See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)  , the most important of the See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable See also:

• FIBRES
• FIBRES (or FIBERS, in American spelling; from Lat. fibra, apparently connected either with filum, thread, or findere, to split)

fibres of the See also:

• WORLD

world, consisting of unicellular hairs which occur attached to the seeds of various See also:

• SPECIES

species of See also:

• PLANTS

plants of the genus Gossypium, belonging to the See also:

• MALLOW

Mallow See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order (See also:

• MALVACEAE

Malvaceae) . Each fibre is formed by the outgrowth of a single epidermal See also:

• CELL (from Lat. cella, probably from an Indo-European kal —seen in Lat. celare, to hide; another suggestion connects the word with Lat. cera, wax, taking the original meaning to refer to the honeycomb)

cell of the testa or See also:

• OUTER

outer coat of the See also:

• SEED (from the root seen in Lat. serere, to sow)

seed . - See also:

• BOTANY (from Gr. l3or6v17, plant; ,66vicety, to graze)

Botany and Cultivation.—The genus Gossypium includes herbs and shrubs, which have been cultivated from See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time immemorial, and are now found widely distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of both hemispheres . See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• AMERICA

America, the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West Indies, tropical See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa and See also:

• SOUTHERN

Southern See also:

• ASIA

Asia are the homes of the various members, but the plants have been introduced with success into other lands, as is well indicated by the fact that although no species of Gossypiumn is native to the See also:

• UNITED

United States of America, that See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country now produces over two-thirds of the world's See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton . Under normal conditions in warm climates many of the species are perennials, but, in the United States for example, See also:

• CLIMATIC

climatic conditions necessitate the plants being renewed annually, and even in the tropics it is often found advisable to treat them as annuals to ensure the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of cotton of the best quality, to facilitate cultural operations, and to keep See also:

• INSECT

insect and fungoid pests in check . Microscopic examination of a specimen of mature cotton shows that the hairs are flattened and See also:

• TWISTED

twisted, resembling somewhat in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance an empty and twisted See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire See also:

• HOSE (a word common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch, hoes, stocking, Ger. Hose, breeches, tights; the ultimate origin is unknown)

hose . This characteristic is of See also:

• GREAT

great economic importance, the natural twist facilitating the operation of See also:

• SPINNING (from O. Eng. spinnen, to spin, cf. Ger. spinnen, &c., the Teut. root is seen, to draw out, cf. span, spider)

spinning the fibres into See also:

• THREAD (0. Eng. praed, literally, that which is twisted, prawan, to twist, to throw, cf. " throwster," a silk-winder, Ger. drehen, to twist, turn, Du. draad, Ger. Draht, thread, wire)

thread or See also:

• YARN

yarn . It also distinguishes the true cotton from the See also:

• SILK

silk cottons or flosses, the fibres of which have no twist, and do not readily spin into thread, and for this See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason, amongst others, are very considerably less important as textile fibres . The See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief of these silk cottons is kapok, consisting of the hairs See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne on the interior of the pods (but not attached to the seeds) of Eriodendron anfracluosum, the silk cotton See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree, a member of the Bombacaceae, an order" very closely allied to the Malvaceae . See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

Classification.—Considerable difficulty is encountered in attempting to draw up a botanical classification of the species of Gossypium . Several are only known in cultivation, and we have but little knowledge of the See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent forms from which they have descended . During the periods the cottons have been cultivated, selection, conscious or unconscious, has been carried on, resulting in the raising, from the same stock probably, in different places, of well-marked forms, which, in the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of the See also:

• HISTORY

history of their origin, might be regarded as different species .

Then again, during at least the last four centuries, cotton plants have been distributed from one country to another, only to render still more difficult any See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to establish de- finitely the origin of the varieties now grown . Under these circum- stances it is not sur- prising to find that those who have paid See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to the botany of the cottons differ greatly in the number of species they recog- nize . See also:

• LINNAEUS

Linnaeus de- scribed five or six species, de C an d of l e thirteen . Of the two See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian botanists who in comparatively See also:

• RECENT

recent years have mono-graphed the See also:

• GROUP

group, Parlatore (Le Specie dei cotoni, r866) recognizes seven species, whilst Todaro (Relazione See also:

• SULLA, LUCIUS CORNELIUS (138–78 B.C.)

sulla culta dei cotoni, 1877–1878) describes over fifty species: many of these, however, are of but little economic importance, and, in spite of the difficulties mentioned above, it is possible for See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical purposes to See also:

• DIVIDE

divide the commercially important plants into five species, placing these in two See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups according to the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the hairs borne on the seeds . See also:

• SIR

Sir G . See also:

• WATT, JAMES (1736-1819)

Watt's exhaustive See also:

• WORK

work on Wild and Cultivated Cotton Plants of the World (1907) is the latest authority on the subject; and his views on some debated points have been incorporated in the following See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account . A seed of " See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

Island cotton " is covered with See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long hairs only, which are readily pulled off, leaving the comparatively small See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black seed quite clean or with only a slight fuzz at the end, whereas a seed of " Upland " or See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary See also:

• AMERICAN

American cotton bears both long and See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short hairs; the former are fairly easily detached (less easily, however, than in Sea Island cotton), whilst the latter adhere very firmly, so that when the long hairs are pulled off the seed remains completely covered with a short fuzz . This is also the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case with the ordinary See also:

• INDIAN

Indian and See also:

• AFRICAN

African cottons . There remains one other important group, the so-called " See also:

• KIDNEY

kidney " cottons in which there are only long hairs, and the seed easily comes away clean as with " Sea Island," but, instead of each seed being See also:

• SEPARATE

separate, the whole group in each of the three compartments of the See also:

• CAPSULE (from the Lat. capsula, a small box)

capsule is firmly united together in a more or less kidney-shaped See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass . Starting with this as the basis of classifica- i . Seeds covered with long hairs only, See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers yellow, turning to red . A .

Seeds separate . Country of origin,Tropical America—(r) G.barbadense,L . 1 B . Seeds of each loculus united . 1 Country of origin, S . America—(2) G.brasiliense, Macf . ii . Seeds covered with long and short hairs . A . Flowers yellow or See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white, turning to red . a . Leaves 3 to 5 lobed, often large .

Flowers white . Country of origin, See also:

• MEXICO
• MEXICO (Span. Mejico, or Mexico,)
• MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF
• MEXICO, GULF OF

Mexico—(3) G. hirsutum, L . b . Leaves 3 to 5, seldom 7 lobed . Small . Flowers yellow . Country of origin, See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India—(4) G. herbaceum, L . B . Flowers See also:

• PURPLE

purple or red . Leaves 3 to 7 lobed . See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

Place of origin, Old World—(5) G. arboreum, L . r .

G. barbadense, Linn . This plant, known only in cultivation, is usually regarded as native to the West Indies . Watt regards it as closely allied to G. vitifolium, and considers the See also:

• MODERN

modern stock a hybrid, and probably not indigenous to the West Indies . He classifies the modern high-class Sea Island cottons as G. barbadense, See also:

• VAR

var. maritima . Whatever may be its true botanical name it is the plant known in See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce as " Sea Island " cotton, owing to its introduction and successful cultivation in the Sea Islands and the coastal districts of South Carolina, See also:

• GEORGIA

Georgia and See also:

• FLORIDA

Florida . It yields the most valuable of all cottons, the hairs being long, See also:

• FINE

fine and silky, and ranging in length from s to 22 in . By careful selection (the methods of which are described below) in the United States, the quality of the product was much improved, and on the recent revival of the cotton See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry in the West Indies American " Sea Island " seed was introduced back again to the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home of the species . See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian cotton is usually regarded as being derived from the same species . Watt considers many of the Egyptian cottons to be races or hybrids of G. peruvianum, Cay . Egyptian cotton in length of See also:

• STAPLE

staple is intermediate between See also:

• AVERAGE

average Sea Island and average Upland . It has, however, certain characteristics which cause it to be in demand even in the United States, where during recent years Egyptian cotton has comprised about 8o% of all the " See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign " cottons imported . These See also:

• SPECIAL

special qualities are its fineness, strength, See also:

• ELASTICITY

elasticity and great natural twist, which combined enable it to make very fine, strong yarns, suited to the manufacture of the better qualities of See also:

• HOSIERY

hosiery, for mixing with silk and See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

wool, for making See also:

• LACE (corresponding to Ital. merletto, trina; Genoese Pizzo; Ger. spitzen; Fr. dentelle; Dutch kanten; Span. encaje; the English word owes something to the Fr. lassis or laces, but both are connected with the earlier Lat. laqueus; early French laces were

lace, &c .

It also mercerizes very well . The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal varieties of Egyptian cotton are: Mitafifi, the best-known and most extensively grown, See also:

• HARDY, ALEXANDRE (1569?-1631)
• HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS (1804-1878)
• HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN
• HARDY, THOMAS (1840- )

hardy and but little affected by climatic variation . It is usually regarded as the See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard Egyptian cotton; the See also:

• LINT (in M. Eng. linnet, probably through Fr. linette, from lin, the flax-plant; cf. " line ")

lint is yellowish See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown, the seeds black and almost smooth, usually with a little tuft of short See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green hairs at the ends . Abassi, a variety comparatively recently obtained by selection . The lint is pure white, very fine and silky, but not so strong as Mitafifi cotton . Yannovitch, a variety known since about 1897, yields the finest and most silky lint of the white Egyptian cottons . Bamia, yielding a brown lint, very similar to Mitafifi, but slightly less valuable . Ashmouni, a variety principally cultivated in Upper See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt . The lint is brown and generally resembles Mitafifi but is less valuable . Other varieties are Zifiri, Hamouli and Gallini, all of See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor importance . 2 . G. brasiliense, Macf .

(G. peruvianum, Engler), or kidney cotton . Amongst the varieties of cotton which are derived from this species appear to be See also:

• PERNAMBUCO

Pernambuco, Maranham, See also:

• CEARA

Ceara, See also:

• ARACATY, or ARACATI

Aracaty and Maceio cottons The fibre is generally white, somewhat harsh and wiry, and especially adapted for mixing with wool . The staple varies in length from 1 to about Ii in . 3 . G. hirsutum, Linn . Although G. barbadense yields the most valuable cotton, G. hirsutum is the most important cotton-yielding plant, being the source of American cotton, i.e . Upland, Georgia, New See also:

• ORLEANS
• ORLEANS, CHARLES, DUKE OF (1391-1465)
• ORLEANS, DUKES OF
• ORLEANS, FERDINAND PHILIP LOUIS CHARLES HENRY, DUKE OF (1810-1842)
• ORLEANS, HENRI, PRINCE
• ORLEANS, HENRIETTA, DUCHESS
• ORLEANS, JEAN BAPTISTE GASTON, DUKE
• ORLEANS, LOUIS
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE JOSEPH
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ROBERT, DUKE
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE, DUKE OF (1725–1785)
• ORLEANS, LOUIS, DUKE OF (1372–1407)
• ORLEANS, PHILIP I
• ORLEANS, PHILIP II

Orleans and See also:

• TEXAS

Texas varieties . The staple varies usually in length between 4 and If in . According to Watt there are many hybrids in American cottons between G. hirsutum and G. mexicanum . See also:

• J2(z)

J2 B A B, B2 From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botonik, by permission of Gustav See also:

• FISCHER
• FISCHER, EMIL (1852– )
• FISCHER, ERNST KUNO BERTHOLD (1824–1907)

Fischer . 4 . G. herbaceum, Linn .

See also:

• LEVANT

Levant cotton is derived from this species . The See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the races of cotton cultivated in India are often referred to this species, which is closely allied to G. hirsutum and has been regarded as identical with it . Amongst the cottons of this source are See also:

• HINGANGHAT

Hinganghat, See also:

• TINNEVELLY

Tinnevelly, See also:

• DHARWAR

Dharwar, See also:

• BROACH (Fr. broche, a pointed instrument, Med. Lat. brocca, cf. the Latin adjective brochus or broccus, projecting, used of teeth)
• BROACH, or BHARUCH

Broach, See also:

• AMRAOTI, or UMRAWATTEE

Amraoti (Oomras or Oomrawattee), See also:

• KUMTA, or COOMPTA

Kumta, Westerns, Dholera, Verawal, Bengals, See also:

• SIND

Sind and See also:

• BHAUNAGAR, or BHAVNAGAR

Bhaunagar . Watt dissents from this view and classes these Indian cottons as G. obtusifolium and G . See also:

• NANKING (" the southern capital ")

Nanking with their varieties . The Indian cottons are usually of short staple (about t in.), but are probably capable of improvement . 5 . G. arboreum, Linn . This species is often considered as indigenous to India, but Dr Engler has pointed out that it is found wild in Upper See also:

• GUINEA

Guinea, See also:

• ABYSSINIA (officially ETHIOPIA)

Abyssinia, See also:

• SENEGAL

Senegal, etc . It is the " tree cotton " of India and Africa, being typically a large See also:

• SHRUB

shrub or small tree . The fibre is fine and silky, of about an See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch in length . In India it is known as Nurma or Deo cotton, and is usually stated to be employed for making thread for the turbans of the priests .

Commercially it is of comparatively minor importance . The following table, summarized from the Handbook to the Imperial See also:

• INSTITUTE (from Lat. instituere, to establish or set up)

Institute Cotton See also:

• EXHIBITION

Exhibition, 1905, giving the length of staple and value on one date (See also:

• JANUARY

January 16, 1905), will serve to indicate the See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative values of some of the principal commercial cottons . The actual value, of course, fluctuates greatly . Length of Staple . Value Inches . Per lb . Sea Island Cotton— s. d . Carolina Sea Island . 1.8 I 3 Florida 1.8 i o Georgia „ I.7 See also:

• I14

I14 See also:

• BARBADOS, or BARBADOES

Barbados ,, 2.0 I 3 Egyptian Cottons I.5 94 Yannovitch . Abassi I.5 81- See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

Good Brown Egyptian (Mitafifi) 1.2 American Cotton I.3 41 Good middling See also:

• MEMPHIS

Memphis . Good middling Texas 1.o 4k Good middling Upland . 1.o 4 Indian Cottons o•8 Fine Tinnevelly Fine Bhaunagar 1•o 3i 3 Fine Amraoti .

1•o 3 Fine Broach 0.9 3;I Fine See also:

• BENGAL
• BENGAL, BAY OF

Bengal 0.9 311- Fine ginned Sind o•8 316 Good ginned Kumta 1•o 31 The See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close relationship between the length of the staple and the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price will be at once apparent . Cultivation.—Cotton is very widely cultivated throughout the world, being grown on a greater or less See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale as a commercial See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

crop in almost every country included in the broad See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

belt between latitudes 430 N. and 330 S., or approximately within the isothermal lines of 6o° F . The cotton plant requires certain conditions for its successful cultivation; but, given these, it is very little affected by seasonal vicissitudes . Thus, for example, in the United States the worst See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season rarely diminishes the crop by more than about a See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter or one-third; such a thing as a " See also:

• HALF

half-crop " is unknown . Various climatic factors may cause temporary checks, but the growing and maturing See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period is sufficiently long to allow the plants to overcome these disturbances . Cotton requires for its development from six to seven months of favourable See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather . It thrives in a warm See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere, even in a very hot one, provided that it is moist and that the transpiration is not in excess of the supply of See also:

• WATER

water . An See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of the requirements of the plant will perhaps be afforded by summarizing the conditions which have been found to give the best results in the United States . During See also:

• APRIL

April (when the seed is usually sown) and May frequent See also:

• LIGHT

light showers, which keep the ground sufficiently moist to assist germination and the growth of the See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young plants, are desired . Three to four inches of See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain per See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month is the average . The active growing period is from See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• JUNE

June to about the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August . During June and the first fortnight in See also:

• JULY

July plenty ofsunshine is necessary, accompanied by sufficient rain to promote healthy, but not excessive, growth; the normal rainfall in the cotton belt for this period is about 4 in. per month .

During the second portion of July and the first of August a slightly higher rainfall is beneficial, and even heavy rains do little harm, provided the subsequent months are dry and warm . The first flowers usually appear in June, and the bolls ripen from early in August . Picking takes place normally during See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September and See also:

• OCTOBER

October, and during these months dry weather is essential . Flowering and fruiting go on continually, although in diminishing degree, until the See also:

• ADVENT (Lat. Adventus, sc. Redemptoris, " the coming of the Saviour ")

advent of See also:

• FROST (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch, vorst, Ger. Frost, from the common Teutonic verb meaning " to freeze," Dutch, vriezcn, Ger. frieren; the Indo-European root is seen in Lat. pruina, hoar-frost, cf. prurire, to itch, burn, pruna, burning coal, Sans
• FROST, WILLIAM EDWARD (1810–1877)

frost, which kills the flowers and young bolls and so puts an end to the production of cotton for the season . In the tropics the essential requirements are very similar, but there the dry season checks production in much the same way as do the frosts in temperate climates . In either case an adequate but not excessive rainfall, increasing from the time of See also:

• SOWING (from "to sow," O. Eng. shwan, cf. Du. zaaijen, Ger. saen, &c.; the root is seen in Lat. severe, cf. "seed")

sowing to the period of active growth, and then decreasing as the bolls ripen, with a dry picking season, combined with sunny days and warm nights, provide the ideal conditions for successful cotton cultivation . In regions where climatic conditions are favourable, cotton grows more or less successfully on almost all kinds of See also:

• SOIL

soil; it can be grown on light sandy soils, loams, heavy See also:

• CLAYS, PAUL JEAN (1819-1900)

clays and sandy " bottom " lands with varying success . Sandy uplands produce a short stalk which bears fairly well . See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

Clay and " bottom " lands produce a large, leafy plant, yielding less lint in proportion . The most suitable soils are See also:

• MEDIUM

medium grades of See also:

• LOAM (O.E. lam; the word appears in Dut. leem and Ger. Lehm; the ultimate origin is the root lai-, meaning " to be sticky," which is seen in the cognate " lime," Lat. limus, mud, clay)

loam . The soil should be able to maintain very See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform conditions of moisture . Sudden See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations in the amount of water supplied are injurious: a sandy soil cannot retain water; on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand a clay soil often maintains too great a supply, and See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank growth with excess of foliage ensues .

The best soil for cotton is thus a deep, well-drained loam, able to afford a uniform supply of moisture during the growing period . See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

Wind is another important See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor, as cotton does not do well in localities subject to very high winds; and in exposed situations, otherwise favourable, wind belts have at times to be provided . Cultivation in the United States.—The United States being the most important cotton-producing country, the methods of cultivation practised there are first described, notes on methods adopted in other countries being added only when these differ considerably from American practice . The culture of cotton must be a clean one . It is not necessarily deep culture, and during the growing season the cultivation is preferably very shallow . The result is a great destruction of the humus of the soil, and great leaching and washing, especially in the light loams of the See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill country of the United States . The See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• OBJECT

object, therefore, of the American cotton-planter is to prevent erosion . Wherever the planters have failed to guard their See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields by hillside ploughing and terracing, these have been extensively denuded of soil, rendering them barren, and devastating other fields lying at a See also:

• LOWER

lower level, which are covered by the See also:

• WASH, THE

wash . The hillsides have gradually to be terraced with the plough, upon almost an exact level . On the better farms this is done with a spirit-level or See also:

• COMPASS (Fr. corn pas, ultimately from Lat. cum, with, and passus, step)

compass from time to time and hillside ditches put in at the proper places . In the moist bottom-lands along the See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers it is the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom to throw the soil up in high beds with the plough, and then to cultivate them deep . This is the more See also:

• COMMON

common method of drainage, but it is expensive, as it has to be renewed every few years .

More intelligent planters drain their bottom-lands with underground or open drains . In the case of small plantations the difficulties of adjusting a right-of-way for outlet ditches have interfered seriously with this See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan . Many planters question the See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom of deepbreaking and subsoiling . There can be no question that a deep soil is better for the cotton-plant; but the expense of obtaining it, the See also:

• RISK

risk of injuring the soil through leaching, and the danger of bringing poor soil to the See also:

• SURFACE

surface, have led many planters to oppose this plan . Sandy soils are made thereby too dry and leachy, and it is a questionable proceeding to turn the heavy clays upon the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top . Planters are, as a result, divided in See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion as to the wisdom of subsoiling . Nothing definite can be said with regard to a rotation of crops upon the cotton See also:

• PLANTATION (Lat. plantare, to plant)

plantation . Planters appreciate generally the value of broad-leaved and narrow-leaved plants and See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root crops, but there is an absence of exact knowledge, with the result that their practices are very varied . It is believed that the rotation must differ with every variety of soil, with the result that each planter has his own method, and little can be said in general . A more careful study of the See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical as well as the chemical properties of a soil must precede intelligent experimentation in rotation . This knowledge is still lacking with regard to most of the cotton soils . The only uniform practice is to let the fields " See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest " when they have become exhausted .

Nature then restores them very rapidly . The exhaustion of the soil under cotton culture is chiefly due to the loss of humus, and nature soon puts this back in the excellent See also:

• CLIMATE

climate of the cotton-growing belt . Fields considered utterly used up, and allowed to " rest " for years, when cultivated again have produced .better crops than those which had. been under a more or less thoughtful rotation . In spite of the clean culture, good crops of cotton have been grown on some soils in the south for more than See also:

• FORTY

forty successive years . The fibre takes almost nothing from the See also:

• LAND

land, and where the seeds are restored to the soil in some See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form, even without other fertilizers, the exhaustion of the soil is very slow . If the burning-up of humus and the leaching of the soil could be prevented, there is no reason why a cotton soil should not produce good crops continuously for an indefinite time . Bedding up land previous to planting is almost universal . The See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed forms a warm seed-bed in the cool weather of early See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring, and holds the manure which is drilled in usually to better See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage . The plants are generally See also:

• LEFT

left 2 or 3 in. above the middle of the See also:

• ROW, JOHN (c. 1525—1580)

row, which in four-See also:

• FOOT

foot rows gives a slope of i in. to the foot, causing the plough to lean from the plants in cultivating, and thus to cut fewer roots . The plants are usually cut out with a See also:

• HOE (through Fr. houe from O.H.G. houwd, mod. Ger. Haue; the root is seen in " hew," to cut, cleave; the word must be distinguished from " hoe," promontory, tongue of land, seen in place names, e.g. Morthoe, Luton Hoo, the Hoe at Plymouth, &c. ; this is t
• HOE, RICHARD MARCH (1812-1886)

hoe from 8 to 14 in. apart . It seems to make little difference exactly what distance they are, so long as they are not wider apart on average land than r ft . On See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich bottom-land they should be more distant .

The seed is dropped from a planter, five or six seeds in a single See also:

• LINE

line, at See also:

• REGULAR

regular intervals ro to r 2 in. apart . A narrow deep furrow is usually run immediately in advance of the planter, to break up the soil under the seed . The only time the hoe is used is to thin out the cotton in the row; all the rest of the cultivation is by various forms of ploughs and so-called cultivators . The question of deep and shallow culture has been much discussed among planters without any conclusion applicable to all soils being reached . All grass and weeds must be kept down, and the crust must be broken after every rain, but these seem to be the only principles upon which all agree . The most effective See also:

• TOOL (0. Eng. tdl, generally referred to a root seen in the Goth. taujan, to make, or in the English word " taw," to work or dress leather)

tool against the weeds is a broad See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp " sweep," as it is called, which takes everything it meets, while going shallower than most ploughs . Harrows and cultivators are used where there are few weeds, and the mulching See also:

• PROCESS

process is the one desired . The date of cotton-planting varies from See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March r to June r, according to situation . Planting begins early in March in Southern Texas, and the first blooms will appear there about May 15 . Planting may be done as See also:

• LATE

late as April 15 in the See also:

• PIEDMONT (Ital. Piemonte; Low Lat. Pedemons and Pedemontium)

Piedmont region of See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North Carolina, and continue as late as the end of May . The first blooms will appear in this region about July 15 . Picking may begin on July ro in Southern Texas, and continue late into the See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter, or until the rare frost kills the plants .

It may not begin until September ro in Piedmont, North Carolina . It is a peculiarity of the cotton-plant to lose a great many of its blooms and bolls . When the weather is not favourable at the fruiting See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage, the otherwise hardy cotton plant displays its great weakness in this way . It sheds its " forms " (as the buds are called), blooms, and even half-grown bolls in great See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers . It has frequently been noted that even well-fertilized plants upon good soil will mature only 15 or 20% of the bolls produced . No means are known so far for preventing this great See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste . Experts are at an entire loss to form a correct idea of the cause, or to apply any effective remedy . Cotton-picking is at once the most difficult and most expensive operation in cotton production . It is paid for at the See also:

• RATE

rate of from 45 to 50 cents per cwt. of seed cotton . The work is light, andis effectually performed by See also:

• WOMEN

women and even See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children, as well as men; but it is tedious and requires care . The picking season will average See also:

• IOO

ioo days . It is difficult to get the hands to work until the cotton is fully opened, and it is hard to induce them to pick over roo lb a See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, though some See also:

• EXPERT (Lat. expertus, from experiri, to try)

expert hands are found in every cotton plantation who can pick twice as much .

The loss resulting from careless work is very serious . The cotton falls out easily or is dropped . The careless gathering of dead leaves and twigs, and the soiling of the cotton by See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth or by the natural colouring See also:

• MATTER

matter from the bolls, injure the quality . It has been commonly thought that the production of cotton in the south is limited by the amount that can be picked, but this limit is evidently very remote . The See also:

• NEGRO (from Lat. eager, black)

negro See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of the towns and villages of the cotton country is usually available for a consider-able See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in cotton-picking . There is in the cotton states a rural population of over 7,000,000, more or less occupied in cotton-growing, and capable, at the See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low average of roo lb a day, of picking daily nearly 500,000 See also:

• BALES [BALESIUS], PETER (1547–1610?)

bales . It is evident, therefore, that if this number could work through the whole season of ioo days, they could pick three or four times as much cotton as the largest crop ever made . Great efforts have been made to devise cotton-picking See also:

• MACHINES

machines, but, as yet, See also:

• COMPLETE

complete success has not been attained . Lowne's See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

machine is useful in specially wide-planted fields and when the ground is sufficiently hard . Cotton Ginning.—The crop having been picked, it has to be prepared for purpose of manufacture . This comprises separating the fibre or lint from the seeds, the operation being known as "ginning." When this has been accomplished the See also:

• WEIGHT

weight of the crop is reduced to about one-third, each roo lb of seed cotton as picked yielding after ginning some 33 lb of lint and 66 lb of cotton seed . The actual amounts differ with different varieties, conditions of cultivation, methods of ginning, &c.; a recent estimate in the United States gives 35% of lint for Upland cotton and 25% for Sea Island cotton as more accurate .

The separation of lint from seed is accomplished in various ways . The most See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive is hand-picking, the fibre being laboriously pulled from off each seed, as still practised in parts of Africa . In modern commercial cotton production ginning machines are always used . Very See also:

• SIMPLE

simple machines are used in some parts of Africa . The simplest cotton See also:

• GIN

gin in extensive use is the " churka," used from early times, and still largely employed in India and See also:

• CHINA

China . It consists essentially of two rollers either both of See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood, or one of wood and one of See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron, geared to revolve in contact in opposite directions; the seed cotton is fed to the rollers, the lint is See also:

• DRAWN

drawn through, and the seed being unable to pass between the rollers is rejected . With this primitive machine, worked by hand, about 5 lb of lint is the daily output . In the Macarthy See also:

• ROLLER

roller gin, the lint, drawn by a roller covered with See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather (preferably See also:

• WALRUS, or MORSE (Odobaenus rosmarus)

walrus hide), is drawn between a See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal See also:

• PLATE

plate called the " See also:

• DOCTOR (Lat. for " teacher ")

doctor " (fixed tangentially to the roller and very close to it) and a blade called the "beater" or See also:

• KNIFE (0. E. cuff, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. knijf, Ger. Kneif, a shoe-maker's knife, Swed. knif; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the root of " nip," formerly " knip "; Fr. canif is a

knife, which rapidly moves up and down immediately behind, and parallel to, the fixed plate . The lint is held by the roughness of the roller, and the blade of the knife or beater readily detaches the seed from the lint; the seed falls through a grid, while the lint passes over the roller to the other See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the machine . A hand Macarthy roller gin worked by two men will clean about 4 to 6 lb of lint per See also:

• HOUR

hour . A similar, but larger machine, requiring about 11 See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse-See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power to run it, will turn out 50 to 6o lb of Egyptian or 6o to 8o lb of Sea Island cleaned cotton per hour . By simple modifications the Macarthy gin can be used for all kinds of cotton .

Various attempts have been made to substitute a See also:

• COMB (a word common in various forms to Teut. languages, cf. Ger. Kamm, the Indo-Europ. origin of which is seen in yoµros, a peg or pin, and Sanskrit, gambhas, a tooth)

comb for the knife or beater, and one of the latest productions is the " Universal fibre gin," in which a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of See also:

• BLUNT, JOHN HENRY (1823–1884)
• BLUNT, JOHN JAMES (1794–1855)
• BLUNT, WILFRID SCAWEN (184o— )

blunt combs working horizontally replace the solid beater and so-called knife of the Macarthy gin . Opposed to the various types of roller gins is the " saw gin," invented by See also:

• ELI (Hebrew for "high"? i Sam. chaps. i.-iv.)

Eli See also:

• WHITNEY, ELI (1765-1825)
• WHITNEY, JOSIAH DWIGHT (1819-1896)
• WHITNEY, WILLIAM COLLINS (1841-1904)
• WHITNEY, WILLIAM DWIGHT (1827-1894)

Whitney, an American, in 1792 . This machine, under various modifications, is employed for ginning the greater portion of the cotton grown in the Southern States of America . It consists essentially of a series of circular notched disks, the so-called saws, revolving between the interstices of an iron bed upon which the cotton is placed: the See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth of the " saws " catch the lint and pull it off from the seeds, then a revolving See also:

• BRUSH (from Fr. brosse, which, like the English word, means both the undergrowth of a wood and the instrument; if the word in both these meanings is ultimately the same, then the origin is from a bundle of brushwood used as a brush or broom, but this is h
• BRUSH, GEORGE DE FOREST (1855– )

brush removes the detached lint from the saws, and creates sufficient See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught to carry the lint out of the machine to some distance . Saw gins do considerable damage to the fibre, but for short-stapled cotton they are largely used, owing to their great capacity . The average yield of lint per " saw " in the United States, when working under perfect conditions, is about 6 lb per hour . Some of the American ginners are very large indeed, a number (Bulletin of the See also:

• BUREAU (a Fr. word from burel or bureau, a coarse cloth used for coverings)

Bureau of the See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

Census on Cotton Production) being reported as containing on the average 1156 saws with an average production of 4r20 bales of cotton . Saw gins are not adapted to long-stapled cottons, such as Sea Island and Egyptian, which are generally ginned by machines of the Macarthy type . The machine which will gin the largest quantity in the shortest time is naturally preferred, unless such injury is occasioned as materially to diminish the market value of the cotton . This has sometimes been to the extent of rd. or zd. per lb and even more as regards Sea Island and other long-stapled cottons . The production, therefore, of the most perfect and efficient cotton-cleaning machinery is of importance alike to the planter and manufacturer . Baling.—The cotton leaves the ginning machine in a very loose See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition, and has to be compressed into bales for convenience of transport .

Large baling presses are worked by See also:

• HYDRAULIC

hydraulic power; the operation needs no special description . Bales from different countries vary greatly in See also:

• SIZE

size, weight and appearance . The American See also:

• BALE
• BALE, JOHN (1495-1563)

bale has been described in a standard American See also:

• BOOK

book on cotton as " the clumsiest, dirtiest, most expensive and most wasteful package, in which cotton or any other commodity of like value is anywhere put up." Suggestions for its improvement, which if carried out would (it is estimated) result in a monetary saving of £r,000,000 annually, were made by the See also:

• LANCASHIRE

Lancashire Private Cotton Investigation See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

Commission which visited the Southern States of America in 1906 . The approximate weights of some of the principal bales on the See also:

• ENGLISH

English market are as follows: United States - . goo lb Indian . 400 lb Egyptian . 700 lb Peruvian . 200 lb Brazilian . . 200 to 300 lb With baling the work of the producer is concluded . Cultivation in Egypt.—Climatic conditions in Egypt differ radically from those in the United States, the rainfall being so small as to be quite insufficient for the needs of the plant, very little rain indeed falling in the See also:

• NILE
• NILE, BATTLE OF THE
• NILE, SOBAT

Nile See also:

• DELTA (from the shape of the Gr. letter A, delta, originally used of the mouth of the Nile)

Delta during the whole growing season of the crop: yet Egypt is in order the third cotton-producing country of the world, elaborate See also:

• IRRIGATION (Lat. in, and rigare, to water or wet)

irrigation See also:

• WORKS

works supplying the crop with the requisite water . The See also:

• AREA

area devoted to cotton in Egypt is about 1,800,000 acres, and nine-tenths of it is in the Nile Delta . The delta soil is typically a heavy, black, alluvial clay, very fertile, but difficult to work; admixture of See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand is beneficial, and the localities where this occurs yield the best cotton . Formerly in Egypt the cotton was treated as a perennial, but this practice has been generally abandoned, and fresh plants are raised from seed each See also:

• YEAR

year, as in America; one great advantage is that more than one crop can thus be obtained each year .

The following rotation is frequently adopted . It should be noted that in Egypt the year is divided into three seasons—winter, summer and " Nili." The two first explain themselves; Nili is the season in which the Nile overflows its See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks . Winter . Summer . Nili . First year . . See also:

• CLOVER

Clover Cotton See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

Corn or See also:

• FALLOW

fallow Second year Beans or See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat .. For cotton cultivation the land is ploughed, carefully levelled, and then thrown up into ridges about 3 ft. apart . Channels formed at right angles to the cultivation ridges provide for the See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access of water to the crop . The seeds,. previously soaked, are sown, usually in March, on the sides of the ridges, and the land watered . After the seedlings appear, thinning is completed in usually three successive hoeings, the plants being watered after t