See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

COUNCIL (See also:

• LAT

Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root cal, to See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call)  , the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general word for a See also:

• CONVOCATION
• CONVOCATION (Lat. convocatio, a calling together)

convocation, See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting, See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly . The Latin word was frequently confused with consilium (from consulere, to deliberate, cf. See also:

• CONSUL
• CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. praetor maximus)

consul), See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice, i.e. counsel, and thus specifically an advisory assembly . Du Cange (See also:

• GLOSS, GLOSSARY

Gloss . Med . Infim . Latin.) quotes the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek words aiivo3os, avvESpwv, avµ(3o(Xtov as the See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent of concilium . In See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French the distinction between conseil (from consilium), advice, and concile, See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council (i.e. ecclesiastical—its only meaning) has survived, but the two See also:

• ENGLISH

English derivatives are much confused . In the New Testament, " council " is the rendering of the See also:

• HEBREW

Hebrew Sanhedrin, Gr. avviSpwv . The word is generally used in English for all kinds of congregations or convocations assembled for administrative and deliberative purposes.' The See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article is confined to a See also:

• HISTORY

history of the development of the ecclesiastical council, summoned to adjust matters in dispute with the See also:

• CIVIL

civil authority or for the See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement of doctrinal and other See also:

• INTERNAL

internal disputes . For details see under See also:

• SEPARATE

separate headings, See also:

• NICAEA, COUNCIL OF
• NICAEA, or NICE

NICAEA, &c . From a very See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period in the history of the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church, See also:

• COUNCILS

councils or synods have been held to decide on matters of See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine and discipline . They may be traced back to the second See also:

• HALF

half of the 2nd See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century A.D., when sundry churches in See also:

• ASIA

Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor held consultations about the rise of See also:

• MONTANISM

Montanism .

Their precise origin is disputed . The See also:

• COMMON

common See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic view is that they are apostolic though not prescribed by divine See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, and the apostolic precedent usually cited is the " council " of See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem (Acts xv.; See also:

• GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Galatians ii.) . Waiving the See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of vital See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical questions and accepting Acts xv. at its See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face value, the assembly at Jerusalem would scarcely seem to have been a council in the technical sense of the word; it was in essence a meeting of the Jerusalem church at which delegates from See also:

• ANTIOCH

Antioch were heard but apparently had no See also:

• VOTE

vote, the decision resting solely with the See also:

• MOTHER

mother church . R . Sohm argues that synods See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew from the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom of certain See also:

• LOCAL

local churches which, when confronted with a ' For the Greek Council see See also:

• BOULE (Gr. 0ovXi ,, literally " will," " advice "; hence a " council ")

BouLE; for the Hebdomadal Council see See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

OxFoRD; see also See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

ENGLAND: Local See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

Government.serious problem of their own, augmented their See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers by receiving delegates from the churches of the neighbourhood . Hauck, however, holds that these augmented church meetings, which dealt with the affairs of but a single church, are to be distinguished from the synods, which took See also:

• COGNIZANCE (Lat. cognoscere, to know)

cognizance of matters of general See also:

• INTEREST

interest . Older See also:

• PROTESTANT

Protestant writers have contented themselves with saying either that synods were of apostolic origin, or that they were the inevitable outcome of the need of the leaders of churches to take counsel together, and that they were' perhaps modelled on the See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular provincial asset-See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies (concilia provincialia) . Every important alteration in the constitution of the Church - has affected the See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition and See also:

• FUNCTION

function of synods; but the changes were neither simultaneous nor precisely alike throughout the Roman See also:

• EMPIRE

empire . The synods of the 2nd century were extra-See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary assemblies which met to deliberate upon pressing problems . They had no fixed See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical limits for membership, no ex-officio members, nor did they possess an authority w hich did away with the See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence of the local church . In the course of the 3rd century came the decisive See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change, which increased the See also:

• PRESTIGE

prestige of the councils: the right to vote was limited to bishops . This was the logical outgrowth of the belief that each local church ought to have but one See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop (monarchical episcopate), and that these bishops were the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole legitimate successors of the apostles (apostolic See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession), and therefore See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official See also:

• ORGANS

organs of the See also:

• HOLY

Holy Spirit .

Although as See also:

• LATE

late as 250 the consensus of the priests, the deacons and the See also:

• PEOPLE

people was still considered essential to the validity of a conciliar decision at See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome and in certain parts of the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East, the development had already run its course in See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa . It was a further step in advance when synods began to meet at See also:

• REGULAR

regular intervals . They were held annually in See also:

• CAPPADOCIA

Cappadocia by the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 3rd century, and the council of Nicaea commanded in 325 that semi-See also:

• ANNUAL

annual synods be held in every See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province, an arrangement which was not systematically enforced, and was altered in 692, when the Trullan Council reduced the number to one a See also:

• YEAR

year . With the multiplication of synods came naturally a differentiation of type . In See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text-books we find clear lines See also:

• DRAWN

drawn between diocesan, provincial, See also:

• NATIONAL

national, patriarchal and See also:

• OECUMENICAL (through the Lat. from Gr. oiKOVµevI.KOS, universal, belonging to the whole inhabited world, i] oiKovµtvf sc. y;7, aides, to dwell)

oecumenical synods; but the first thousand years of church history do not justify the sharpness of the traditional distinction . The provincial synods, presided over by the See also:

• METROPOLITAN (Lat. metropolitanus, Gr. µnrpoiroXtrns)

metropolitan (See also:

• ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

archbishop), were usually held at the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of the province, and attempted to legislate on all sorts of questions . The See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state had nothing to do with calling them, nor did their decrees require governmental See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

sanction . Various abortive attempts were made to set up synods of patriarchal or at least of more than provincial See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank . In See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North Africa eighteen such synods were held between 393 and 424; during See also:

• PART

part of the 5th and 6th centuries primatial councils assembled at See also:

• ARLES
• ARLES, KINGDOM OF

Arles; and the patriarchs of See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople were accustomed to invite to their " endemic synods " (o See also:

• COOT

coot Ev6,wovaat) all bishops who happened to be sojourning at the capital . Papal synods from the 5th and especially from the 9th century onward included members such as the archbishops of See also:

• RAVENNA
• RAVENNA, EXARCHATE OF

Ravenna, See also:

• MILAN
• MILAN (Ital. Milano, Ger. Mailand, anc. Mediolanum, q.v.)

Milan, See also:

• AQUILEIA

Aquileia and See also:

• GRADO

Grado, who resided outside the Roman archdiocese; but the ,territorial limits from which the membership was drawn do not appear to have been precisely defined . Before the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of the provincial See also:

• SYNOD
• SYNOD (Gr. vbvobos)

synod had become absolutely fixed, there arose in the 4th century the oecumenical council . The Greek See also:

• TERM

term auvobos olKOV/1EYUC112 (r) (used by See also:

• EUSEBIUS
• EUSEBIUS (Gr. EuOi/3tos, from ebaegils, pious, cf. the Latin name Pius)
• EUSEBIUS [OF CAESAREA] (c. 260-c. 340)
• EUSEBIUS [OF EMESA] (d. c. "36o)

Eusebius, Vita Constantin, iii .

6) is preferable to the Latin concilium universale or generale, which has been applied loosely to national and even to provincial synods . The oecumenical synods were not the logical outgrowth of the network of provincial synods; they were creations of the imperial See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power . See also:

• CONSTANTINE

Constantine, who had not even been baptized, laid the See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations when, in response to a See also:

• PETITION (Lat. for " seeking " or " praying ")

petition of the See also:

• DONATISTS

Donatists, he referred their See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case to a See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

committee of bishops that convened at Rome, which meeting Eusebius calls a 2 From ii OlKOVµ€vrr (TO. the inhabited See also:

• WORLD

world; Latin oecumenicus or universalis . The English forms "oecumenical" and " ecumenical " are both used . synod . After that the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor summoned the council of Arles to See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

settle the See also:

• MATTER

matter . For both of these assemblies it was the emperor that decided who should be summoned, paid the travelling expenses of the bishops, determined where the council should be held and what topics should be discussed . He regarded them as temporary advisory bodies, to whose recommendations the imperial authority might give the force of law . In the same manner he appointed the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time and See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place for the council of Nicaea, summoned the episcopate, paid part of the expenses out of the public See also:

• PURSE (Late Lat. bursa, adapted from Gr. Gupta, hide, skin; possibly O. Eng. pusa, bag, has influenced the change from b to p)

purse, nominated the committee in See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of the See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of business, used his See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence to bring about the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of the creed, and punished those who refused to subscribe . To be sure, the council of Nicaea commanded See also:

• GREAT

great veneration, for it was the first See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to assemble the entire episcopate; but no more than the synods of Rome and of Arles was it an See also:

• ORGAN

organ of ecclesiastical self-government--it was rather a means whereby the Church was ruled by the secular power . The subsequent oecumenical synods of the undivided Church were patterned on that of Nicaea . Most Protestant scholars maintain that the secular authorities decided whether or not they should be convened, and issued the See also:

• SUMMONS (Fr. semonce, from semonner or semondre, Lat. summonere, summonitio)

summons; that imperial commissioners were always present, even if they did not always preside; that on occasion emperors have confirmed or refused to confirm synodal decrees; and that the papal See also:

• CONFIRMATION (Lat. confirmatio, from confirmare, to establish, make firm)

confirmation was neither customary nor requisite .

Roman Catholic scholars to-See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day tend to recede from the high ground very generally taken several centuries ago, and Funk even admits that the right to convoke oecumenical synods was vested in the emperor regardless of the wishes of the See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

pope, and that it cannot be proved that the Roman see ever actually had a See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in calling the oecumenical councils of antiquity . Others, however, while acknowledging the futility of seeking See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical proofs that the popes formally called, directed and confirmed these synods, yet assert that the emperor per-formed these functions not of his own right but in his quality as See also:

• PROTECTOR

protector of the Church, that this involved his acting at the See also:

• REQUEST, LETTERS OF

request or at least with the permission and approval of the Church, and in particular of the pope, and that a See also:

• SPECIAL

special though not a stereotyped papal confirmation of conciliar decrees was necessary to their validity . In the Germanic states which arose on the ruins of the Western Empire we find national, and diocesan synods; provincial synods were unusual . National synods were summoned by the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king or with his consent to meet special needs; and they were frequently concilia mixta, at which See also:

• LAY

lay dignitaries appeared . Although the Frankish monarchs were not abolute rulers, nevertheless they exercised, the right of changing or rejecting synodal decrees which ran See also:

• COUNTER

counter to the interests of the state . See also:

• CLOVIS [Chlodovech] (c. 466-511)

Clovis held the first French national synod at See also:

• ORLEANS
• ORLEANS, CHARLES, DUKE OF (1391-1465)
• ORLEANS, DUKES OF
• ORLEANS, FERDINAND PHILIP LOUIS CHARLES HENRY, DUKE OF (1810-1842)
• ORLEANS, HENRI, PRINCE
• ORLEANS, HENRIETTA, DUCHESS
• ORLEANS, JEAN BAPTISTE GASTON, DUKE
• ORLEANS, LOUIS
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE JOSEPH
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ROBERT, DUKE
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE, DUKE OF (1725–1785)
• ORLEANS, LOUIS, DUKE OF (1372–1407)
• ORLEANS, PHILIP I
• ORLEANS, PHILIP II

Orleans in 511; Reccared, the first in See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain in 589 at See also:

• TOLEDO
• TOLEDO, COUNCILS OF (Concilia toletana)

Toledo . Under See also:

• CHARLEMAGNE [CHARLES THE GREAT] (c. 742-814)
• CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND (1753–1838)

Charlemagne they were occasionally so representative that they might almost be ranked as general synods of the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West (See also:

• REGENSBURG (RATISBON)

Regensburg, 792, See also:

• FRANKFORT

Frankfort, 794) . Contemporaneous with the See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution of the national synod was the development of a new type of diocesan synod, which included the priests of separate and mutually See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent parishes and also the leaders of the monastic See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy . The papal synods came into the foreground with the success of the Cluniac reform of the Church, especially from the Lateran synod of 1059 on . They grew in importance until at length See also:

• CALIXTUS, GEORG (1586-1656)
• CALIXTUS, or CALLISTUS

Calixtus II. summoned to the Lateran the synod of 1123 as " generale concilium." The See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers which the pope as bishop of the church in Rome had exercised over its synods he now extended to the oecumenical counci]s . They were more completely under his See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control than the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient ones had been under the sway of the emperor . The Pseudo-Isidorean principle that all See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

major synods need papal authorization was insisted on, and the decrees were formulated as papal edicts .

The absolutist principles cherished by the papal See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court in the 12th and 13th centuries did not pass unchallenged; but the protests of Marsilius of See also:

• PADUA (Lat. Patavium ; Ital. Padova)

Padua and the less See also:

• RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root)

radical See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William of See also:

• OCCAM, WILLIAM OF (d. c. 1349)

Occam remained barren until the Great See also:

• SCHISM

Schism of 1378 . As neither the pope in Rome nor his See also:

• RIVAL

rival in See also:

• AVIGNON

Avignon would give way, recourse was had to the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea that the supreme power was vestednot in the pope but in the oecumenical council . This " conciliar theory," propounded by See also:

• CONRAD (d. 955)
• CONRAD, JOSEPH (1856– )
• CONRAD, or KONRAD (M. H. Ger. Kuonrdl, i.e. " keen in counsel," Lat. Conradus, It. Corrado, cf. the A.S. Ccenred)

Conrad of See also:

• GELNHAUSEN

Gelnhausen and championed by the great Parisian teachers See also:

• PIERRE

Pierre d'See also:

• AILLY, PIERRE

Ailly and See also:

• GERSON, JOHN (1363—1429)

Gerson, See also:

• PRO

pro. ceeded from the nominalistic See also:

• AXIOM (Gr. &iwµa)

axiom that the whole is greater than its part . The decisive revolutionary step was taken when the cardinals independently of both popes ventured to hold the council of See also:

• PISA
• PISA, COUNCIL OF (1409)

Pisa (1409) . The council of See also:

• CONSTANCE
• CONSTANCE (Ger. Konstanz or Costnitz)
• CONSTANCE, COUNCIL OF
• CONSTANCE, LAKE OF (called by the Romans Lacus Brigantinus or lake of Bregenz, and now usually named in German Bodensee, as well as the " Swabian Sea ")

Constance asserted the supremacy of oecumenical synods, and ordered that these be convened at regular intervals . The last of the Reform councils, that of See also:

• BASEL (Fr. Bale)
• BASEL (Fr. Belle, but Basle is a wholly erroneous form; Ital. Basilea)
• BASEL, CONFESSION OF
• BASEL, COUNCIL OF

Basel, appoved these principles, and at length passed a See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence of deposition against Pope See also:

• EUGENIUS

Eugenius IV . Eugenius, however, succeeded in maintaining his power, and at the council of See also:

• FLORENCE
• FLORENCE (Ital. Firenze, Lat. Florentia)

Florence (1439) secured the condemnation of the conciliar theory; and this was reiterated still more emphatically, on the See also:

• EVE

eve of the See also:

• REFORMATION
• REFORMATION, THE

Reformation, by the fifth Lateran council (1516) . Thenceforward the absolutist theories of the 13th and 14th centuries increasingly dominated the Roman Church . The popes so distrusted oecumenical councils that between 1517 and 1869 they called but one; at this (See also:

• TRENT
• TRENT (Lat. Tridentum; Ital. Trento; Ger. relent)
• TRENT, COUNCIL OF

Trent, 1545-1563), however, all treatment of the question of papal versus conciliar authority was purposely avoided . Although the See also:

• DECLARATION (from Lat. declarare, to make fully clear, clams)

Declaration of the French clergy of 1682 reaffirmed the conciliar doctrines of Constance, since the French Revolution this " See also:

• GALLICANISM

Gallicanism " has shown itself to be but a passing phase of constitutional theory; and in the 19th century the ascendancy of See also:

• ULTRAMONTANISM (Lat. ultra, beyond, monies, the mountains)

Ultramontanism became so secure that See also:

• PIUS

Pius IX. could confidently summon to the Vatican a synod which set its See also:

• SEAL
• SEAL, FUR
• SEAL, HAIR

seal on the doctrine of papal See also:

• INFALLIBILITY (Fr. infaillibilite and infallibilite, the latter now obsolete, Med. Lat. infallibilitas, infallibilis, formed from faller, to make a mistake)

infallibility . Yet it would be a misconception to suppose that the Vatican decrees mean the surrender of the ancient belief in the infallibility of oecumenical synods; their decisions may still be regarded as more See also:

• SOLEMN (Lat. sollemnis, sollemnis, less correctly solennis, yearly, annual; from sollus = totus, whole, entire, Gr. Mos., and annus, year)

solemn and more impressive than those of the pope alone; their authority is See also:

• FULLER, ANDREW (1954-1815)
• FULLER, GEORGE (1822—1884)
• FULLER, M
• FULLER, MARGARET, MARCHIONESS
• FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910)
• FULLER, THOMAS (16o8-1661)
• FULLER, WILLIAM (1670--c. 1717)

fuller, though not higher . At present it is agreed that the pope has the sole right of summoning oecumenical councils, of presiding or appointing presidents and of determining the order of business and the topics which shall come up .

The papal confirmation is indispensable; it is conceived of as the See also:

• STAMP (from " to stamp," to strike or tread heavily, hence to impress, O. Eng. stempen, Du. stampen, Ger. stampfen, whence, O. Fr. estamper, mod. etamper)

stamp without which the expression of conciliar See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion lacks legal validity . In other words, the oecumenical council is now practically in the position of the See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate of an See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute monarch . It is in fact an open question whether a council is to be ranked as reallyoecumenical until after its decrees have been approved by the pope . (See VATICAN COUNCIL, ULTRAMONTANISM, INFALLIBILITY.) The earlier oecumenical councils have well been called " the pitched battles of church history." Summoned to combat See also:

• HERESY

heresy and schism, in spite of degrading pressure from without and tumultuous disorder within, they ultimately brought about a modicum of doctrinal agreement . On the one See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side as time went on they See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound scholarship See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand and See also:

• FOOT

foot in the winding-See also:

• SHEET

sheet of tradition, and also fanned the flames of intolerance; yet on the other side they fostered the sense of the Church's corporate oneness . The diocesan and provincial synods have formed a valuable See also:

• SYSTEM

system of regularly recurring assemblies for disposing of ecclesiastical business . They have been held most frequently, however, in times of stress and of reform, for instance in the 11th, 16th and 19th centuries; at other periods they have lapsed into disuse: it is significant that to-day the See also:

• PRELATE (Lat. praelatus, set above, from praefero, prefer)

prelate who neglects to convene them suffers no See also:

• PENALTY (Lat. poena, punishment)

penalty . At present the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main function of both provincial and oecumenical synods seems to be to facilitate obedience to the wishes of the central government of the Church . The right to vote (votu;n definitivum) has been distinguished from early times from the right to be heard (votum consultativum) . The Reform Synods of the 15th century gave a decisive vote to doctors and licentiates of See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology and of See also:

• LAWS

laws, some of them sitting as individuals, some as representatives of See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

universities . Roman Catholic canonists now confine the right to vote at oecumenical councils to bishops, See also:

• CARDINAL (Lat. cardinalis)

cardinal deacons, generals or vicars general of monastic orders and the praelati nullius (exempt abbots, &c.); all other persons, lay or clerical, who are admitted or invited, have merely the votum consultativum—they are chiefly procurators of absent bishops, or very learned priests . It was but a clumsy and temporary expedient, designed to offset the preponderance of See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian bishops dependent on the pope when the council of Constance subdivided itself into several See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups or " nations," each of which had a single vote .

In voting, the See also:

• SIMPLE

simple See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority decides; yet such is the importance attached to a unanimous See also:

• VERDICT (O. Fr. verdit, Lat. vere dictum, truly said, used in Late Latin in one word with its present significance)

verdict that an irreconcilable minority may absent itself from the final vote, as was the case at the Vatican Council . The numbering of oecumenical synods is not fixed; the See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list most used in the Roman Church to-day is that of See also:

• HEFELE, KARL JOSEF VON (1809-1893)

Hefele (See also:

• CON

Con- ciliengeschichte, 2nd ed., I . 59 f.) : A.D . t . Nicaea I . 325 2 . Constantinople I .. 381 3 . See also:

• EPHESUS
• EPHESUS, COUNCIL OF

Ephesus 431 4 . See also:

• CHALCEDON
• CHALCEDON, COUNCIL OF

Chalcedon 451 5 . Constantinople II . 553 6 .

Constantinople III . 68o 7 . Nicaea II . 787 8 . Constantinople IV . 869 9 . Lateran I . I123 to . Lateran II . . . 1139 11 . Lateran III .

. . 1179 12 . Lateran IV . . 1215 13 . See also:

• LYONS
• LYONS (Fr. Lyon)
• LYONS, COUNCILS OF
• LYONS, EDMUND LYONS, BARON (1790-1858)
• LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS, 1ST EARL (1817–1887)

Lyons I . • 1245 14 . Lyons II . . 1274 15 . See also:

• VIENNE
• VIENNE, COUNCIL OF

Vienne . 1311 16 . Constance (in part) 1414–1418 17a . Basel (in part) .

. 1431 if . 17b . See also:

• FERRARA

Ferrara-Florence (a continuation of Basel) . 1438–1442 18 . Lateran V . 1512—1517 19 . Trent . 1545–1563 20 . Vatican 1869–187o (Each of these and certain other important synods are treated in separate articles.) By including Pisa (1409) and by treating Florence as a separate synod, certain writers have brought the number of oecumenical councils up to twenty-two . These See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard lists are of the type which became established through the authority of Cardinal R . F . See also:

• BELLARMINE (Ital. Bellarmino), ROBERTO FRANCESCO ROMOLO (1542-1621)

Bellarmine (1542–1621), who criticized Constance and Basel, while defending Florence and the fifth Lateran council against the Gallicans .

As late as the 16th century, however, " the majority did not regard those councils in which the Greek Church did not take part as oecumenical at all " (See also:

• HARNACK, ADOLF (1851– )

Harnack, History of See also:

• DOGMA (Gr. Sbypa, from b6aeiv, to seem; literally " that which seems, sc. good or true or useful " to any one)

Dogma, vi . 17) . The Greek Church accepts only the first seven synods as oecumenical; and it reckons the Trullan synod of 692 (the Quinisextum) as a continuation of the See also:

• SIXTH

sixth oecumenical synod .of 680 . But concerning the first seven councils it should be remarked that Constantinople I. was but a general synod of the East; its claim to oecumenicity rests upon its reception by the West about two centuries later . Similarly the only representatives of the West present at Constantinople II. were certain Africans; the pope did not accept the decrees till afterwards and they made their way in the West but gradually . Just as there have been synods which have come to be considered oecumenical though not convoked as such, so there have been synods which though summoned as oecumenical, failed of recognition: for instance See also:

• SARDICA, COUNCIL OF

Sardica (343), Ephesus (449), Constantinople (754) . The last two received the imperial confirmation and from the legal point of view were no whit inferior to the others; their decrees, however, were overthrown by subsequent synods . As the Protestant leaders of the 16th century held fast the traditional christology, they regarded with veneration the dogmatic decisions of Nicaea I., Constantinople I., Ephesus and Chalcedon . These four councils had enjoyed a more or less fortuitous pre-See also:

• EMINENCE (Lat. eminentia)

eminence both in Roman and in See also:

• CANON

canon law, and by many Catholics at the time of the Reformation were regarded, along with the three great See also:

• CREEDS (Lat. credo, I believe), or CONFESSIONS OF FAITH

creeds (Apostles', Nicene, Athanasian), as a sort of irreducible minimum of orthodoxy . In the 17th century the liberal Lutheran See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George Calixtus based his attempts at reuniting Christendom on this consensus quinquesaecularis . Many other Protestants have accepted Constantinople II. and III. as supporting the first four councils; and still others, notably many See also:

• ANGLICAN

Anglican high churchmen, have See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt bound by all the oecumenical synods of the undivided Church . The common Protestant attitude toward synods is, however, that they may err and have erred, and that the Scriptures and not conciliardecisions are the sole infallible standard of faith, morals and See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship .

Protestant Councils.—The churches of the Reformation have all had a certain measure of synodal See also:

• LIFE

life . The Church of England has maintained its ancient provincial synods or convocations, though for the greater part of the 18th and the first part of the 19th centuries they transacted no business . In the Lutheran churches of See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany there was no strong agitation in favour of introducing synods until the 19th century, when a See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement, designed to render the churches less dependent on the govern-See also:

• MENTAL

mental consistories, won its way, until at length See also:

• PRUSSIA
• PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; Lat. Borussia)

Prussia itself See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell into See also:

• LINE

line (1873 and 1876) . As the powers granted to the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German synods are very limited, many of their See also:

• ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF

advocates have been disillusioned; but the Lutheran churches of See also:

• AMERICA

America, being independent of the state, have See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed synods both numerous and potent . In the Reformed churches outside Germany synodal life is vigorous; its forms were developed by the See also:

• HUGUENOTS

Huguenots in days of persecution, and passed thence to See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland and other presbyterian countries . Even many of the churches of congregational polity have organized national councils (see See also:

• CONGREGATIONALISM

CONGREGATIONALISM); but here the principle of the independence of the local church prevents the decisions from binding those congregations which do not approve of the decrees . Moreover, in the last See also:

• DECADE (from Gr. Oka, ten)

decade of the 19th century a growing See also:

• DESIRE

desire for a rapprochement between the See also:

• FREE

Free Churches in the See also:

• UNITED

United See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom as a whole led to the annual assembly of the Free Church Council for the consideration of all matters affecting the dissenting bodies . This See also:

• BODY

body has no executive or doctrinal authority and is rather a See also:

• CONFERENCE

conference than a council . In general it may be said that synods are becoming more and more powerful in Protestant lands, and that they are destined to still greater prominence because of the growing sentiment for See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian unity . 1644, 37 vols.) (the first very extensive See also:

• WORK

work) ; P . Labbe (not Labbe) and G . Cossart, Sacrosancta concilia (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1672, 17 vols.), with supplement by See also:

• ETIENNE, CHARLES GUILLAUME (1778-1845)

Etienne See also:

• BALUZE, ETIENNE (1630-1718)

Baluze (Baluzius), 1683 (based on above) ; J .

See also:

• HARDOUIN, JEAN (1646-1729)

Hardouin (Harduinus), Conciliorum collectio regia See also:

• MAXIMA

maxima (Paris, 1715), II tomi in 12 vols . (to 1714; more exact; indexed; serious omissions) ; enlarged edition by N . Coletus (See also:

• VENICE
• VENICE (continued)
• VENICE (Venezia)

Venice, 1728–1732), supplemented by J . D . Mansi, Sanctorum conciliorum et decretorum nova collectio (See also:

• LUCCA (anc. Luca)
• LUCCA, BAGNI DI (Baths of Lucca, formerly Bagno a Corsena)

Lucca, 1748, 6 tomi) . Convenient but fallible is Mansi's Sacrorum conciliorum et decretorum nova et amplissima collectio (Florence, 1759–7767; completed Venice, 1769–1798, 31 vols.) ; facsimile See also:

• REPRODUCTION

reproduction by Welter (Paris, 1901 ff.), adding (torn . 0) Introductio seu apparatus ad sacrosancta concilia, and (torn . 17B and ,8B) Baluze, Capitularia regum Francorum, and con- tinuing to date by reproducing parts of Coletus and of Mansi's supplement to Coletus, and furnishing (tom . 37 ff.) a new edition of the councils from 1720 on by J . B . See also:

• MARTIN (Martinus)
• MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI (1810-1883)
• MARTIN, CLAUD (1735-1800)
• MARTIN, FRANCOIS XAVIER (1762-1846)
• MARTIN, HOMER DODGE (1836-1897)
• MARTIN, JOHN (1789-1854)
• MARTIN, LUTHER (1748-1826)
• MARTIN, SIR THEODORE (1816-1909)
• MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE (1801–1895)
• MARTIN, ST (c. 316-400)
• MARTIN, WILLIAM (1767-1810)

Martin and L . See also:

• PETIT, SIR DINSHAW MANECKJI, BART

Petit .

A careful text of Roman Catholic synods from 1682 to 187o is Collectio Lacensis (Acta et decreta sacrorum conciliorum recentiorum, Friburgi, 187o ff.), 7 vols .