the fiaminica . temples . Purple, pale See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green and white, richly embroidered, are favourite colours in the dresses represented on the painted tombs . The chief article of male dress was called the tebenna . We are told by ancient writers that the toga praetexta, with its purple border (Irepnrbpe/svpos Trt/3evva), as worn by Roman magistrates and priests, had been derived from the Etruscans (See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny, N.H. ix . 63, " praetextae apud Etruscos originem invenere "); and the famous statue of the orator in See also:

• FLORENCE
• FLORENCE (Ital. Firenze, Lat. Florentia)

Florence (Plate, fig . 22), an Etruscan work of the 3rd century B.C., represents a man clothed in this garment, which will be described below . Under the tebenna, or toga, which was necessary only for public appearance, the Etruscans wore a short tunic similar to the Greek chiton . For workmen and others of inferior occupation this appears to have been the only dress .

Youths, when engaged in horseman-See also:

• SHIP

ship and other exercises, wore a chlamys round the shoulders, which, however, was semicircular in cut, and was fastened on the breast by buttons and a See also:

• LOOP

loop, or tied in a knot, whereas the Greek chlamys was oblong and fastened on the shoulder by a See also:

• BROOCH, or BROACH (from the Fr. broths, originally an awl or bodkin; a spit is sometimes called a broach, and hence the phrase " to broach a barrel "; see BROKER)

brooch . On public or festal occasions the Etruscan See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble wore, besides the tebenna, a bulla, or necklace of bullae, and a See also:

• WREATH (O. Eng. wry, from wriian, to twist)

wreath, See also:

• CORONA (Lat. for " crown ")

corona Etrusca . The bulla was a circular gold locket containing a See also:

• CHARM (through the Fr. from the Lat. carmen, a song)

charm of some kind against evil.' On the later sarcophagi the Redrawn from photo (Mansell) . male figures wear not only a wreath or corona proper, but also a See also:

• GARLAND, JOHN (fl. 1202—1252)

garland of See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers hung round the neck . The male head-dress was the galerus, a hat of leather, said to have been worn by the Lucumos in early times, or the See also:

• APEX

apex, a pointed hat corresponding to the tutulus worn by females . The fashion of shoes worn by Roman senators was said to have been derived from See also:

• ETRURIA

Etruria . Etruscan shoes were prized both in Greece and in Rome . Helbig's articles, referred to at the close of the next section, should be consulted . J . Martha, L'Art etrusque, gives reproductions of the most important monuments . See also the See also:

• WORKS

works on Etruscan civilization named in the art . ETRURIA .

v . Roman Costume.—We are told that the toga, the national garment of the Romans, was originally worn both by men and by women; and though the female dress of the Romans was in historical times essentially the same as that of the Greeks, young girls still wore the toga on festal occasions, as we see from the reliefs of the Ara Pacis Augustae . In early times no under-garment was worn See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save a loin-cloth (subligaculum), which seems to be a survival of early Mediterranean fashions (see above, sect . Aegean Costume), and candidates for office in historical times appeared in the toga and subligaculum only . In this period, however, the tunica, corresponding to the Greek chiton, was universally worn in ordinary life, and the toga gradually became a full-dress garment which was only worn over the tunica on important social occasions; See also:

• JUVENAL (DECIMUS JUNIUS JUVENALIS) (c. 60-140)

Juvenal (iii . I71) tells us that in a great part of See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy no one wore the toga except at his See also:

• BURIAL

burial ! The toga was a piece of woollen cloth in the form of a segment of a circle,' the chord of the arc being about three times the height of the wearer, and the height a little less than one-half of this length . One end of this garment was thrown over the left shoulder and allowed to hang down in front; the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder ' It was also worn by Roman children . This seems more likely than the alternative view that it was of elliptical shape and was folded before being put on . See also:

• QUINTILIAN [MARCUS FABIUS QUINTILIANUS] (C. A.D. 35-95)

Quintilian (xi . 3, 139, a See also:

• LOCUS (Lat. for " place "; in Gr. rinros)

locus classicus for the toga) speaks of it as " rotunda "; but this need not be taken literally se_was drawn round the body and disposed in various ways . In the cinctus Gabinus, which was the fashion adopted in early times when fighting was in prospect, the end of the toga was drawn tightly round the waist and formed a kind of girdle; this was retained in certain official functions, such as the opening of the temple of See also:

• JANUS

Janus in historical times.' In time of See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace the toga was wrapped round the right arm, leaving the hand only free, much after the fashion of the Greek himation, and thrown over the left shoulder so as to fall down behind (see ROMAN ART, Plate II., fig. rr, male figure to r.); or, if greater freedom were desired, it was passed under the right arm-See also:

• PIT (O. E. pytt, cognate with Du. put, Ger. Pfutze, &c., all ultimately adaptations of Lat. puteus, well, formed from root pu-, to cleanse, whence gurus, clean, pure)

pit .

In religious ceremonies, the See also:

• MAGISTRATE (Lat. magistratus, from magister, master, properly a public office, hence the person holding such an office)

magistrate presiding at the See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice drew the back of the toga over his head; see in the same See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration the priest with veiled head, ritu Gabino, who also wears his toga with the cinctus Gabinus . Towards the end of the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic a new fashion was generally adopted . A considerable length of the toga was allowed to hang from the left shoulder; the remainder was passed round the body so as to rise like a See also:

• BALDRIC (from O. Fr. baudrei, O. Ger. balderich, of doubtful origin; cognate with English " belt ")

baldric (balteus) from the right See also:

• HIP

hip to the left shoulder, being folded over in front (the fold was called sinus) , then brought round the back of the neck so that the end See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell over the right shoulder; the hanging portion on the left side was drawn up through the sinus, and bulged out in an unabo (Plate, fig . 24) . Later still, this portion, instead of forming a bundle of folds in the centre, was carefully folded over and carried up over the left shoulder, and in course of time these folds were carefully arranged in several thicknesses resembling boards, tabulae, hence called contabulatio (Plate, fig . 23) . Yet another fashion was that adopted by the flamens, who passed the right-hand portion of the toga over the right shoulder and arm and back over the left shoulder, so that it hung down in a See also:

• CURVE (Lat. curvus, bent)

curve over the front of the body; the upper edge was folded over . The flamens are thus represented on the Ara Pacis Augustae . The plain white toga (toga pura) was the ordinary dress of the See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen, but the toga praetexta, which had a border of purple, was worn by boys till the age of sixteen, when they assumed the plain toga virilis, and also by See also:

• CURULE (Lat. currus, " chariot ")

curule magistrates and some priests . A purple toga with embroidery (toga See also:

• PITTA

pitta) was worn together with a gold-embroidered tunic (tunica palmata) by generals while celebrating a See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph and by magistrates pre-siding at See also:

• GAMES, CLASSICAL

games; it represented the traditional dress of the kings and was adopted by See also:

• JULIUS

Julius See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar as a permanent costume . The emperors wore it on occasions of special importance . The trabea, which in historical times was worn by the consuls when opening the temple of Janus, by the See also:

• EQUITES (" horsemen " or " knights," from eques," horse ")

equites at their yearly inspection and on some other occasions, and by the See also:

• SALII

Salii at their ritual dances, and had (according to tradition) formed the original costume of the See also:

• AUGURS

augurs and flamens (who afterwards adopted the toga praetexta), was apparently a toga smaller in See also:

• SIZE

size than the ordinary See also:

• CIVIL

civil dress, decorated with See also:

• SCARLET

scarlet stripes (trabes) .

It was fastened with brooches (fibulae) and appears to have been worn by the equites, e.g. at the funeral ceremony of See also:

• ANTONINUS, SAINT ANTONIO PIEROZZI

Antoninus See also:

• PIUS

Pius . The tunica was precisely like the Greek chiton; that of the senator had two broad stripes of purple (latus clavus) down the centre, that of the See also:

• KNIGHT, CHARLES (1791-1873)
• KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY (1845– )
• KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON (1843–1908)

knight two narrow stripes (angustus clavus) . A woollen undergarment (subucula) was often worn by men; the women's under-tunic was of linen (indusium) . When women gave up the use of the toga, they adopted the stela, a long tunic with a border of a darker colour (instita) along the lower edge; the neck also sometimes had a border (patagium) . The tunic with long sleeves (tunica manicata) was a later fashion . Over this the ricinium or rica, a shawl covering the head and shoulders, was worn in early times, and retained by certain priestesses as an official costume;4 but it gave place to the pallet, the equivalent of the Greek himation, and the dress of the Roman women henceforward differed in no essential particular from that of the Greek . The See also:

• LARES (older form Lases)

Lares are thus represented in art . The suffibulum of the vestals, which was fastened on the breast by a brooch (fibula), was a garment of this sort . The marriage-veil (fammeum) derived its name from its bright See also:

• ORANGE
• ORANGE (Citrus Aurantium)
• ORANGE, HOUSE OF

orange colour . The palliolum was a kind of mantilla . A variety of cloaks were worn by men during inclement weather; in general they resembled the Greek chlamys, but often had a hood (cucullus) which could be drawn over the head . Such were the birrus (so-called from its red colour), abolla and lacerna .

The paenula, which was the garment most commonly worn, especially by soldiers when engaged on peace duties, was an oblong piece of cloth with a hole in the centre for the neck; a hood was usually attached to the back . It survives in the ritual chasuble of the Western Church . The Greek military chlamys appears in two forms—the paludamentum of the general (e.g . See also:

• TRAJAN [MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS] (A. D. 53-117)

Trajan as represented on the Arch of See also:

• CONSTANTINE

Constantine, ROMAN ART, Plate III., fig . 16), and the sagum worn by the common soldier (e.g. by some of the horsemen on the See also:

• BASE

base of the Antonine See also:

• COLUMN (Lat. columna)

column, ROMAN ART, Plate V., fig . 21) . When the toga went out of use as an article of everyday wear, the See also:

• PALLIUM

pallium, i.e. the Greek himation, was at first worn only by Romans addicted to Greek fashions, but from the time of Tiberius, who wore it in daily life, its use became general . Long robes bearing Greek names (See also:

• SYNTHESIS (Gr. a6vOeacs, from avvrcBivac, to put together)

synthesis, syrma, &c.) were worn at See also:

• DINNER

dinner-parties, The Romans often wore sandals (soleae) or light shoes (socci), but in full dress (i.e. with the toga) it was necessary to wear the calceus, which had various forms by which classes were distinguished, e.g. the calceus patricius, mulleus (of red leather) and senatorius (of black leather) . This was a shoe with slits at the sides and straps knotted in front; its forms may be seen on the See also:

• RELIEF

relief from the Ara Pacis . The senators' calceus had four such straps (quattuor corrigiae), which were wound round the ankle (cf. the See also:

• FLAMEN (from flare, " to blow up " the altar fire)

flamen on the Ara Pacis), and was also adorned with an ivory See also:

• CRESCENT (Lat. crescens, growing)

crescent (lunula) . A leathern See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue (lingula) is often seen to project from beneath the straps . The soldier's, boot (caliga, from which the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor Gains derived his See also:

• NICKNAME

nickname, Caligula) was in reality a heavy hobnailed sandal with a number of straps wound round the ankle and lower leg .

A high hunting boot was called compagus . Women at times wore the calceus, but are generally represented in art with soft shoes or sandals . Hats were seldom worn except by those who affected Greek fashions, but the close-fitting leather pileus seems to have been an article of early wear in Italy, since its use survived in the ceremony of manumission, and the head-dress of the pontifices and flamines (cf. the relief of the Ara Pacis already referred to) consisted in such a cap (galerus) with an apex, or spike, of olive See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood inserted in the crown . For personal ornament finger-rings of great variety in the material and design were worn by men, sometimes to the extent of one or more on each finger, many persons possessing small cabinets of them . But at first the Roman citizen wore only an See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron signet ring, and this continued to be used at marriages . The See also:

• JUS

jus annuli aurei, or right of wearing a gold ring, originally a military distinction, became a senatorial See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege, which was afterwards extended to the knights and gradually to other classes . Women's ornaments consisted of brooches (fibulae), bracelets (armillae), armlets (armillae, bracchialia), ear-rings (inaures), necklaces (monilia), wreaths (coronae) and hair-pins (crinales) . The tore (torques), or See also:

• CORD (derived through the Fr. corde, from the Lat. chorda, Gr. xop(5rt, the string of a musical instrument)

cord of gold worn round the neck, was introduced from See also:

• GAUL
• GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855— )

Gaul . A profusion of precious stones, and See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of skill or refinement in workmanship, distinguish Roman from Greek or Etruscan jewelry; but in the character of the designs there is no real difference . See See also:

• MARQUARDT, JOACHIM (1812–1882)

Marquardt-Mau, Privatleben der Romer, pp . 55o seq . (gives a full collection of See also:

• LITERARY

literary references) ; Cybulski, op. cit., pls. xix., xx., with Amelung's text; articles by W .

Helbig, especially Sitzungsberichte der bayrischen Akademie (188o), pp . 487 seq . (on headgear) ; Hermes xxxix . 161 seq . (on toga and trabea), and Memoires de l'Academie des inscriptions, xxxvii . (1905) (on the costume of the Salii) ; articles by L . Heuzey in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites, also in Revue de l'art, i . 98 seq., 204 seq., ii . 193 seq., 295 seq . (on the toga) . See also the general bibliography at the end . (H .

S . J.) II . COSTUME IN MEDIEVAL AND MODERN EUROPE i . Pre-Roman and Roman See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain.—Men who had found better clothing than the skins of beasts were in Britain when Caesar landed . Little as we know of England before the English, we have at least the knowledge that Britons, other than the poorer and wilder sort of the north and the See also:

• FENS

fens, wore cloaks andhats, sleeved coats whose skirts were cut above the knee and loose trousers after the fashion of the Gauls . They were not an armoured race, for they would commonly fight naked to the waist, dreadful with tattooing and See also:

• WOAD

woad staining, but Pliny describes their close-woven felts as all but sword-proof . Dyers as well as weavers, their cloaks, squares of cloth like a Highland See also:

• PLAID (Gael. plaide, Ir. ploid, usually taken to be derived from Gael. peall, sheepskin, Lat. pellis, skin)

plaid, were of black or blue, rough on the one side, while coats and trousers were bright coloured, striped and checkered, red being the favourite See also:

• HUE

hue . For ornament the British chiefs wore golden torques about their necks and golden arm-rings with brooches and pins of metal or ivory, beads of See also:

• BRASS
• BRASS (O. Eng. braes)

brass, of See also:

• JET (Fr. jais, Ger. Gagat)

jet and See also:

• AMBER

amber from their own coasts, and of See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass bought of the See also:

• SOUTHERN

Southern merchants . Their women had gowns to the ankle, with shorter tunics above them . The Druid bards had their vestments of blue, while the See also:

• STAR

star-gazers and leeches went in green . See also:

• AGRICOLA (originally SCHNEIDER, then SCHNITTER), JOHANNES (1494-1566)
• AGRICOLA (the Latinized form of the name BAUER), GEORG (1490-1555)
• AGRICOLA, CHRISTOPH LUDWIG (1667-1719)
• AGRICOLA, GNAEUS JULIUS (A.D. 37-93)
• AGRICOLA, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1720-1774)
• AGRICOLA, MARTIN (c. 1500-1556)
• AGRICOLA, RODOLPHUS (properly ROELOF HUYSMANN) (1443-1485)

Agricola's Romanizing work must have made great changes in dress as in policy . The British chief with the Latin tongue in his mouth, living in a Roman See also:

• VILLA

villa and taking his See also:

• BATH
• BATH, THOMAS THYNNE
• BATH, WILLIAM

bath as did the Romans, wore the white woollen toga and the linen tunic, his wife having the stole, the See also:

• PALL

pall and the veil .

ii . Old English Dress.—The skill of their artists gives us many accurate pictures of the dress of the English before the See also:

• NORMAN
• NORMAN, SIR HENRY WYLIE (1826-1904)

Norman See also:

• CONQUEST

Conquest, the simple dress of a nation whose men fight, See also:

• HUNT, ALFRED WILLIAM (183o-1896)
• HUNT, HENRY (1i73-1835)
• HUNT, HENRY JACKSON (1819-1889)
• HUNT, JAMES HENRY LEIGH (1784-1859)
• HUNT, ROBERT (1807-1887)
• HUNT, THOMAS STERRY (1826-1892)
• HUNT, WILLIAM HENRY (1790—1864)
• HUNT, WILLIAM HOLMAN (1827-1910)
• HUNT, WILLIAM MORRIS (1824-1879)

hunt and plough . The man's chief garment is a sleeved tunic hanging to the knee, generally open at the side from hip to hem and in front from the throat to the breast . Sleeves cut loosely above the See also:

• ELBOW

elbow are close at the Dress . From the Bene- Virgin . From the Bene- dictional of St 'Ethel- dictional of St iEthel- wold (c . 963-984). wold (c . 963-984) . forearm . The legs are in hose like a Highlander's or in long breeches bandaged or cross-gartered below the knee . A short mantle to the See also:

• CALF
• CALF, THE GOLDEN

calf is brooched at the shoulder or breast (fig . 25) .

There are long gowns and toga-like cloaks, but these as a rule seem garments for the old man of rank . In the open See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air the cloak is often pulled over the head, for hats and caps are rare, the Phrygian See also:

• BONNET
• BONNET, CHARLES (172o–1793)

bonnet being the commonest form . Girdles of folded cloth gather the loose tunic at the waist . Most paintings show the ankle shoe as black, cut with a pointed tab before and behind, the soles being sometimes of wood like the sole of the See also:

• LANCASHIRE

Lancashire clog of our own days . A nobleman will have his shoes embroidered with silks or coloured yarns, and the like decoration for the hem and collar of his tunic . Poor men wear little but the tunic, often going barelegged, although the hinds in the well-known pictures of the twelve months have shoes, and the shepherd as he watches his See also:

• FLOCK

flock covers himself with a cloak . In every grave-yard of the old English we find the brooches, armlets, rings and pins of a people loving jewelry . Women wore a long See also:

• GOWN

gown covering the feet, the loose sleeves sometimes hanging over the hands to the knee . Over this there is often a shorter tunic with short sleeves . Their mantles were short or long, the hood or Before the Conquest . head See also:

• RAIL

rail wrapped round the See also:

• CHIN

chin (fig . 26), In broidery and ornament the women's dress matched that of the men .

The Danes, warriors of the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea, soon took the English See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit, becoming notable for their many changes of gay clothing . The Norman Conquest is marked by no great change in English clothing, the conquerors inclining towards the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island fashions, as we may see by the fact that they gave up their The See also:

• NORMANS

Normans. curious habit of shaving the back of the head . But with the reign of the second See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William came the taste for the luxury of clothing and that taste for flowing hair and shoes with See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp points which is lamented by William of See also:

• MALMESBURY
• MALMESBURY, JAMES HARRIS, IST EARL OF (1746-1820)
• MALMESBURY, JAMES HOWARD HARRIS, 3RD EARL OF (1807-1889)

Malmesbury . In this reign we have the story of the Red King refusing to put on boots that cost but three shillings—the See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price of an ox—and wearing the same gladly when his See also:

• CHAMBERLAIN (0. Fr. chamberlain, chamberlenc, Mod. Fr. chambellan, from O. H. Ger. Chamarling, Chamarlinc, whence also the Med. Lat. cambellanus, camerlingus, camerlengus; Ital. camerlingo; Span. camerlengo, compounded of 0. H. Ger. Chamara, Kamara [Lat.
• CHAMBERLAIN, JOSEPH (1836— )
• CHAMBERLAIN, JOSHUA LAWRENCE (1828– )
• CHAMBERLAIN, SIR NEVILLE BOWLES (1820-1902)

chamberlain told him that they were a new pair See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth a mark . Even more than the fashion of long cloaks and trailing gowns whose sleeves hang far below the hands, the fantastic boot and shoe toes bring the curses of the See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy and the moralizings of chroniclers . See also:

• FULK
• FULK (d. goo)

Fulk Rechin of See also:

• ANJOU

Anjou is said by Orderic to have invented such See also:

• GEAR (connected with " garb," properly elegance, fashion, especially of dress, and with " gar," to cause to do, only found in Scottish and northern dialects; the root of the word is seen in the Old Tent. garwjan, to make ready)

gear to hide the monstrous bunions upon his toes, but a worthless See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

Robert, a hanger-on of the court of William II., distinguishes himself and gains the surname of Cornard by stuffing his shoe tips with See also:

• TOW

tow and twisting them like the horns of the See also:

• RAM
• RAM, PIERRE FRANCOIS XAVIER DE (18o4-1865)

ram . There are many illuminations which give us in plenty the details of all costumes of the 12th century . Thus the See also:

• DEVIL (Gr. &a,3oXos, " slanderer," from &ctflisXX sty, to slander)

devil in a well-known MS. wears the gown of a lady of rank, the bodice tightly laced, the hanging sleeve knotted to keep it out of the mud . A MS. at Corpus Christi See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

College, See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford, shows in a picture of the See also:

• VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT

vision of See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry I. that the men who reap and dig are simply clad in loose skirted tunics with close sleeves, that they have hats with brims, and cloaks caught by a brooch at the shoulder . Hats and caps are common in all classes and take many shapes—the Phrygian cap, the flat bonnet, the brimmed hat and the See also:

• SKULL

skull-cap . With the coming of the house of Anjou English dress clears itself of the more fantastic features of an earlier generation . Henry II. brought in the short Angevin mantle and from it had his name of Curtmantle, but it was not a mastering fashion and the long cloak holds its own .

Rich stuffs, cloth of gold or See also:

• SILK

silk woven with gold, webs of See also:

• DAMASK

damask wrought with stripes or rays and figured with patterns are brought in from the ports . Rare furs are eagerly sought . But the simplicity of line is remarkable . The drawings made for See also:

• MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF ST
• MATTHEW, ST (MaOOaior or MarOaIos, probably a shortened form of the Hebrew equivalent to Theodorus)
• MATTHEW, TOBIAS

Matthew Paris's lives of the two Offas show people of all ranks clad without a trace of the tailor's fantasy . Kings and lords, church-men and men of substance go in long goyvns to the feet, the great folk having an See also:

• ORPHREY

orphrey or band of embroidery at the somewhat low-cut neck (fig . 27) . Some of the sleeves have wide ends cut off at the See also:

• MID

mid-forearm, showing the tight sleeve of a See also:

• SHIRT

shirt or smock below . Fashion, however, tends to lengthen sleeves to a tight wrist, the upper halves being cut wide and loose with the large armholes characteristic of most ancient tailoring . Over this gown is worn an ample cloak folk and of men of rank when actively employed is a tunic which is but the gown shortened to the knee, a short cloak to the knee being worn with it (fig . 28) . Belts and girdles are narrow and plain, the thongs without enrichment, showing no beginnings of the rich buckles and heavy bosses of a later fashion . Shoes and low-cut boots are slightly pointed, and hats, caps, hoods and coifs of many types cover the head .

The women are like to the men in their long gown, but the head is wrapped in a coverchef hanging over the shoulder and bound with a fillet round the brow.237 Gloves are common in this age; " scraps of the cloth or the skin," says a poet, " do not want for a use: of them gloves are made." At the court of See also:

• EDWARD

Edward II., son of a king who went simply clad, Piers See also:

• GAVESTON, PIERS (d. 1312)

Gaveston and his like began to set the fashions for a century which to the curious See also:

• ANTIQUARY

antiquary is a garden 14th of delights . For the history of the 14th-century century. clothing illuminations are supplemented by a number of See also:

• EFFIGIES, MONUMENTAL

effigies upon which the See also:

• CARVER, JOHN (x575?-1621)
• CARVER, JONATHAN (c. 1725-1780)

carver has wrought out the last details, by monumental See also:

• BRASSES, MONUMENTAL

brasses, and by contemporary literature and records (fig . 29) . Garments take many shapes; sleeves, skirts and head-dresses run through many fashions; while personal ornaments are rich and beautiful to a degree never yet surpassed . With the beginning of the century there is seen a tendency to shorten the long gown, which had been the best wear of a man of good See also:

• ESTATE (through O. Fr. estat, mod. flat, from Lat. status, state, condition, position, stare, to stand)

estate, to a more convenient length, although the knees are still well covered . Loose sleeves falling below the elbow leave to view the sleeve of an under-garment, buttoned tightly to the arm . In See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter time a man's gown will have long sleeves that cover the hands when the arms are at length . The full cloak, although still found, is some-what rare among a people that has, perhaps, learned FIG . 29.-A See also:

• GROUP

Group of Clerks (early to wear more clothes and 14th century) . (From Royal MS. warmer upon the body . 19 B. xv.) Hoods are worn in many fashions, to be cast back upon the shoulders like a See also:

• MONK (O.Eng. munuc; this with the Teutonic forms, e.g. Du. monnik, Ger. Witch, and the Romanic, e.g. Fr. moine, Ital. monacho and Span. monje, are from the Lat. monachus, adaptedfrom Gr. µovaXos, one living alone, a solitary; Own, alone)
• MONK (or MONCK), GEORGE
• MONK, JAMES HENRY (1784-1856)
• MONK, MARIA (c. 1817—1850)

monk's See also:

• COWL (through Fr. coule, from Lat. cucullus or cuculla, a covering; the word is found in various forms in most European languages, cf. Ger. Kugel or Kigel, Dutch kovel, Irish cochal or cochull ; the ultimate origin may be the root kal, found in Lat. clam,

cowl, the part at the back of the head being drawn out into a " liripipe " long enough at times, who the hood is drawn up, to be knotted round the brow See also:

• TURBAN

turban fashion (fig . 30) .

Long hose are drawn up the legs to join the 12th and 13th centuries . short See also:

• BREECH (common in early forms to Teutonic languages)

breech, and the toes of the ankle-shoes are pointed so long that holy men see visions of little devils using them as chariots . The women love trailing gowns . They have under-skirts and loose over-garments, sometimes sleeveless . Their hair at least would not See also:

• SHOCK, or COLLAPSE

shock those earlier prelates who cursed the long plaits, for it is caught up in a See also:

• CAUL (from O. Eng. calle, Fr. tale, a cap)

caul or braided at the sides of the head . In the second half of the century men of rank See also:

• BORROW, GEORGE HENRY (18o3-1881)

borrow from See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany the fashion of the cote-hardie . In its plainest form this short tunic, covering the See also:

• FORK (Lat. furca)

fork of the leg, is cut closely to the body and arms (fig . 31) . Sometimes the sleeve ends at the elbow and then another streamer is added to the one which falls from the hood, a strip of stuff continuing the elbow-sleeve as low as the coat edge . This strip and the hem of.the skirt are often " slittered " with fanciful jags, a fashion which soon draws down the satirist's anger . Parti-coloured garments were an added offence; a See also:

• GENTLEMAN (from Lat. gentilis, " belonging to a race or gens," and " man "; Fr. gentilhomme, Span. gentil hombre, Ital. gentil huomo, in its original and strict signification, a term denoting a man of good family, the Lat. generosus (its invariable transl

gentleman would have his coat parted down the middle in red and white, with hose of white and red to match . Men and women of rank wear a See also:

• TWISTED

twisted garland of rich stuff, crown-See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise on the head, set with pearls and precious stones, a fashion which is followed on the great helm of the knights, being the " wreath " or " torce " of See also:

• HERALDRY

heraldry .

The dames of such as wear the cote-hardie imitate its tightness in the sleeves and bodices of their long gown . A curious fashion which now begins is the sleeveless upper gown whose sides are cut away in curved sweeps from the shoulder to below the waist, the edges of the opening being deeply furred . The See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange head-dress with a See also:

• STEEPLE (akin to " steep")

steeple-horn draped with See also:

• LAWN

lawn kerchiefs makes its appearance to shock the moralists . Although it was probably a rare sight in this century, the horn could easily fulfil its See also:

• MISSION

mission of drawing notice to all its wearers . Of the cote-hardie it might at least be said that it was the symbol of a knightly age in arms, the garment of a man who must have hand and limbs free, and, save for its sleeves, it faith-fully copied the coat-armour of the armed knight . The softer days of See also:

• RICHARD
• RICHARD (d. 1184)
• RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (18,9-1908)
• RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888)
• RICHARD, ST

Richard II. are remarkable for a dress which has also its significance, men of high rank taking to themselves gowns of such fulness that the satirists may be justified who declare that men so clad may be hardly known from women . The close collar of these gowns rises high as the neckcloth of a See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French incroyable, the upper edge turned slightly over and jagged . The full skirts sweep on the ground, which is touched by the last jags of the vast sleeves, whose openings, wide as a woman's skirts, are dagged like the edges of See also:

• VINE

vine or See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak leaves . " And but if the slevis," says the satirist, " slide on the erthe, thei wolle be wroth as the wynde." Sometimes this gown is slit at the sides that the gallant may the better show his coloured hose and tips of shoes that See also:

• PIKE
• PIKE, ZEBULON MONTGOMERY (1779-1813)

pike out two feet from heel to toe . When not wearing the gown such a See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

lord would have a high-necked coat, shorter even than the cote-hardie, but looser in the skirt, the sleeves ending full and loose with dagged edges turned over atthe See also:

• CUFF

cuff . Hats are more commonly worn in this century, and in its latter half take many shapes, a notable one being that of a shortened See also:

• SUGAR

sugar-See also:

• LOAF

loaf or See also:

• THIMBLE

thimble with a brim turned up, either all round, or, more frequently, behind or before . The long shoes, as their name of crackowes or poleynes implies, were a fashion which, by repute, came from See also:

• POLAND (Polish Polska, Ger. Polen), (see POLAND, RUSSIAN, below)
• POLAND, RUSSIAN

Poland, a land ruled by the grandfather of Richard's first See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

queen .

When medieval fashions were past, they were remembered as a type of the old time, and a certain French conteur begins a See also:

• TALE (O.Eng. talu, number, account, story; the word is common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Zahl, number, Erzahlung, narrative, Du. taal, speech, language)

tale of old days, not with jadis, but with " In the time when they wore poleynes." Even See also:

• PARISH (Gr. irapouda, district, neighbourhood; 7r&poucos, one dwelling near or beside, from crap&, OtKOS, house; Lat. paroecur, Late Lat. parochia; cf. Fr. paroisse)

parish priests, whose See also:

• PREACHING (Fr. preecher, from Lat. praedicare, to proclaim)

preaching should " dryve out the daggis and alle the Duche cotis," went, in this age of fine apparel, gaily clad in gowns of scarlet and green, " shape of the newe," in " cutted clothes " with " long pikes on her shone." More than this, they made See also:

• SCANDAL

scandal by ruffling with weapons—" bucklers brode and sweardes long, bandrike with baselardes kene." The skill of goldsmiths and craftsmen decorates all the See also:

• APPURTENANCES (from late Lat. appertinentia, from appertinere, to appertain)

appurtenances of the dress of this 14th century . Buttons, which appear in the first Edward's time as a scandalous ornament on men of low degree, have now become common, and, cunningly wrought, are used as much for queintise as for service . A close See also:

• ROW, JOHN (c. 1525—1580)

row of them will run from wrist to elbow of tight sleeve . A row of buttons goes from the neck of a woman's gown, and the cote-hardie may be fastened down the front with a dozen and a half of rich buttons . A See also:

• PURSE (Late Lat. bursa, adapted from Gr. Gupta, hide, skin; possibly O. Eng. pusa, bag, has influenced the change from b to p)

purse or gipciere hung by a ring to the girdle gives more See also:

• ROOM

room for ornament in the silver or brass See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

bar on which the bag depends . Above all the girdle, which—in See also:

• HARNESS (from O. Fr. harneis or harnois; the ultimate origin is obscure; the Celtic origin which connects it with the Welsh haiarn, iron, has phonetic and other difficulties; the French is the origin of the Span. arnes, and Ger. Harnisch)

harness or in silk—rich men wear broad and bossed with jewels across the thigh below the waist, makes work for the jeweller's craftsman . Such a girdle is for great folk alone; but lesser men, wearing a strap about their waists, will yet have a handsome buckle and a fanciful See also:

• PENDANT (through Fr. from Lat. pendere, to hang)

pendant of metal guarding the loose end of the strap . However fantastic the fashions of this or any other ages, folk of the middling sort will avoid the extremes . From the 'Knight to the Reve, no man of See also:

• CHAUCER, GEOFFREY (? 1340-1400)

Chaucer's See also:

• COMPANY

company calls to us by the fantasy of his clothing . The Knight himself rides in his See also:

• FUSTIAN

fustian gipoun, the grime of his habergeon upon it, although his son's short gown, the gayest garment at the See also:

• TABARD

Tabard, had long and wide sleeves and is embroidered with flowers like any See also:

• MEAD
• MEAD, LARKIN GOLDSMITH (1835— )
• MEAD, RICHARD (1673—1754)

mead . A coat and hood of green mark the See also:

• YEOMAN

Yeoman, who has a silver See also:

• CHRISTOPHER, SAINT (Christophorus, Christoferus)

Christopher brooch for ornament . The See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

Merchant is in See also:

• MOTLEY
• MOTLEY, JOHN LOTHROP (1814–1897)

motley stuff, his See also:

• BEAVER
• BEAVER (from Fr. baviere, a child's bib, from bane, saliva)

beaver hat from See also:

• FLANDERS (Flem. Vlaanderen)

Flanders and his clasped boots taking Chaucer's See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye, as do the anlas and silken gipser which hang at the rich See also:

• FRANKLIN
• FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN (1706-1790)
• FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN (1786-1847)
• FRANKLIN, WILLIAM BUEL (1823-1903)

Franklin's belt .

As for the London burgesses, their See also:

• KNIFE (0. E. cuff, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. knijf, Ger. Kneif, a shoe-maker's knife, Swed. knif; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the root of " nip," formerly " knip "; Fr. canif is a

knife-chapes, girdles and pouches are in clean silver . The Shipman wears his knife in a lanyard about his neck, as his See also:

• FELLOWS, SIR CHARLES (1799-1860)

fellows do to this day, and his coat is of coarse falding to the knee .. The Wife of Bath has the wimple below her broad hat and rides in a foot mantle about her hips . Poorer men's dress is on the Reve and the Ploughman, the one in a long surcote of See also:

• SKY (M. Eng. skie, cloud; O. Eng. skua, shade; connected with an Indo-European root sku, cover, whence " scum," Lat. obscurus, dark, &c.)

sky-blue and the other in the tabard which we may recognize as that smock-See also:

• FROCK

frock which goes down the ages with little change . In the 15th century the middle ages run out . Fashions in this period become, if not more fantastic, more various . Its earlier years see men of rank still inclined to the rich modes of the last age: Harry of See also:

• MONMOUTH (Welsh Mynwy)
• MONMOUTH, BATTLE OF (1778)
• MONMOUTH, JAMES SCOTT
• MONMOUTH, ROBERT CAREY, 1ST EARL OF (c. 1560-1639)

Monmouth, drawn about 1410 by an artist who shows him as See also:

• OCCLEVE (or HOCCLEVE), THOMAS (1368—1450?)

Occleve's See also:

• PATRON

patron, wears a blue gown which might have passed See also:

• MUSTER (Mid. Eng. mostre, moustre, adapted from the similar O. Fr. forms; Lat. monstrare)

muster at the IONS 15th century . court of Richard II. for its trailing skirts and its long sleeves, their slittered edges turned back (fig . 32) . A strange See also:

• FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of " fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fantasie, modern fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. cbavraoia, Oavrai'ecv, Oat Pais, to show)

fancy at this time was the hanging of silver bells on the dress . One William See also:

• STAUNTON
• STAUNTON, HOWARD (1810-1874)
• STAUNTON, SIR GEORGE THOMAS, BART

Staunton, in 1409, seeing in a vision at St See also:

• PATRICK, SIMON (1626–1707)
• PATRICK, ST

Patrick's See also:

• PURGATORY (Late Lat. purgatorium, from purgare, to purge)

Purgatory the See also:

• FATE

fate of See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth's proud ones, is exact to See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note that in the place of torment the jags in men's clothes turn to adders, that women's trailing skirts are burnt over their heads, and that those men whose garments are overset with silver gingles and bells have burning nails of fire driven through each gingle . As for the chaplets of gold, of pearls and precious stones, they turn into nails of iron on which the fiends See also:

• HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS (1810-1862)

hammer .

The common habit of a well-clad man in the first half of this century is a loose tunic, lined with See also:

• FUR (connected with O. Fr. forre, a sheath or case; so " an outer covering ")

fur, or edged with fur at neck, See also:

• BURY
• BURY, JOHN BAGNELL (1861- )

bury Tales.) of 1409.) wrist and skirt . At first the sleeves are long and bag-like, like to the Richard II. sleeve but drawn in to the wrist, where early examples are fastened with a See also:

• BUTTON (Fr. bouton, O. Fr. boton, apparently from the same root as bouter, to push)

button . A shorter tunic is worn below, whose tight sleeves are seen beyond the furred edge of the upper garment, mittens being sometimes attached to them . Over the shoulders the hood is thrown, or, in foul weather, a hood and cloak . The gown is girdled at the waist with a girdle from which hangs the anelace or baselard (fig . 34) . Shoes are pointed . Hats and caps are seen in many shapes, but the most remarkable is the developed form of that head-dress which the 14th-century man seems to have achieved by putting his pate into the face- hole of his hood and twisting its liripipe round his brows . In the 15th century the effect is produced with a thick, turban-like See also:

• ROLL (O. Fr. rolle, roulle, mod. role, Lat. rotulus, dim. of rota, wheel)
• ROLL, ALFRED PHILIPPE (1846– )

roll of stuff from the top of which hung down on one side folds of cloth coming nigh to the shoulder, and on the other the liripipe broadened and lengthened to 4 or 5 ft. of a narrower folded cloth . As the century advances the bagpipe sleeves shrink in size and the tunic skirts are shortened (fig . 35) . The old habit of going armed with anelace or baselard See also:

• DIES, CHRISTOPH ALBERT (1755-1822)

dies away in spite of troublous times .

In the middle of the century the tunic is often no longer than a modern frock-coat, its sleeves little wider than those of a modern overcoat . Dress, indeed, becomes at this time convenient and attractive to our modern eyes . The last See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of the century See also:

• SEES

sees a new and important change . The tunic or gown, which was the garment of ceremony answering at once to our dress coats and frock coats, runs down to the feet . An act of 1463 ordered that coats should at least cover the buttocks, but fashion achieved suddenly what law failed to enforce . Men who had polled their hair short allowed it to grow and hang over the shoulders . The belt carries the purse or gipciere more commonly, although weapons are rarely seen, and it is notable that, as the See also:

• REFORMATION
• REFORMATION, THE

Reformation approaches, the fashion of wearing a large " pair of beads " in the belt becomes a very common one . Last of all, the shoes change their shape . The reign of Edward IV. had seen the pointed toes as iniquitously long as ever the 14th century saw them . Even the long See also:

• RIDING

riding boot has the curving point, although otherwise much resembling the See also:

• JACK

jack-boot of the 18th century . But after See also:

• BOSWORTH, JOSEPH (1789–1876)

Bosworth See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

Field the soles broaden, the point shrinks back and then disappears, and the foot-See also:

• PRINT

print becomes See also:

• SHOVEL (O.E. scoff, from root of scufan, to shove, push, cf. Ger. Schaufel, also Schiippe, scoop)
• SHOVEL, SIR CLOUDESLEY [or CLOWDISLEY SHOVELL as he seems to have spelt the name himself] (c. 1650-1707)

shovel-shaped . Women's dress in the 15th century, often follows the man's fashion of the furred gown, the skirts being lengthened for all difference .

But the close-bodied and close-sleeved gown, with skirts broadening into many folds below the hips, is often seen with the long and plain cloak drawn with a cord at the breast, widows wearing this dress with the barbe, a crimped cloth of linen drawn up under the chin and ears and covering the collar-bone . With the barbe went the kerchief, draping head and shoulders . The bossed cauls of the earlier head-dress, drawn high on either side of the head until face and head-dress took the shape of a heart, are characteristic of the age (fig . 36) . In some cases the cauls are drawn out at the sides to the form of a pair of bulls' horns or of a See also:

• MITRE (Lat. mitra, from Gr. j4rpa, a band, head-band, head-dress)

mitre set sideways . In the time of Edward IV. we have a popular head-dress to which has been given the name of the butterfly . The hair in its caul is pulled backward, and wires set in it allow the ends of a See also:

• CAMBRIC

cambric veil to See also:

• FLOAT (in O. Eng. floc and flota, in the verbal form f eotan; the Teutonic root is flut-, another form of flu-, seen in " flow," cf. " fleet "; the root is seen in Gr. a-M e, to sail, Lat. pluere, to rain; the Lat, fluere and fluctus, wave, is not connect

float behind like the wings of a butterfly settled on a See also:

• FLOWER (Lat. flos, floris; Fr. fleur)
• FLOWER, SIB

flower . The new England of the 16th century breaks with the past in most of its fashions . Never again does an Englishman return to the piked shoes . High fashion under Henry VIII. is all for broad toes, so broad that the sumptuary laws, from entu 16th banning long toes, See also:

• SWING, DAVID (1830-1894)

swing about to condemn excess in the new guise . Under Henry VII. the medieval influence is still strong in the body-clothing . A bravely dressed man will go in long hose, cut close to the body, and a short vest under which the shirt is seen at waist and wrist .

Over this he will wear the open gown, lined with fur, and cut short as a jacket but having the sleeves hanging below the knee . Such sleeves are commonly slashed open at the sides to allow the forearm to pass through . Shorter false sleeves of this pattern had become popular in the age of Edward IV . Graver men will wear, in place of this short gown, a long one dropping to the broad shoe-toes, the sleeves wide-mouthed (fig . 37) . Sometimes it hangs loosely; sometimes it has the girdle with purse and beads . Notaries and scriveners add to the girdle a penner, or See also:

• PEN (Lat. penna, a feather, pen)

pen-case, and a stoppered See also:

• INK (from Late Lat. encaustum, Gr. gysavorov, the purple ink used by Greek and Roman emperors, from iyKaiew, to burn in)

ink-See also:

• BOTTLE (Fr. bouteille, from a diminutive of the Lat. butta, a flask; cf. Eng. " butt ")

bottle . Wide hats are found, crowned with huge plumes of feathers, but the characteristic headgear is that made familiar by (From Harl . MS . 2278.) portraits of Henry VII., a low-crowned cap whose upturned brim is nicked at one side . A few sober men wear coats differing little from the short gown of See also:

• FORTY

forty years before . Among ladies the butterfly head-dress and the steeple cap passed out of fashion, and a grave headgear comes in which has been compared with a See also:

• DOG

dog-See also:

• KENNEL

kennel, a hood-cap thrown over head and shoulders, the front being edged with a broad band which was often enriched with See also:

• NEEDLEWORK

needlework, the ends falling in lappets to the breast .

This band is stiffened until the face looks out as from the open gable-end of a house . The gown is simple in form, close-fitting to the body, the cuffs turned up with fur and the skirts long . A girdle is worn loosely drawn below the waist, its long strap letting the metal pendant fall nearly to the feet . Long cloaks, plainly cut, are gathered at the neck with a pair of long cords, like tasselled See also:

• BELL
• BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE (1819—1905)
• BELL, ANDREW (1753—1832)
• BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH (1770-1843)
• BELL, HENRY (1767-1830)
• BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD (1803-1874)
• BELL, JACOB (1810-1859)
• BELL, JOHN (1691-178o)
• BELL, JOHN (1763-1820)
• BELL, JOHN (1797-1869)
• BELL, ROBERT (1800-1867)
• BELL, SIR CHARLES (1774—1842)

bell-pulls . While Henry VIII. is spending his See also:

• FATHER

father's hoards we have a splendid court, gallantly dressed in new fashions . His own broad figure, in cloth of gold, See also:

• VELVET

velvet and damask, plaits, puffs and slashes, stiff with jewels, is well known through scores of portraits, and may stand for the high-water mark of the modes of his age . The See also:

• HAMPTON
• HAMPTON, WADE (1818-1902)

Hampton Court picture of the See also:

• EARL

earl of See also:

• SURREY
• SURREY, EARLDOM OF
• SURREY, HENRY HOWARD, EARL OF (1518?-1547)

Surrey is characteristic of a great lord's dress of a somewhat soberer style (see fig . 38) . The king, proud of his own broad shoulders, set the fashion to See also:

• ACCENT

accent this breadth, and it will be seen that the earl's figure, leaving out the head and hose, all but fills a perfect square . Such men have the air of playing-card knaves . Surrey's cap is flat, with a rich brooch and a small side-feather . His short doublet of the new style is open in front to show a white shirt covered with black embroidery whose ruffles cover his 'wrists .

His over-garment or See also:

• JERKIN

jerkin has vast sleeves, rounded, puffed and slashed . Under the doublet are seen wide See also:

• TRUNK (Fr. tronc, Lat. truncus, cut off, maimed)

trunk-breeches . He goes all in scarlet, even to the shoes, which are of moderate size . The girdle carries a sword with the new guard and a See also:

• DAGGER

dagger of the Renascence art, graced with a vast tassel . All is in the new fashion, nothing recalling the earlier century save the hose and the immodest braguette which, seen in the latter half of the fourteen-hundreds, is defiantly displayed in the dress and armour of this age of Henry VIII . Even the hair follows the new French mode and is cropped close . Other fashionable suits of the time give us the tight doublets, loose upper sleeves and trunk hose as a See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of small slashes and puffs, a fashion which came in from the Germans and Switzers whom Henry saw in the imperial service . Such clothing goes with the shoes whose broad toes are slashed with silk, and the wide and flat caps with slashed edges, bushed with feathers, which head-gear was often allowed to hang upon the shoulders by a pair of knotted bonnet-strings, while a skull-cap covered the head . With all this fantasy the dress of simpler folk has little concern, and a man in a plain, short-skirted doublet, with a flat cap, trunk breeches, long hose and plain shoes, has nothing See also:

• GROTESQUE

grotesque or unserviceable in his attire . The new sumptuary laws, which were not allowed to become a dead See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter, had their influence in restraining middle-class extravagance . No man under a knight's degree was to wear a neck-See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain of gold or gilded, or a " garded or pinched shirte." Brooches of See also:

• GOLDSMITH
• GOLDSMITH, LEWIS (c. 1763–1846)
• GOLDSMITH, OLIVER (1728–1774)

goldsmith's work were for none below a gentleman . Women whose husbands could not afford to maintain a light horse for the king's service had no business with gowns or petticoats of silk,chains of gold, French hoods, or bonnets of velvet .

This French hood is the small bonnet, two of whose many forms may be seen in the best-known portraits of See also:

• MARY
• MARY (1457-1482)
• MARY (1496-1533)
• MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS

Mary of England and Mary, queen of Scots—a cap stiffened with wires . With its introduction the fashionable skirt began to lose its graceful folds and to spread stiffly outward in straight lines from the tight-laced waist, the front being open to show a See also:

• PETTICOAT

petticoat as stiff and enriched as the skirt . The neck of the gown, cut low and square, showed the partlet of fine linen pleated to the neck . In the days of Edward VI. and Queen Mary the dress of most men and women loses the fantastic detail of the earlier Tudor age . In the dress of both sexes the joining of the sleeve to the shoulder has, as a rule, that large puff which stage dressmakers bestow so lavishly upon all old English costumes, but otherwise the woman's gown and hood and the man's doublet, jerkin and trunk hose are plain enough, even the shoes losing all the fanciful width . Mary, indeed, added to the statute book more stringent laws against display of rich apparel, laws that would fine even a gentleman of under £ao a See also:

• YEAR

year if silk were found in his cap or shoe . Small ruffs, however, begin to appear at the neck, and most wrists are ruffled . The See also:

• RUFF

ruff, which began simply enough in the first half of this century as a little cambric collar with a goffered edge, is for all of us the distinguishing note; of Elizabethan dress . It See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew wide and flapping, therefore it was stiffened upon wires and spread from a concealed See also:

• FRAME

frame, row on row of ruffs being added one above the other until the wearer, man or woman, seemed to carry the head in a cambric charger . See also:

• STARCH

Starch, cursed as a devilish liquor by the new Puritan, gave it help, and English dress acquired a deformity which can only be compared with the great See also:

• FARTHINGALE (from the O. Fr. verdagalle, or vertugalle, a corruption of the Spanish name of the article, verdagado, from verdago, a rod or stick)

farthingale or with the last follies of the See also:

• WIG (short for " periwig," an alternative form of " peruke," Fr. perruque; cf. Span. peluca; conjecturally derived from Lat. pilus)

wig . The skirt of a woman of fashion, which had already begun to jut from the waist, was drawn out before the end of See also:

• ELIZABETH
• ELIZABETH (1533-1603)
• ELIZABETH (1596-1662)
• ELIZABETH (1635–1650)
• ELIZABETH [ AMELIE EUGENIE ] (1837—1898)
• ELIZABETH [1lisabeth Philippine Marie Helene of France] (1764—1794)
• ELIZABETH [PAULINE ELIZABETH OTTILIE LOUISE] (1843– )
• ELIZABETH [PETROVNA] (1709-1762), EMPRESS
• ELIZABETH, SAINT (1207-1231)

Elizabeth's reign at right angles from the waist until the See also:

• DAME
• DAME (through the Fr. from Lat. domina, mistress, lady, the feminine of dominus, master, lord)

dame had that air of standing within a great See also:

• DRUM (early forms drome or dromme, a word common to many Teut. languages, cf. Dan. tromme, Ger. Trommel: the word is ultimately the same as " trumpet," and is probably onomatopoeic in origin; it appears late in Eng. about the middle of the 16th century)

drum which See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• ROGER (d. 1139)
• ROGER (d. 1181)

Roger de Coverley remarked in the portrait of an ancestress . Elizabeth herself, long-waisted and of meagre body, set the fashions of her court, other women pinching their waists into the long and straight stomacher ending in a See also:

• PEAK, THE

peak before .

She herself followed her father's taste in ornament, and on great days was set about like the Madonna of a popular See also:

• SHRINE (Lat. scrinium, a case or chest for books, hence a casket; from scribere, to write, Fr. ecrin, Ital. scrigno)

shrine with decorations of all kinds, patterns in See also:

• PEARL
• PEARL, THE

pearl, quiltings, slashings, puffings and broidery, tassels and rich buttons . Among men the important change is the disappearance of the last of the long hose, all men taking to trunk-hose and nether-See also:

• STOCKS

stocks or stockings, while their doublets tend to follow the same long-waisted fashion as the bodices of the women, whose doublets and jerkins, buttoned up the breast, bring the Puritan satirists against them . Of these satirists See also:

• PHILIP
• PHILIP (Gr.'FiXtrsro , fond of horses, from dn)^eiv, to love, and limos, horse; Lat. Philip pus, whence e.g. M. H. Ger. Philippes, Dutch Filips, and, with dropping of the final s, It. Filippo, Fr. Philippe, Ger. Philipp, Sp. Felipe)
• PHILIP, JOHN (1775-1851)
• PHILIP, KING (c. 1639-1676)
• PHILIP, LANOGRAVE OF HESSE (1504-1567)

Philip Stubbes is the best-known, his Anatomic of Abuses, published in r 583, being a very wardrobe of Elizabethan fashions, although false or dyed hair, the ruff and its starch, and the ear-rings worn by some women and many men draw his hottest anger . William See also:

• HARRISON
• HARRISON, BENJAMIN
• HARRISON, FREDERIC (1831— )
• HARRISON, JOHN (1693—1776)
• HARRISON, THOMAS (16o6-166o)
• HARRISON, THOMAS ALEXANDER (1853– )
• HARRISON, WILLIAM (1534–1593)
• HARRISON, WILLIAM HENRY (1773–1841)

Harrison sings on a like note about the same time, declaiming especially against the mutability of fashion, declaring that the imported See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish, French and See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German guises made it easier to inveigh against such enormities than to describe the English attire with any certainty . For him women were become men, and men transformed into monsters . " Neither was it ever merrier with England than when an English-man was known abroad by his own cloth and contented himself at home with his fine carsey hosen and a mean slop; his coat, gown and cloak of See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown, blue or puke, with some See also:

• PRETTY

pretty furniture of velvet or fur and a doublet of sad tawny or black velvet or other comely silk, without such cuts and garish colours as are' worn in these days, and never brought in but by the consent of the French, who think themselves the gayest men when they have most diversities of jags and change of colours about them." He adds that " certes of all estates our merchants do least alter their attire . . . for albeit that which they wear be very fine and costly, yet in form and colour it representeth a great piece of the ancient gravity appertaining to citizens and burgesses." But as for the " younger sort " of citizens' wives, Harrison finds in their attire " all kind of curiosity . . . in far greater measure than in women of a higher calling." The coming of King See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James is not marked by any sudden change of attire, most of the Elizabethan fashions running on into his reign . The tight doublet has stiff wings at the shoulders, close sleeves and short skirt . The many fashions of breeches are still Drawnfrom a photo by Mansell . popular, most of them padded or stuffed . There are trunk hose that have the air of petticoats rolled inward half way up the thigh .

There is the great round abominable breech," century. pegtop shaped from below the knee to waist, as it ceat appears in the well-known print of James himself with See also:

• HAWK (O. Eng. hafoc or heafoc, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch havik, Ger. Habicht; the root is hab-, haf-, to hold, cf. Lat. accipiter, from capere)

hawk on fist . Among women of fashion obtained a remarkable mode of exposing the breast, when the ruff and bodice were cut away; and the See also:

• WHEEL (0. Eng. hweol, hweohl, &c., cognate with Icel. hjol, Dan. hiul, the Indo-European root is seen in Sanskrit chakra, Gr. r in Aos, circle, whence " cycle ")
• WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE

wheel fardingale was still worn, an order against it in 1613 rather increasing than diminishing its size . But simpler fashions were setting in, and with the reign of See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles I. the extravagances of See also:

• PADDING

padding and slashing disappear . The ruff gives place at last to the falling band, a wide collar of See also:

• LACE (corresponding to Ital. merletto, trina; Genoese Pizzo; Ger. spitzen; Fr. dentelle; Dutch kanten; Span. encaje; the English word owes something to the Fr. lassis or laces, but both are connected with the earlier Lat. laqueus; early French laces were

lace or plain linen . The belt or girdle ceases to be common wear, save for those who hang a sword from it . Parties in the state come to be known by their dress, and we have the Puritan, his See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

crop head covered by a wide-brimmed, high-crowned felt, without hatband or feather, and his plain falling band over a staidly-cut coat . Beside him we set the See also:

• CAVALIER
• CAVALIER, JEAN (1681-1740)

cavalier, lace at his band edge, wrist and wide boot tops . His hat is feathered, his doublet lets the fine cambric of the shirt be seen at the waist, his short breeches are fringed with points or tags . His long hair has one lock brought over the left shoulder to be marked as a lovelock by a ribbon at the end . But the clothing of this age has been illustrated by See also:

• VAN

Van Dyck and by a See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred other portrait painters, who as illustrators of costume take the place of the monumental sculptors, then less commonly called on for an effigy in the habit of life . And the time of the Common-See also:

• WEALTH

wealth passes without notable change . Those who were in See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power favoured a sober habit, although we find General Harrison in scarlet and clinquant matching with See also:

• COLONEL (derived either from Lat. column, Fr. colonne, column, or Lat. corona, a crown)

Colonel See also:

• HUTCHINSON
• HUTCHINSON, ANNE (c. 1600-1643)
• HUTCHINSON, JOHN (1615-1664)
• HUTCHINSON, JOHN (1674-1737)
• HUTCHINSON, SIR JONATHAN (1828– )
• HUTCHINSON, THOMAS (1711-1780)

Hutchinson in courtly apparel, and before the Restoration the See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract-writers find matter of condemnation, especially in the items of patches, hair-See also:

• POWDER (through O. Fr. puldre, modern poudre, from Lat. pulvis, pulveris, dust)

powder and face paints .

So far as the court was concerned, King Charles II. brought in the extravagant fashions of the courtiers of See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis XIV . Theshort-waisted doublets with loose sleeves slashed open at the sides, the short and wide petticoat breeches, their lining lower than the petticoat edge and tied below the knee, and the hose whose tops bagged over the garter, were in England before King Charles returned . He added to the breeches the rows of looped See also:

• RIBBONS

ribbons, gave falling ruffles to the knees of the hose and many feathers to the hat . The long, narrow-bladed See also:

• RAPIER

rapier hung in a broad, embroidered belt, passed over the right shoulder, and the high-heeled shoes and knots of ribbons . See also:

• LELY, SIR PETER (1617—168o)

Lely painted the women of this court in a studied negligence, butymany pictures show us the loose sleeves turned up to the elbow with bows of ribbon, the close bodice ending in a loose gown worn over a full skirted petticoat, a wide collar covering the shoulders . See also:

• PEPYS, SAMUEL (1633-1703)

Pepys is our chief authority for the remarkable See also:

• RESOLUTION

resolution of Charles to change the fashion of his dress to one which he would never alter, a decision which the king communicated to his See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council in See also:

• OCTOBER

October 1666 . On the 15th of that See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month the diarist noted that " this day the king begins to put on his vest, and I did see several persons of the House of Lords and See also:

• COMMONS

Commons too, great courtiers, who are in it; being a long cassocke close to the body, of black cloth and pinked with white silk under it, and a coat over it, and the legs ruffled with black riband like a See also:

• PIGEON

pigeon's leg . . . a very fine and handsome garment." Rugge's See also:

• DIARY

diary records the same change to " a close coat of cloth pinkt, with a, white taffety under the cutts . This in length reached the calf of the leg, and upon that a sercoatt cutt at the breast, which hung loose and shorter than the vest six inches . The breeches the Spanish cut, and buskins, some of cloth, some of leather, but of the same colour as the vest or garment." Says See also:

• EVELYN, JOHN (1620-1706)

Evelyn, " a comely and manly habit, too good to hold." Later in the same month Pepys saw the court " all full of vests, only my Lord St Albans not pinked, but plain black; and they say the king says the pinking upon whites makes them look too much like magpies, and therefore hath bespoke one of plain velvet." The change,although the court was fickle, isof the first importance in the history of costume, for we have here the coat and waist-coat in a form from which our own coats and waistcoats derive without a break . Another important change affects dress for a century and a half . Just as costume begins to take the modern path we have the wig or See also:

• PERUKE

peruke, strangest of all the fantasies of fashion, introduced as the wear for all men of standing .

Pepys, the son of a tailor and a man with a shy See also:

• AFFECTION (Lat. ad, and facere, to do something to, sc. a person)

affection for fine clothing, may again here be quoted . On a See also:

• SUNDAY

Sunday in See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 1661 he " began to go forth in my coat and sword, as the manner now among gentlemen is." In See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 1663 he takes another step with fashion, going to the periwig-maker to have his hair cut off and to put on his first periwig, for which he paid 31, another to be made up of the hair with which he had parted . The next day he wore the periwig to his office, and " no great matter was made of it." Two days later my Lord See also:

• SANDWICH
• SANDWICH, EDWARD MONTAGU, or MOUNTAGU, 1ST EARL OF (1625–1672)
• SANDWICH, JOHN MONTAGU, 4TH EARL OF (1718–1792)

Sandwich " wondered at first to see me in my peruque," but even in church Pepys found that he drew little attention in the new guise . The same month the duke of See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York announced that he would wear the periwig, " and they say the king also will." Thus began this costly and inconvenient mode . At home and at their ease men commonly replaced the wig with a soft silk or velvet " night-cap," and the coat with a " See also:

• MORNING

morning gown " like our modern dressing gown . Powder, which had been dusted about the hair by a few courtiers and fashionable folk since the reign of Elizabeth, was used by most wearers of the wig . Hair " dressed with a powder " was often seen in London under the See also:

• COMMONWEALTH

Commonwealth, and now the great periwig brought powder into frequent use . Before the end of the 17th century the periwig reached its greatest height and breadth, the curls of a fine gentleman towering in a mass above the brow and flowing far down over the shoulders or nigh to the waist . Guardsmen wore them tossing over their corslets, although a smaller variety, the See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign wig, had been introduced for war or travel . Many portraits of this age showitslocks contrastingstrangely with the soldier's See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel breastplate and pauldrons, but it must be re-membered that See also:

• MARTIAL (MARCUS VALERIUS MARTIALIS)

martial gentlemen would often choose to be painted in armour although such harness was disappearing from actual use . Under James II. the coat adopted in the late reign was firmly established as the principal garment of a well- dressed man . Gowns remained but to make a ceremonial dress for the great officers of state, for the See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges and the London liverymen, for such, indeed, as those who wear them in our own days .

As for " the comely cloak, altogether used in the beginning of my time," Randle Holme notes that it was " now scarce used but by old and grave persons." The coat was sometimes buttoned down the front but was more often thrown open to display the waistcoat, a lesser coat with skirts . The great turned over cuffs were now below the elbow, although there was good space for the display of the ruffle, and at the neck was the large See also:

• CRAVAT (from the Fr. cravate, a corruption of " Croat ")

cravat with laced ends . After the See also:

• BATTLE

battle of Steinkirk, in 1692, to which the young French nobles hastened with disarranged neckcloths, the cravat was sometimes worn twisted, the ends passed through a ring, although the word Steinkirk was in later years often carelessly given to the neckcloth worn in any style . For riding, the big jack-boot of earlier days, with spurs and broad See also:

• SPUR (A.S. spura, spora, related to spornan, spurnan, to kick, spurn; cf. M.H.G. sporn, mod. Ger. Sporn)

spur-leathers, remained in fashion, although the bell-shaped tops were turned up and not down . Boots, however, were Crowning of James II . riding-gear . See also:

• GONDOMAR, DIEGO SARMIENTO DE ACUNA, COUNT

Gondomar, the Spanish See also:

• AMBASSADOR (also EMBASSADOR, the form sometimes still used in America; from the Fr. ambassadeur, with which compare Ital. ambasciatore and Span. embajador, all variants of the Med. Lat. ambassiator, ambassiator, ambasator, &c., derived from Med. Lat. amba

ambassador to James I., had laughed over the citizens of London " all booted and ready to go out of town," but this custom died away, and a man in boots showed that he was for the road . William III.'s grave court was not one in which new fashions flourished, but it is remarkable that feminine modes take curious variety before the century end . Long-waisted and straitly cut stays were worn, the gown sleeve is short as the coat-sleeve of a Charles II. courtier . The gown itself has the skirts gathered to show the petticoat, and small aprons fringed with lace are often seen . The simple head-dresses of the Restoration are changed for caps with long lace lappets, or for a cap whose top-knot or commode stood up stiff and See also:

• FAN (Lat. vannus; Fr. eventail)

fan-shaped like a section cut out of an old ruff . When no commode was worn, a loose hood, thrown gracefully over the head and gathered at the shoulders, sometimes took its place .

As a riding or walking dress, ladies of quality often wore coats, waistcoats, hats and cravats, not to be distinguished from those of their lords . For a distinguishing note of the 18th century, we may take the three-cornered cocked hat . Even in the Elizabethan age we have the gallant cocking up one side of his broad-brimmed, high-crowned felt or beaver and securing it with a See also:

• JEWEL, JOHN (1522-1571)

jewel . Brims were as wide at the end of the 17th century, but the crown was lower . From the French court came the fashion of cocking up three sides, one at least being fastened with a loop of ribbon from which developed the See also:

• COCKADE (Fr. cocarde, in 16th century coquarde, from coq, in allusion probably to the cock's comb)

cockade . A black cockade became the sign of a military man in England before 1750, and the same ornament, highly conventionalized, is now at the side of the tall hats worn by the grooms and See also:

• COACH (through the Fr. coche, originally from the Magyar kocsi, an adjective from the Hungarian place named Kocs, between Raab and Buda, i.e. the sort of vehicle used there in the 15th century)

coach-men of military and See also:

• NAVAL

naval officers . Following varying fashions, the 18th-century cocked hat was laced with gold and silver or edged with feathers . It was cocked in a hundred forms, from that which has three sides slightly curled upward to the great Khevenhueller cock, wherewith a very wide-brimmed hat was flapped up at the front and See also:

• REAR

rear, a military or martial hat . Wigs, worn by all the upper- and middle-class men, were generally powdered, but the lesser or Ramillie wig soon drove out the huge and costly full-bottomed periwig, even for ceremonial occasions . Of Lord See also:

• BOLINGBROKE, HENRY ST JOHN, VISCOUNT (1678-1751)

Bolingbroke it is told that he once attended Queen See also:

• ANNE (1665-1714)
• ANNE (1693-1740)

Anne in haste with a tie or Ramillie wig on his head . Her See also:

• MAJESTY (Fr. majeste; Lat. majestas, grandeur, greatness, from the base mag-, as in magnus, great, major, greater, &c.)

Majesty showed her displeasure by remarking that his lordship would next come to court in a night-cap . Nevertheless, the tie-wig soon became court wear, secured at the back with a huge See also:

• BOW (pronounced " bo ")

bow of ribbon below which hung the plaited pigtail, worn waist-long about 1740 .

But by that time young bloods were leaving campaign-wigs for the bob-wig which sat yet more closely to the head, the curls leaving the neck uncovered . Bag-wigs, found early in the century, covered the looped up pigtail in a black silk bag . Clergymen and grave physicians affected the full-bottomed wig after it became old fashioned . Subject to slight changes, eagerly followed by the See also:

• BEAUX, CECILIA (1863– )

beaux and mocked by the satirists, the habit of well-dressed men shows no great variety—the large-cuffed, collar-less coats whose full skirts are now shortened, now lengthened, the long waistcoat to match, the closely fitting breeches, the stockings, the shoes and jack-boots . The coat tends to be thrown open to show the waistcoat, upon which See also:

• BROCADE

brocade and embroideries were lavished . Stockings, until the middle of the century, were commonly drawn over the ends of the breeches and gartered below the knee . By 1740 the long cravat with hanging ends grows old fashioned . Young men take to the See also:

• SOLITAIRE (Fr. for " solitary ")

solitaire, a black cravat which became a mere loop of ribbon passed loosely round the neck and secured to the black tie of the wig . FIG . 45.-An English See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George III.'s long reign begins with Gentleman (c . 1930). men's fashions little changed from those of his great-grandfather's time, although his sixty years carry us to the beginning of all the modern modes . The small wig long holds its own .

The coat begins to show the broad skirts cut away diagonally from the waist to the skirt edge, and stockings are no longer rolled over the knee . Perhaps the most remarkable fashion was that which distinguished the Macaronis, travelled exquisites with whom the wig or long hair was dragged high above the forehead in a tall The 18th century . " toupee " with two large rows of curls at the side . This head-dress, clubbed into a heavy knot behind, was surmounted by a very little hat . The coat with small cuffs was much cut away before, the skimped skirts reaching midway down the thigh . Waistcoat flaps were but little below the waist . Breeches, striped or spotted like those of a See also:

• DRESDEN

Dresden china shepherd, were fastened at the knee with a bunch of ribbon ends; a See also:

• WATCH (in O. Eng. wcecce, a keeping guard or watching, from wacian, to guard, watch, wacan, to wake)

watch-guard hung from each fob . The shirt-front was frilled and a white cravat was tied in a great bow at the chin . Macaronis wore a little curved hanger, or replaced the sword with a long, heavily tasselled See also:

• CANE

cane, which served to lift the little hat off the topmost peak of the toupee . The woman-See also:

• MACARONI (from dialectic Ital. maccare, to bruise or crush)

Macaroni wore no hoop but in full dress . Her gown was a loose wrapper, the sleeves short and wide with many ruffles, the skirt pulled aside to show a petticoat laced and embroidered with flowers . But her distinguishing mark was her head-dress, which exaggerated the male fashion, towering upward until the flowers and feathers at the top threatened the candelabra of the See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly room .

The Macaronis appear about 1772 and stay but a short while, for the revolutionary fashions tread upon their heels . Women's dress in this 18th century is dominated by the hoop- petticoat which Sir Roger de Coverley recognizes in 1711 as a new fashion and an old one revived . A stiff bodice laced in front, a gown, with short and wide - ended sleeves, gathered up in folds above the petticoat, a laced See also:

• APRON (a corruption arising from a wrong division of " a napron " into " an apron," from the Fr. naperon, napperon, a diminutive of nappe, Lat. mappa, a napkin)

apron and a lace cap with hanging lappets, is the dress of the century's beginning . So the women of fashion are com- pared with children in go- carts, their tight-laced waists rising from vast bells of petticoats over which the gown is looped up like a drawn See also:

• CURTAIN

curtain . By 1750 the hoop-petticoat ringed with See also:

• WHALEBONE

whalebone is so vast that architects begin to allow for its passage up London See also:

• STAIR (0. Eng. stagger, step, from stigan, to climb, cf. Ger. steigen; the root is also seen in " stile " and " stirrup ")
• STAIR, JAMES DALRYMPLE

stair- ways by curving the balusters outward . Great variety of women's dress appears under George II., but those in the height of the mode affected a shepherdess simplicity in their walking clothes, wearing the flat-crowned or high-crowned hats and long aprons of the dairymaid . At this time a new fashion comes in, the sacque, a gown, sometimes sleeveless, open to the waist, hanging loosely from the shoulders to near the edge of the hoop-petticoat . George III.'s reign saw women's head-dressings reach an extravagance of folly passing all that had come before it . Hair kneaded with pomatum and See also:

• FLOUR

flour was drawn up over a See also:

• CUSHION (from O. Fr. coisson, coussin; according to the New English Dict., from Lat. coxa, a hip; others say from Lat. culcita, a quilt)

cushion or pad of wool, and twisted into curls and knots and decorated with artificial flowers and bows of ribbon . As this could not be achieved without the aid of a skilled See also:

• BARBER (from Lat. barba, beard)

barber, the " head " some- times remained unopened for several See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks . At the end of that time sublimate powder was needed to kill off the tenantry which had multiplied within . At the beginning of the last quarter of the century the feathers grew larger, chains of beads looped about the curls, while See also:

• SHIPS

ships in full See also:

• SAIL

sail, coaches and horses, and butterflies in blown glass, rocked upon the upper heights .

Loose See also:

• MOB

mob-caps or close " Joans " were worn in undress, often as simple as the full dress was fantastic . Varieties of the gown and sacque remained in fashion, the petticoat being still much in evidence, flounced or quilted, or festooned with ribbons . Before the 'eighties of this century were over, a new taste, encouraged by the painters of the school of See also:

• REYNOLDS, JOHN FULTON (182o-1863)
• REYNOLDS, SIR JOSHUA (1723-1792)
• REYNOLDS, WALTER (d. 1327)

Reynolds, began to sweep away many follies, and the revolutionary fashions of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, breaking with all that spoke of the old regime, expelled many more . The age of powder and gold lace, of See also:

• PEACH
• PEACH, CHARLES WILLIAM (1800-1886)

peach-See also:

• BLOOM (from A.S. bloma, a flower)

bloom brocade coats with See also:

• MUFF

muff-shaped cuffs, of bag-wigs and three-cornered hats drew suddenly to an end . Mr See also:

• PITT, THOMAS (1653-1726)
• PITT, WILLIAM (1759-1806)

Pitt killed hair-powder by his tax of 1795, but before that time fashionable men, who since the beginning of George III's. reign had been somewhat inconstant to the wig, were wearing their own hair unpowdered and tied in a club at the back of the coat collar . Before the century end the roughly cropped " See also:

• BRUTUS (originally an adjective meaning " heavy," "stupid," kindred with Gr. aap(s, cf. Eng. " brute," " brutal")

Brutus " head was seen . The wig remained here and there on some old-fashioned pates . Bishops wore it until far into the Victorian age, and it may still be seen in the Houses of See also:

• PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

Parliament and in the courts of law . Even breeches were passing, tight pantaloons showing themselves in the streets . The coat, cut away over the hips, began to take a high collar and the beginnings of the lappel . Its cuffs were of the modern shape, showing a narrow ruffle . The waistcoat ended at the waist .

Loose neck-cloths were worn above a frilled shirt-front . Great jack-boots were given to postillions, and men of fashion walked the streets in short top-boots of soft black leather . Most remarkable of the revolutionary changes, the round hat came back, sometimes in a form which recalled the earlier 17th century, and at last took shape as the predecessor of our modern silk hat . Court dresses kept something of their magnificence, but men at home or in the streets were giving up in this time of change their ancient right to wear rich and figured stuffs . Laces and embroideries were henceforward but for military and civil See also:

• UNIFORMS

uniforms . Before 1790 women had begun to dismantle their high head-gear, returning to nature by way of a frizzled See also:

• BUSH

bush, like a bishop's wig, with a few curls hanging over the shoulders . Over such heads would be seen towering mob-caps tied with ribbon and edged deeply with lace . Skirts took a moderate size and even court hoops were but panniers hung on either side of the hips . Short jackets with close half-sleeves were worn with the neck and breast covered with a cambric buffant that borrowed a mode from the pouter pigeon . A riding habit follows as far as the short waist the new fashions for men's coats, the wide-brimmed hat being to match . Short waists came in soon after 1790, the bodice ending under the arm pits, " a petticoat tied round the neck: the arms put through the pocket-holes." With these French gowns came small See also:

• COAL

coal-See also:

• SCUTTLE

scuttle-shaped bonnets of See also:

• STRAW

straw, hung with many ribbons and decorated with feathers . At last the woman of fashion, dressed by a Parisian modiste after the orders of David the painter, gathered her hair in a fillet and clothed herself in little more than a diaphanous tunic gown over a light shift and close, flesh-coloured drawers .

Her shoes became sandals: her jewels followed the patterns of old Rome . Yet the same woman, shivering half-clad in something that wrapped her less than a modern bathing-dress, appeared at court in the ancient hoop-skirt, tasselled, ribboned and garlanded, hung with heavy swags of coloured silk, and this until George IV. at last See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke the See also:

• ANTIQUE (Lat. antiquus, old)

antique order by a special command . The 19th century soon made an end of 18th century fashions already discredited by the revolutionary spirit . The three-cornered hat had gone, the heavy coat cuff and the cravat with hanging ends . Civilians had given up the cetH cntury . ancient custom of going armed with a sword . The wig and even the pigtail tied with black shalloon were abandoned by all but a few old folk . Soldiers cut off their pigtails in 18o8 . But judges and lawyers wear their wigs in court in the 20th century, state coachmen wear them on the See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

box, and physicians and the higher clergy wore them even in the street long after laymen had given them up . George IV. refused to receive a bishop of London who appeared at court without a wig, and See also:

• SUMNER, CHARLES (1811--1874)
• SUMNER, CHARLES RICHARD (1790-1874)
• SUMNER, EDWIN VOSE (1797-1863)
• SUMNER, JOHN BIRD (1780-1862)
• SUMNER, WILLIAM GRAHAM (1840-1910)

Sumner, See also:

• ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

archbishop of See also:

• CANTERBURY
• CANTERBURY, CHARLES

Canterbury, wore one, until his death in 1862 . A few powdered heads were seen as late as the 'forties . M. de Ste Aulaire, the ambassador, made, as Lord See also:

• PALMERSTON
• PALMERSTON, HENRY JOHN TEMPLE, 3RD VISCOUNT (1784-1865)

Palmerston writes, a very deep and general impression in London society of 1841, not because he wore hair-powder but because he used so much of it .

It is now used only by a few lacqueys . In the early Victorian period the cropped " Brutus " head was out of fashion, many men wearing their hair rather long and so freely oiled that the " See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-See also:

• MACASSAR (MAKASSAR, MANGKASAR)

macassar " came in to protect drawing-room See also:

• CHAIR (in. Mid. Eng. chcere, through O. Fr. chaire or chaiere, from Lat. cathedra, later caledra, Gr. xaOi3pa, seat, cf. "cathedral"; the modern Fr. form chaise, a chair, has been adopted in English with a particular meaning as a form of carriage; chaire

chair-backs . (c . I730) . With powdered hair and the pigtail passed away the 18th century cloth breeches . Here again' some old-fashioned people made a stand against the change, the opposition of the clergy being commemorated in the black breeches still worn by bishops and other dignitaries of the church . But in the See also:

• REGENT (from Lat. regere, to rule)

regent's time pantaloons of closely fitting and elastic cloth were worn with low shoes or Hessians, and pantaloons and Hessians did not utterly disappear from the streets until the end of the 'fifties . Squires and sportsmen put on buckskins of an amazing tightness and walked the street in top-boots . But the loose Cossack trousers soon made their appearance . The regent's influence made the blue coat with a very high velvet collar, a high-waisted Marcella waistcoat and white See also:

• DUCK

duck trousers strapped under the instep, a mode in which men even ventured to appear at evening receptions, although, in the year before See also:

• WATERLOO

Waterloo, the duke of See also:

• WELLINGTON
• WELLINGTON, ARTHUR WELLESLEY, 1ST DUKE OF (1769-1852)

Wellington was refused admittance to Almack's when thus clad . Long skirted overcoats, fur-collared and tight in the waist, completed this costume . Coats were blue, See also:

• CLARET (from the Fr. vin claret, mod. clairet, wine of a light clear colour, from Lat. clarus, clear)

claret, See also:

• BUFF (from Fr. bu.ffie, a buffalo)

buff and brown .

" See also:

• PEA (Pisum)

Pea-green See also:

• HAYNE, ROBERT YOUNG (1791–1839)

Hayne " was known among clubmen by a brighter coloured garment . Civilians, like Jos See also:

• SEDLEY, SIR CHARLES (c. 1639-1701)

Sedley, would sometimes affect a frock frogged and braided in semi-military fashion . The shirt collar turned upward, the points showing above vast cravats whose careful arrangement was maintained by one or two scarf-pins . Brummel the master See also:

• DANDY

dandy of his age, may be called the first dandy of the modern school . Dressing, as a rule, in black, he distinguished himself, not as the bucks of an earlier age by bright colours, rich materials or jewellery, but by his extravagant neatness and by the superb See also:

• FIT

fit of garments which set the fashion for lesser men_ To him, according to See also:

• GRANTLEY, FLETCHER NORTON, 1ST BARON (1716-1789)

Grantley See also:

• BERKELEY
• BERKELEY, GEORGE (1685–1753)
• BERKELEY, MILES JOSEPH (1803-1889)
• BERKELEY, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1608-1677)

Berkeley, we owe the modern dress-coat . An idle phrase in Bulwer-Lyttcn's See also:

• PELHAM
• PELHAM, HENRY (1696-1754)
• PELHAM, HENRY FRANCIS (1846-1907)

Pelham (1828), that " people must be very distinguished in appearance "to look well in black, made black hence-forward the colour of evening coats and frock coats . With the perfection of the silk hat in the 'thirties, English costume enters on its last phase . The coat cut away squarely in front was then out of the mode; it remains but in the evening-dress coat now always worn unbuttoned, and in the dress of the hunting field . The rest is a record of such slight changes as tailors may cautiously introduce among customers, no one of whom will dare to lead a new fashion boldly . For many decades the fashionably dressed man has been eager to conform to the last authorized See also:

• VOGUE, EUGENE MELCHIOR, COMTE DE (1848- )

vogue and to lose himself among others as shyly obedient . The tubular lines of loth-century clothing See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage the tailor by the tendency of new clothing to crease at the elbow and bag at the knee . In preserving the necessary straight lines of his garments, in following the See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season's fashions in details which only an See also:

• EXPERT (Lat. expertus, from experiri, to try)

expert eye would mark, and in providing himself with clothes specialized for every See also:

• HOUR

hour of the day, for a See also:

• SCORE (O.E. scor, from sceran, to cut, notch, cf. " shear ")

score of See also:

• SPORTS
• SPORTS, THE BOOK OF

sports and for the gradations of social ceremonial—in these things only can the modern dandy See also:

• RIVAL

rival his magnificent predecessors .

For ornament, other than plain shirt studs, a plain seal ring, a simple watch guard and a rarely-worn scarf See also:

• PIN (a doublet with " pen " from Lat. pinna, feather, pinnacle, which is said to contain the same root as irirvs, pine tree, and properly to mean a sharp point or end)

pin, is denied him . Women at the beginning of the 19th century were clad in those fashions which revolutionary France borrowed from the antique . The simplicity of this style gave it a certain See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

grace; it was at the other See also:

• POLE (FAMILY)
• POLE, REGINALD (1500-1558)
• POLE, RICHARD DE LA (d. 1525)
• POLE, WILLIAM (1814—1900)

pole from the absurdity of the court dress which, until George IV. ordered otherwise, perpetuated the bunched draperies, the flounces and furbelows and even the hoop of the worst period of the 18th century . The gown, lightly girdled near the arm-pits with a tasselled cord, fell in straight clinging folds . Soft See also:

• MUSLIN (through Fr. mousseline from It. mussolino, diminutive of Mussolo, i.e. the town Mosul in Kurdistan)

muslin was the favourite material, and in muslin fashionablewomen faced the winter winds, protected only by the long pelisses which in summer were replaced by short spencers . Turbans, varying from a light headscarf of lace or muslin to a velvet confection like that of a Turk on a signboard, were the favourite headgear, although bonnets, hats and caps are found in a hundred shapes . Muslin handkerchiefs or small ruffs were worn about the neck in the morning dress . About the Waterloo period the elegance of the classical gown disappeared . The waist was still high at first but the gown was shorter and wider at the skirt . For evening dress these skirts were stiffened with See also:

• BUCKRAM (a word common, in various early forms, to many European languages, as in the Fr. bouqueran or Ital. bucherame, the derivation of which is unknown)

buckram and trimmed with much tasteless trumpery . Large bonnets were common, and the hair was dragged stiffly to the back of the head, to be secured by a large comb . From 1830 begins a period of singular ugliness .

Tight stays came back again, the skirt swept the pavements, a generation of over-clad matrons seemed to have followed a generation of See also:

• NYMPHS

nymphs . The 'fifties showed even more barbarous devices, and about 1854 came in from France the See also:

• CRINOLINE (a Fr. word formed of the Lat. crinis, hair, and linum, thread)

crinoline, that strange revival of the ancient hoop . Plaids, checks and bars, bright blues, crude violets and hideous crimsons, were seen in French merinos, Irish poplins and English alpacas . Women in short jackets, hooped skirts, hideous bonnets and shawls seemed to have banished their youth . The empress See also:

• EUGENIE

Eugenie, a leader of European fashion, decreed that white muslin should be the evening mode, and at balls, where the steels and whalebones of the crinoline were impossible, the women swelled their skirts by wearing a dozen or fourteen muslin petticoats at once . Towards the end of the 'sixties the crinolines disappeared as suddenly as they came, and by 1875 skirts were so tight at the knees that walking upstairs in them was an affair of deliberation . Before 188o dress-reformers and aesthetes had attacked on two sides the fashions which had halted at the " Princesse " robe, draped and kilted . Both movements failed, but left marked effects . From that time fashion has been less blindly followed, and women have enjoyed some limited individual freedom in designing their costumes . Of loth-century fashions it is most notable that they change year by year with See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical regularity . The clothes of See also:

• SMART, CHRISTOPHER (1722-1771)
• SMART, HENRY (1813–1879)
• SMART, JOHN (c. 1740–1811)
• SMART, SIR GEORGE THOMAS (1776–1867)

smart women can no longer be said to See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express any tendency of an age . Year by year the modes are deliberately altered by a See also:

• CONCLAVE (Lat. conclave, from cum, together, and clavis, a key)

conclave of the greatmodistes whose desire is less to produce rich or beautiful garments than to make that See also:

• RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root)

radical alteration from loose sleeve to tight sleeve, from draped skirt to plain skirt, which will force every women to cast aside the last season's garments and buy those of the newer See also:

• DEVICE

device .

But of modern dress it may at least be said that cheaper materials, the sewing See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

machine and the popular fashion papers allow women of the humbler classes to dress more decently and tastefully . Their dress is no longer that frowsy See also:

• PARODY (Gr. s-apybia, literally a song sung beside, a comic parallel)

parody of richer women's frippery which shocked observant foreigners a generation ago . Underclothing: Of the underclothing worn next the skin something may be said apart from the general history of costume . Linen shirts were worn by both men and women in the age before the Conquest, and even in the loth century it was a See also:

• PENANCE (Old Fr. penance, fr. Lat. poenitentia, penitence)

penance to wear a woollen one . After that time we soon hear of embroidery and ornament applied to them, presumably at the collar which would be visible above gown or tunic . Men added short drawers, or breeches, a word which does not secure its modern value until the end of the 16th century . " Drawers " signified various descriptions of overall, See also:

• COTGRAVE, RANDLE (?-1634)

Cotgrave explaining the word as coarse stockings drawn over others although Randle Holme gives it in its later sense . Isaac of Cyprus is named by Robert of Brunne as escaping " bare in his serke and breke." Henry Christall, who brought four Irish kings to London, told See also:

• FROISSART, JEAN (1338-1410?)

Froissart how, finding that they wore no breeches, he bought linen cloth for them . Medieval romances and the like give us the choice of shirts of linen, of fine See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland, of cloth of See also:

• RENNES

Rennes and even of silk, and Chaucer speaks of women's smocks wrought with silk, embroidered behind and before . Poorer folk went, like Thynne's poor countryman, in shirts of " See also:

• CANVAS

canvas hard and tough," or of coarse See also:

• BRETON, BRITTON
• BRETON, JULES ADOLPHE

Breton See also:

• DOWLAS

dowlas . Under the first Tudors, shirts are decorated with gold, silk and black See also:

• THREAD (0. Eng. praed, literally, that which