COURT  YARD PkOP See also:

• STREET
• STREET, GEORGE EDMUND (1824-1881)

STREET soo STREET _ .rlss//eAt.E w/lN j%FEET a/z.a.s iririi i 1 so HO See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo antiquaries, and certainly unconnected with See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain (see See also:

• ERMINE

ERMINE STREET) . Instead, we may distinguish four See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups of roads radiating from See also:

• LONDON

London, and a fifth which runs obliquely . One road ran See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east to See also:

• CANTERBURY
• CANTERBURY, CHARLES

Canterbury and the Kentish ports, of which Richborough (Rutupiae) was the most frequented . A second ran See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west to See also:

• SILCHESTER

Silchester, and thence by various branches to See also:

• WINCHESTER
• WINCHESTER, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF

Winchester, See also:

• EXETER
• EXETER, EARL, MARQUESS AND DUKE OF

Exeter, See also:

• BATH
• BATH, THOMAS THYNNE
• BATH, WILLIAM

Bath, See also:

• GLOUCESTER
• GLOUCESTER (abbreviated as pronounced Glo'ster)
• GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• GLOUCESTER, GILBERT DE CLARE, EARL OF (1243-1295)
• GLOUCESTER, RICHARD DE CLARE, EARL OF (1222-1262)
• GLOUCESTER, ROBERT, EARL OF (d. 1147)
• GLOUCESTER, THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK, DUKE

Gloucester and South See also:

• WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria)

Wales . - A third, known afterwards to the See also:

• ENGLISH

English as Watling Street, ran by St Albans See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

Wall near See also:

• LICHFIELD

Lichfield (Letocetum), to Wroxeter and See also:

• CHESTER
• CHESTER, EARLS OF

Chester . It also gave See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access by a See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch to See also:

• LEICESTER
• LEICESTER, EARLS OF
• LEICESTER, ROBERT DUDLEY, EARL
• LEICESTER, ROBERT SIDNEY, EARL OF (1563-1626)
• LEICESTER, THOMAS WILLIAM COKE, EARL OF (1754-1842)

Leicester and See also:

• LINCOLN
• LINCOLN, ABRAHAM (1809-1865)
• LINCOLN, EARLS OF

Lincoln . A See also:

• FOURTH

fourth served See also:

• COLCHESTER
• COLCHESTER, CHARLES ABBOT, 1ST BARON (1757-1829)

Colchester, the eastern counties, Lincoln and See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York . The fifth is that known to the English as the See also:

• FOSSE (or Foss) WAY

Fosse, which joins Lincoln and Leicester with See also:

• CIRENCESTER (traditionally pronounced Ciceter)

Cirencester, Bath and Exeter . Besides these five groups, an obscure road, called by the See also:

• SAXONS

Saxons Akeman Street, gave alternative access from London through Alchester (outside of See also:

• BICESTER

Bicester) to Bath, while another obscure road winds south from near See also:

• SHEFFIELD
• SHEFFIELD, JOHN BAKER HOLROYD, 1ST EARL

Sheffield, past See also:

• DERBY
• DERBY, EARLS OF

Derby and See also:

• BIRMINGHAM

Birmingham, and connects the See also:

• LOWER

lower See also:

• SEVERN
• SEVERN, JOSEPH (1793-1879)

Severn with the See also:

• HUMBER

Humber . By these roads and their various branches the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans provided adequate communications throughout the lowlands of Britain . IV . The End of Roman Britain.—See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

Early in the 4th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century it was necessary to establish a See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence, reaching from the See also:

• WASH, THE

Wash to Spithead, against Saxon pirates: there were forts at Brancaster, See also:

• BOROUGH (A.S. nominative burh, dative byrig, which produces some of the place-names ending in bury, a sheltered or fortified place, the camp of refuge of a tribe, the stronghold of a chieftain; cf. Ger. Burg, Fr. bor, bore, bourg)
• BOROUGH [BURROUGH, BURROWE, BORROWS], STEVEN (1525–1584)

Borough See also:

• CASTLE
• CASTLE (Lat. castellum, a fort, diminutive of castra, a camp; Fr. chateau and chdtel)

Castle (near See also:

• YARMOUTH
• YARMOUTH (GREAT YARMOUTH)

Yarmouth), Bradwell (at the mouth of the See also:

• COLNE

Colne and See also:

• BLACKWATER

Blackwater), Reculver; See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

Rich-borough, See also:

• DOVER
• DOVER, GEORGE JAMES WELBORE
• DOVER, HENRY JERMYN, EARL OF (c. 1636-1708)
• DOVER, ROBERT (1575-1641)

Dover and Lymme (all in See also:

• KENT
• KENT, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• KENT, JAMES (1763-1847)
• KENT, WILLIAM (1685-1748)

Kent), See also:

• PEVENSEY

Pevensey in See also:

• SUSSEX
• SUSSEX, EARLS OF
• SUSSEX, KINGDOM OF (SO Seaxe, i.e. the South Saxons)
• SUSSEX, THOMAS RADCLYFFE [or RATCLYFFE], 3RD EARL OF (c. 1525-1583)

Sussex, Porchester near See also:

• PORTSMOUTH
• PORTSMOUTH, EARLS OF
• PORTSMOUTH, LOUISE DE

Portsmouth, and perhaps also at See also:

• FELIXSTOWE

Felixstowe in See also:

• SUFFOLK
• SUFFOLK, CHARLES BRANDON, 1ST DUKE OF (c. 1484–'545)
• SUFFOLK, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• SUFFOLK, THOMAS HOWARD, 1ST EARL OF (1561-1626)
• SUFFOLK, WILLIAM DE LA POLE

Suffolk .

After about 350, See also:

• BARBARIAN (Gr. fap/3apos)

barbarian assaults, not only of Saxons but also of Irish (Scoti) and Picts, became commoner and more terrible . At the end of the century See also:

• MAGNUS, HEINRICH GUSTAV (1802-1870)

Magnus See also:

• MAXIMUS
• MAXIMUS, ST (c. 58o-662)

Maximus, claiming to be See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor, withdrew many troops from Britain and a later pretender did the same . Early in the 5th century the See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest of See also:

• GAUL
• GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855— )

Gaul cut the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island off from See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome . This does not mean that there was any See also:

• GREAT

great " departure of Romans." The central See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government simply ceased to send the usual See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors and high See also:

• OFFICERS

officers . The Romano-See also:

• BRITISH

British were See also:

• LEFT

left to themselves . Their position was weak . Their fortresses See also:

• LAY

lay in the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north and west, while the Saxons attacked the east and south . Their trained troops, and even their own See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers, must have been few . It is intelligible that they followed a precedent set by Rome in that See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, and hired Saxons to repel Saxons . But they could not command the fidelity of their mercenaries, and the Saxon peril only See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew greater . It would seem as if the Romano-Britons were speedily driven from the east of the island . Even Wroxeter on the Welsh border may have been finally destroyed before the end of the 5th century .

It seems that the Saxons though apparently unable to maintain their hold so far to the west, were able to prevent the natives from recovering the lowlands . Thus driven from the centres of Romanized See also:

• LIFE

life, from the region of walled cities and civilized houses, into the hills of Wales and the north-west, the provincials underwent an intelligible See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change . The See also:

• CELTIC

Celtic See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element, never quite See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct in those hills and, like most forms of barbarism, reasserting itself in this See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild age—not without reinforcement from See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland—challenged the remnants of Roman See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization and in the end absorbed them . The Celtic See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language reappeared; the Celtic See also:

• ART

art emerged from its shelters in the west to develop in new and See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval fashions . Of See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• WORKS

works the best See also:

• SUMMARY

summary for Roman Britain and for See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar's invasions is T . R . See also:

• HOLMES, OLIVER WENDELL (18o9-1894)

Holmes, See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

Ancient Britain (1907), who cites numerous authorities . See also See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• EVANS, CHRISTMAS (1766-1838)
• EVANS, EVAN HERBER (1836-1896)
• EVANS, OLIVER (1755–1819)
• EVANS, SIR GEORGE DE LACY (1787–1870)
• EVANS, SIR JOHN (1823-1908)

Evans, See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

Stone Implements,589 See also:

• BRONZE

Bronze Implements, and Ancient British Coins (with suppl.) ; See also:

• BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON (1825—1899)
• BOYD, ROBERT BOYD, LORD (d. c. 1470)
• BOYD, ZACHARY (1585?-1653)

Boyd See also:

• DAWKINS, WILLIAM BOYD (1838– )

Dawkins, Early See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

Man in Britain (188o) ; J . Rhys, Celtic Britain (3rd ed., 1904) . For See also:

• LATE

late Celtic art see . J . M .

See also:

• KEMBLE
• KEMBLE, JOHN MITCHELL (1807-1857)

Kemble and A . W . See also:

• FRANKS
• FRANKS, SIR AUGUSTUS WOLLASTON (1826-1897)

Franks' Horae Ferales (1863), and See also:

• ARTHUR (Fr. Arius)
• ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN (1830 – 1886)

Arthur J . Evans in Archaeologia, vols . M.-Iv . Celtic See also:

• ETHNOLOGY

ethnology and See also:

• PHILOLOGY

philology (see See also:

• CELT
• CELT, or KELT

CELT) are still in the " age of discussion." For ancient earthworks sec A . See also:

• HADRIAN (PUBLICS AELIUS HADRIANUS)

Hadrian Allcroft, Earthwork of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England (1909) . For Roman Britain see, in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general, Prof . F . Haverfield, The Romanization of Roman Britain (See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford, 1906), and his articles in the See also:

• VICTORIA
• VICTORIA (or VITTORIA), TOMMASSO LUDOVICO DA (C. I540-C. 1613)
• VICTORIA [ALEXANDRINA VICTORIA]

Victoria See also:

• COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. comae, cf. O. Fr. cunte, conk', Mod. Fr. comae, from Lat. comitatus, cf. Ital. comitato, Prov. comtat; see COUNT)

County See also:

• HISTORY

History; also the See also:

• CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head)

chapter in See also:

• MOMMSEN, THEODOR (1817–1903)

Mommsen's Roman Provinces; and an See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article in the See also:

• EDINBURGH

Edinburgh See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review, 1899 . For the wall of Hadrian see John See also:

• HODGSON, BRIAN HOUGHTON (1800-1894)

Hodgson, History of See also:

• NORTHUMBERLAND
• NORTHUMBERLAND, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• NORTHUMBERLAND, JOHN DUDLEY, VISCOUNT LISLE, EARL OF WARWICK
• NORTHUMBERLAND, JOHN NEVILLE, EARL OF (c. 1430-1471)

Northumberland (184o) ; J . C .

See also:

• BRUCE
• BRUCE, ALEXANDER BALMAIN (1831-1899)
• BRUCE, JAMES (1930-1794)
• BRUCE, MICHAEL (1746-1767)

Bruce, Roman Wall (3rd ed., 1867) ; reports of excavations by Haverfield in the See also:

• CUMBERLAND
• CUMBERLAND, DUKES AND EARLS OF
• CUMBERLAND, RICHARD (1632-1718)
• CUMBERLAND, RICHARD (1732-1811)
• CUMBERLAND, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS

Cumberland Archaeological Society Transactions (1894-1904) ; and R . C . Bosanquet, Roman See also:

• CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

Camp at Housesteads (See also:

• NEWCASTLE
• NEWCASTLE, DUKES OF

Newcastle, 1904) . For the Scottish Excavations see Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland, xx.-xl., and especially J . See also:

• MACDONALD, FLORA (1722—1790)
• MACDONALD, GEORGE (1824-1905)
• MACDONALD, JACQUES ETIENNE JOSEPH
• MACDONALD, JOHN SANDFIELD (1812-1872)
• MACDONALD, LAWRENCE (1799-1878)
• MACDONALD, SIR HECTOR ARCHIBALD (1852-1903)
• MACDONALD, SIR JOHN ALEXANDER (1815-1891)

Macdonald, See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

Bar See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

Hill (reprint, See also:

• GLASGOW

Glasgow, 1906) . For other forts see R . S . See also:

• FERGUSON, ADAM (1723-1816)
• FERGUSON, JAMES (1710-1776)
• FERGUSON, ROBERT (c. 1637-1714)
• FERGUSON, SIR SAMUEL (1810-1886)

Ferguson; Cumberland See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

Arch . See also:

• SOC

Soc . Trans. xii., on Hardknott; and J . See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

Ward, Roman Fort ofGellygaer (London, 1903) . For the Roman occupation of Scotland see Haverfield in Antonine Wall See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

Report (1899) ; J .

Macdonald, Roman Stones in Hunterian See also:

• MISS

Miss . (1897) ; and, though an older See also:

• WORK

work, See also:

• STUART, ARABELLA (1575-1615)
• STUART, GILBERT (1755-x828)
• STUART, JAMES EWELL BROWN (1833-1864)
• STUART, JOHN
• STUART, MOSES (1780-1852)
• STUART, SIR JOHN, COUNT

Stuart's See also:

• CALEDONIA

Caledonia See also:

• ROMANA

Romana (1852) . For Silchester, Archaeologia (1890-19o8); for Caerwent (ib . 1901-1908); for London, See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles See also:

• ROACH (Leuciscus rulilus)

Roach See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith, Roman London (1859); for See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity in Roman Britain, Engl . Hist . Rev . (1896); for the villages, Gen . See also:

• PITT, THOMAS (1653-1726)
• PITT, WILLIAM (1759-1806)

Pitt-See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

Rivers' Excavations in Cranborne See also:

• CHASE
• CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND (1808-1873)
• CHASE, SAMUEL (1741–1811)
• CHASE, WILLIAM MERRITT (1849– )

Chase, &c . (4 vols., 1887-1908), and Proc . Soc. of See also:

• ANT
• ANT (O. Eng. aemete, from Teutonic a, privative, and maitan, cut or bite off, i.e. " the biter off "; aemete in Middle English became differentiated in dialect use to (mete, then amte, and so ant, and also to emete, whence the synonym " emmet," now only u

Ant. xviii . For the end of Roman Britain see Engl . Hist .

Rev . (1904); Prof . See also:

• BURY
• BURY, JOHN BAGNELL (1861- )

Bury's Life of St See also:

• PATRICK, SIMON (1626–1707)
• PATRICK, ST

Patrick (1905) ; Haverfield's Romanization (cited above) ; and P . See also:

• VINOGRADOFF, PAUL (1854- )

Vinogradoff, Growth of the See also:

• MANOR

Manor (1905), bk. i . (F . J . H.) ANGLO-SAXON BRITAIN r . History.—The history of Britain after the withdrawal of the Roman troops is extremely obscure, but there can be little doubt that for many years the inhabitants of the provinces were exposed to devastating raids by the Picts and Scots . " According to See also:

• GILDAS, or GILDUS (c. 516–J70)

Gildas it was for See also:

• PROTECTION

protection against these incursions that the Britons decided to See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call in the Saxons . Their See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies soon obtained a decisive victory; but subsequently they turned their arms against the Britons themselves, alleging that they had not received sufficient See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment for their services . A somewhat different See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account, probably of English origin, may be traced in the Historia Brittonum, according to which the first leaders of the Saxons, See also:

• HENGEST

Hengest and See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

Horse., came as exiles, seeking the protection of the British See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king, See also:

• VORTIGERN (GUORTHIGIRNUS, WYRTGEORN)

Vortigern . Having embraced his service they quickly succeeded in expelling the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern invaders .

Eventually, however, they overcame the Britons through treachery, by inducing the king to allow them to send for large bodies of their own countrymen . It was to these adventurers, according to tradition, that the See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of Kent owed its origin . The See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story is in itself by no means improbable, while the See also:

• DATES

dates assigned to the first invasion by various Welsh, Gaulish and English authorities, with one exception all fall within about' a See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of a century, viz. between the See also:

• YEAR

year 428 and the See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint reign of Martian and Valentinian III . (450-455) . For the subsequent course of the invasion our See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information is of the most meagre and unsatisfactory See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character . According to the Anglo-Saxon See also:

• CHRONICLE (from Gr. Xpovos, time)

Chronicle the kingdom of Sussex was founded by a certain See also:

• ELLA
• ELLA (d. 588)
• ELLA (d. 867)
• ELLA (d. c. 514)

Ella or IElle, who landed in 477, while Wessex owed its origin to See also:

• CERDIC (d. 534)

Cerdic, who arrived some eighteen years later . No value, however, can be attached• to these dates; indeed, in the latter See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case the story itself is open to suspicion on several grounds (see WESSEX) . For the movements which led to the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of the more northern kingdoms we have no See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration, nor do we know even approximately when they took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place . But the view that the invasion was effected through-out by small bodies of adventurers acting independently of one another, and that each of the various kingdoms owes its origin to a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate enterprise, has little See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability in its favour . See also:

• BEDE, BEDA, or B
• BEDE, CUTHBERT

Bede states that the invaders belonged to three different nations, Kent and See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern See also:

• HAMPSHIRE (or COUNTY OF SOUTHAMPTON, abbreviated HANTS)

Hampshire being occupied by See also:

• JUTES

Jutes (q.v.), while See also:

• ESSEX
• ESSEX, ARTHUR CAPEL
• ESSEX, EARLS OF
• ESSEX, KINGDOM OF
• ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX
• ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX, 2ND2 EARL OF (1566-1601)
• ESSEX, WALTER DEVEREUX, IST2 EARL OF (1541–1576)

Essex, Sussex and Wessex were founded by the Saxons, and' the remaining kingdoms by the See also:

• ANGLI, ANGLII

Angli (q.v.) . The peculiarities of social organization in Kent certainly tend to show that this kingdom had a different origin from the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest; but the evidence for the distinction between the Saxons and the Angli is of a much less satisfactory character (see ANGLO-SAXONS) . 590 The royal See also:

• FAMILY

family of Essex may really have been of Saxon origin (see EssEx), but on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand the West Saxon royal family claimed to be of the same stock as that of See also:

• BERNICIA

Bernicia, and their connexions in the past seem to have lain with the Angli .

We need not doubt that the first invasion was followed by a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of warfare between the natives and the invaders, in which the latter gradually strengthened their hold on the conquered territories . It is very probable that by the end of the 5th century all the eastern See also:

• PART

part of Britain, at least as far as the Humber, was in their hands . The first important check was received at the See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege of " See also:

• MONS (Flemish Bergen)

Mons Badonicus " in the year 517 (See also:

• ANN

Ann . Cambr.), or perhaps rather some fifteen or twenty years earlier . According to Gildas this event was followed by a period of See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace for at least See also:

• FORTY

forty-four years . In the latter part of the 6th century, however, the territories occupied by the invaders seem to have been greatly extended . In the south the West Saxons are said to have conquered first See also:

• WILTSHIRE [WILTS]

Wiltshire and then all the upper part of the See also:

• THAMES

Thames valley, together with the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country beyond as far as the Severn . The northern frontier also seems to have been pushed considerably farther forward, perhaps into what is now Scotland, and it is very probable that the See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin of the See also:

• TRENT
• TRENT (Lat. Tridentum; Ital. Trento; Ger. relent)
• TRENT, COUNCIL OF

Trent, together with the central districts between the Trent and the Thames, was conquered about the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, though of this we have no See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record . Again, the 'destruction of Chester about 615 was soon followed by the overthrow of the British kingdom of Elmet in south-west See also:

• YORKSHIRE

Yorkshire, and the occupation of See also:

• SHROPSHIRE (SALOP)

Shropshire and the Lothians took place perhaps about the same period, that of See also:

• HEREFORDSHIRE

Herefordshire probably somewhat later . In the south, See also:

• SOMERSET, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• SOMERSET, EDMUND BEAUFORT, DUKE OF (c. 1404–1455)
• SOMERSET, EDWARD SEYMOUR, DUKE OF (c. 1506–1552)
• SOMERSET, LORD ROBERT EDWARD HENRY (1776-1842)
• SOMERSET, ROBERT CARR (or KER), EARL OF (e. 1590-1645)

Somerset is said to have been conquered by the West Saxons shortly after the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 7th century . See also:

• DORSET, EARLS, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF

Dorset had probably been acquired by them before this time, while part of See also:

• DEVON, EARLS OF

Devon seems to have come into their hands soon afterwards . The See also:

• AREA

area thus conquered was occupied by a number of separate kingdoms, each with a royal family of its own .

The districts north of the Humber contained two kingdoms, Bernicia (q.v.) and See also:

• DEIRA

Deira (q.v.), which were eventually See also:

• UNITED

united in See also:

• NORTHUMBRIA (regnum Northanhymbrorum)

Northumbria . South of the Humber, See also:

• LINDSEY, THEOPHILUS (1723—1808)

Lindsey seems to have had a See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

dynasty of its own, though in See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical times it was apparently always subject to the See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings of Northumbria or See also:

• MERCIA

Mercia . The upper basin of the Trent formed the See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus of the kingdom of Mercia (q.v.), while farther down the east coast was the kingdom of East Anglia (q.v.) . Between these two lay a territory called Middle Anglia, which is sometimes described as a kingdom, though we do not know whether it ever had a separate dynasty . Essex, Kent and Sussex (see articles on these kingdoms) preserve the names of ancient kingdoms, while the old See also:

• DIOCESE (formed on Fr. diocese, in place of the Eng. form diocess—current until the 19th century—from Lat. dioecesis, med. Lat. variant diocesis, from Gr. Swucio•tc, " house-keeping," " administration," &miceas, " to keep house," " to govern ")

diocese of See also:

• WORCESTER
• WORCESTER, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF
• WORCESTER, JOHN TIPTOFT, EARL OF (1427—1470)
• WORCESTER, WILLIAM (c. 1415-c. 1482)

Worcester grew out of the kingdom of the See also:

• HWICCE

Hwicce (q.v.), with which it probably coincided in area . The south of England, between Sussex and " West Wales " (eventually reduced to See also:

• CORNWALL

Cornwall), was occupied by Wessex, which originally also possessed some territory to the north of the Thames . Lastly, even the Isle of See also:

• WIGHT, ISLE OF

Wight appears to have had a dynasty of its own . But it must not be supposed that all these kingdoms were always, or even normally, See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent . When history begins, IEthelberht, king of Kent, was supreme over all the kings south of the Humber . He was followed by the East Anglian king Raedwald, and the latter again by a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of Northumbrian kings with an even wider supremacy . Before eEthelberht a similar position had been held by the West Saxon king See also:

• CEAWLIN (d. 593)

Ceawlin, and at a much earlier period, according to tradition, by Ella or iElle, the first king of Sussex . The nature of this supremacy has been much discussed, but the true explanation seems to be furnished by that principle of See also:

• PERSONAL

personal See also:

• ALLEGIANCE (Mid. Eng. ligeaunce; med. Lat. ligeantia, &c.; the al- was probably added through confusion with another legal term, allegeance, an allegation; the Fr. allegeance comes from the English; the word is formed from " liege," of which the derivatio

allegiance which formed such an important element in Anglo-Saxon society .

2 . Government.—Internally the various states seem to have been organized on very similar lines . In every case we find kingly government from the time of our earliest records, and there is no doubt that the institution goes back to a date anterior to the invasion of Britain (see See also:

• OFFA
• OFFA (d. 796)

OFFA; See also:

• WERMUND

WERMUND) . The royal See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title, however, was frequently See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne by more than one See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person . Sometimes we find one supreme king together with a number of under-kings (subreguli) ; sometimes again, especially in the smaller kingdoms, Essex, Sussex and Hwicce, we meet with twoor more kings, generally See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

brothers, reigning together apparently on equal terms . During the greater part of the 8th century Kent seems to have been divided into two kingdoms; but as a See also:

• RULE

rule such divisions did not last beyond the lifetime of the kings between whom the arrangement had been made . The kings were, with very rare exceptions, chosen from one particular family in each See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, the ancestry of which was traced back not only to the founder of the kingdom but also, in a remoter degree, to a See also:

• GOD

god . The members of such families were entitled to special wergilds, apparently six times as great as those of the higher class of nobles (see below) . The only other central authority in the state was the king's See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council or court (See also:

• BEND

bend, wilan, See also:

• PLEBS (from the root seen in Lat. plenus, full; cf. Gr. 7rXit9os)

plebs, concilium) . This See also:

• BODY

body consisted partly of See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young warriors in See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant attendance on the king, and partly of See also:

• SENIOR, NASSAU WILLIAM (1790-1864)

senior officials whom he called together from time to time . The terms used for the two classes by Bede are milites (ministri) and comites, for which the Anglo-Saxon version has pegnas and gesi 5as respectively . Both classes alike consisted in part of members of the royal family .

But they were by no means confined to such persons or even to See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born subjects of the king . Indeed, we are told that popular kings like Oswine attracted young nobles to their service from all quarters . The functions of the council have been much discussed, and it has been claimed that they had the right of electing and deposing kings . This view, however, seems to involve the existence of a greater feeling for constitutionalism than is warranted by the information at our disposal . The incidents which have been brought forward as evidence to this effect may with at least equal probability be interpreted as cases of profession or transference of personal allegiance . In other respects the functions of the council seem to have been of a deliberative character . It was certainly customary for the king to seek their See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice and moral support on important questions, but there is nothing to show that he had to abide by the See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion of the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority . For administrative purposes each of the various kingdoms was divided into a number of districts under the See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of royal See also:

• REEVES, JOHN SIMS (1818-1900)

reeves (cyninges gerefa, praefectus, praepositus) . These officials seem to have been located in royal villages (cyninges See also:

• TUN

tun, See also:

• VILLA

villa regalis) or fortresses (cyninges See also:

• BURG

burg, urbs regis), which served as centres and See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting-places (markets, &c.) for the inhabitants of the See also:

• DISTRICT

district, and to which their dues, both in payments and services had to be rendered . The usual See also:

• SIZE

size of such districts in early times seems to have been 300, 600 or 1200 hides) . In addition to these districts we find mention also of much larger divisions containing 2000, 3000, 5000 or 7000 hides . To this See also:

• CATEGORY (Gr. Karrlyopia, " accusation ")

category belong the shires of Wessex (Hampshire, Wiltshire, See also:

• BERKSHIRE [abbreviated Berks, pronounced Berkshire]
• BERKSHIRE, THOMAS HOWARD, 1ST EARL OF (1587–1669)

Berkshire, &c.), each of which had an See also:

• EARL

earl (aldermen, princeps, See also:

• DUX (Czech Duchcov)

dux) of its own, at all events from the 8th century onwards .

Many, if not all, of these persons were members of the royal family, and it is not unlikely that they originally See also:

• BORE

bore the kingly title . At all events they are sometimes described as subreguli . 3 . Social Organization.—The officials mentioned above, whether of royal See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth or not, were probably See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from the king's personal See also:

• RETINUE (O. Fr. retenue, from retenir, Lat. retenere, hold back, retain)

retinue . In Anglo-Saxon society, as in that of all Teutonic nations in early times, the two most important principles were those of kinship and personal allegiance . 'If a man suffered injury it was to his relatives and his See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

lord, rather than to any public See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official, that he applied first for protection and redress . If he was slain, a fixed sum (See also:

• WERGILD, WERGELD

wergild), varying according to his station, had to be paid to his relatives, while a further but smaller sum (manbot) was due to his lord . These principles applied to all classes of society alike, and though strife within the family was by no means unknown, at all events in royal families, the actual slaying of a kinsman was regarded as the most heinous of all offences . Much the same feeling applied to the slaying of a lord=an offence for which no See also:

• COMPENSATION (from Lat. compensare, to weigh one thing against another)

compensation could be rendered . How far the armed followers of a lord were entitled to compensation when the latter was slain 1 The hide (hid, hiwisc, familia, tributarius, cassatus, mavens, &c.) was in later times a measure of See also:

• LAND

land, usually 12o acres . In early times, however, it seems to have meant (1) See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household, (2) normal amount of land appertaining to a household . is uncertain, but in the case of a king they received an amount equal to the wergild .

Another important development of the principle of allegiance is to be found in the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom of heriots . In later times this custom amounted practically to a See also:

• SYSTEM

system of See also:

• DEATH

death-duties, payable in horses and arms or in See also:

• MONEY

money to the lord of the deceased . There can be little doubt, however, that originally it was a restoration to the lord of,the military outfit with which he had presented his man when he entered his service . The institution of thegnhood, i.e. membership of the comitatus or retinue of a See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince, offered the only opening by which public life could be entered . Hence it was probably adopted almost universally by young men of the highest classes . The See also:

• THEGN, or THANE

thegn was expected to fight for his lord, and generally to place his services at his disposal in both See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war and peace . The lord, on the other hand, had to keep his thegns and See also:

• REWARD

reward them from time to time with arms and treasure . When they were of an age to marry he was expected to provide them with the means of doing so . If the lord was a king this See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision took the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of a See also:

• GRANT (from A.-Fr. graunter, O. Fr. greanter for creanter, popular Lat. creantare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to believe, trust)
• GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838)
• GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823)
• GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835–1902)
• GRANT, JAMES (1822–1887)
• GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827–1892)
• GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892)
• GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
• GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878)
• GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808–1895)
• GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895)
• GRANT, U
• GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885)

grant, perhaps normally ten hides, from the royal lands . Such estates were not strictly hereditary, though as a See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark of favour they were not unfrequently re-granted to the sons of deceased holders . The structure of society in England was of a somewhat See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar type . In addition to slaves, who in early times seem to have been numerous, we find in Wessex and apparently also in Mercia three classes, described as twelfhynde, sixhynde and twihynde from the amount of their wergilds, viz .

1200, 60o and 200 shillings respectively . It is probable that similar classes existed also in Northumbria, though not under the same names . Besides these terms there were others which were probably in use every-where, viz. gesi75cund for the two higher classes and ceorlisc for the lowest . Indeed, we find these terms even in Kent, though the social system of that kingdom seems to have been of an essentially different character . Here the wergild of the ceorlisc class amounted to zoo shillings, each containing twenty See also:

• SILVER

silver coins (sceattas), as against 200 shillings of four (in Wessex five) silver coins, and was thus very much greater than the latter . Again, there was apparently but one gesi5cund class in Kent, with a wergild of 300 shillings, while, on the other hand, below the ceorlisc class we find three classes of persons described as laetas, who corresponded in all probability to the liti or freedmen of the See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental See also:

• LAWS

laws, and who possessed wergilds of 8o, 6o and 40 shillings respectively . To these we find nothing analogous in the other kingdoms, though the poorer classes of Welsh freemen had wergilds varying from 120 to 6o shillings . It should be added that the See also:

• DIFFERENTIAL

differential treatment of the various classes was by no means confined to the case of wergilds . We find it also in the compensations to which they were entitled for various injuries, in the fines to which they were liable, and in the value attached to their oaths . Generally, though not always, the See also:

• PRO

pro-portions observed were the same as in the wergilds . The nature of the distinction between the gesibcund and ceorlisc classes is nowhere clearly explained; but it was certainly hereditary and probably of considerable antiquity . In general we may perhaps define them as nobles and See also:

• COMMONS

commons, though in view of the numbers of the higher classes it would probably be more correct to speak of gentry and peasants .

The distinction between the twelfhynde and sixhynde classes was also in part at least hereditary, but there is See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason for believing that it arose out of the See also: