See also:

• VICTOR
• VICTOR, GAIUS JULIUS (4th cent. A.D.)
• VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS

VICTOR See also:

• COUSIN (Fr. cousin, Ital. cugino, Late Lat. cosinus, perhaps a popular and familiar abbreviation of consobrinus, which has the same sense in classical Latin)
• COUSIN, JEAN (1500-1590)
• VICTOR COUSIN (1792–1867)

COUSIN (1792–1867)  , See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French philosopher, the son of a watchmaker, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born in See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, in the Quartier St See also:

• ANTOINE, ANDRE (1858- )

Antoine, on the 28th of See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 1792 . At the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of ten he was sent to the See also:

• GRAMMAR (from Lat. grammatica, sc. ars; Gr. ypaµ)

grammar school of the Quartier St Antoine, the Lycee See also:

• CHARLEMAGNE [CHARLES THE GREAT] (c. 742-814)
• CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND (1753–1838)

Charlemagne . Here he studied until he was eighteen . The lycee had a connexion with the university, and when See also:

• COUSIN (Fr. cousin, Ital. cugino, Late Lat. cosinus, perhaps a popular and familiar abbreviation of consobrinus, which has the same sense in classical Latin)
• COUSIN, JEAN (1500-1590)
• COUSIN, VICTOR (1792–1867)

Cousin See also:

• LEFT

left the secondary school he was " crowned " in the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

hall of the See also:

• SORBONNE

Sorbonne for the Latin oration delivered by him there, in the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general concourse of his school competitors . The classical training of the lycee strongly disposed him to literature . He was already known among his compeers for his knowledge of See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek . From the lycee he passed to the Normal School of Paris, where Laromiguiere was then lecturing on See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy . In the second See also:

• PREFACE (Med. Lat. prefatia, for classical praefatio, praefari, to speak beforehand)

preface to the Fragmens philosophiques, in which he candidly states the varied philosophical influences of his See also:

• LIFE

life, Cousin speaks of the grateful emotion excited by the memory of the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day in 1811, when he heard Laromiguiere for the first See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . That day decided my whole life . Laromiguiere taught the philosophy of See also:

• LOCKE, GOTTFRIED CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1791–1855)
• LOCKE, JOHN (1632-1704)
• LOCKE, MATTHEW (c. 1630-1677)

Locke and See also:

• CONDILLAC, ETIENNE BONNOT DE (1715—178o)

Condillac, happily modified on some points, with a clearness and See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

grace which in See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance at least removed difficulties, and with a See also:

• CHARM (through the Fr. from the Lat. carmen, a song)

charm of spiritual bonhomie which penetrated and subdued." Cousin was set forthwith to lecture on philosophy, and he speedily obtained the position of See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master of conferences (maitre de conferences) in the school . The second See also:

• GREAT

great philosophical impulse of his life was the teaching of Royer-Collard . This teacher, as he tells us, " by the severity of his See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

logic, the gravity and See also:

• WEIGHT

weight of his words, turned me by degrees, and not without resistance, from the beaten path of Condillac into the way which has since become so easy, but which was then painful and unfrequented, that of the Scottish philosophy." In 1815–1816 Cousin attained the position of suppleant (assistant) to Royer-Collard in the See also:

• HISTORY

history of See also:

• MODERN

modern philosophy See also:

• CHAIR (in. Mid. Eng. chcere, through O. Fr. chaire or chaiere, from Lat. cathedra, later caledra, Gr. xaOi3pa, seat, cf. "cathedral"; the modern Fr. form chaise, a chair, has been adopted in English with a particular meaning as a form of carriage; chaire

chair of the See also:

• FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas, ability to do anything, from facilis, easy, facere, to do; another form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning)

faculty of letters .

There was still another thinker who influenced him at this See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period,—See also:

• MAINE
• MAINE, ANNE LOUISE BENEDICTE DE BOURBON
• MAINE, SIR HENRY JAMES SUMNER (1822–1888)

Maine de Biran, whom Cousin regarded as the unequalled psychological observer of his time in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France . These men strongly influenced both the method and the See also:

• MATTER

matter of Cousin's philosophical thought . To Laromiguiere he attributes the See also:

• LESSON (through Fr. lecon from Lat. lectio, reading; legere, to read)

lesson of decomposing thought, even though the reduction of it to sensation was inadequate . Royer-Collard taught him that even sensation is subject to certain See also:

• INTERNAL

internal See also:

• LAWS

laws and principles which it does not itself explain, which are See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior to See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis and the natural patrimony of the mind . De Biran made a See also:

• SPECIAL

special study of the phenomena of the will . He taught him to distinguish in all cognitions, and especially in the simplest facts of consciousness, the fact of voluntary activity, that activity in which our See also:

• PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's mask, from personare,1 to sound through)

personality is truly revealed . It was through this " triple discipline," as he calls it, that Cousin's philosophical thought was first See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed, and that in 1815 he entered on the public teaching of philosophy in the Normal School and in the faculty of letters.' He then took up the study of See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German, worked at See also:

• KANT, IMMANUEL (1724-1804)

Kant and See also:

• JACOBI, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH (1743-1819)
• JACOBI, JOHANN GEORG (1740-1814)
• JACOBI, KARL GUSTAV JACOB (1804-1851)

Jacobi, and sought to master the Philosophy of Nature of See also:

• SCHELLING, FRIEDRICH WILHELM JOSEPH VON (1775-1854)
• SCHELLING, KAROLINE (1763-1809)

Schelling, by which he was at first greatly attracted . The See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of Schelling may be observed very markedly in the earlier See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of his philosophy . He sympathized with the principle of faith of Jacobi, but regarded it as arbitrary so See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long as it was not recognized as grounded in See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason . In 1817 he went to See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, and met See also:

• HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH (1770-1831)

Hegel at See also:

• HEIDELBERG

Heidelberg . In this See also:

• YEAR

year appeared Hegel's Encyclopadie der philosophischen Wissenschaften, of which Cousin had one of the earliest copies . He thought Hegel not particularly amiable, but the two became See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends .

The following year Cousin went to See also:

• MUNICH (Ger. Munchen)

Munich, where he met Schelling for the first time, and spent a See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month with him and Jacobi, obtaining a deeper insight into the Philosophy of Nature . The See also:

• POLITICAL

political troubles of France interfered for a time with his career . In the events of 1814–1815 he took the royalist See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side . He at first adopted the views of the party known as doctrinaire, of which Royer-Collard was the philosophical See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief . He seems then to have gone farther than his party, and even to have approached the extreme Left . Then came a reaction against liberalism, and in 1821–1822 Cousin was deprived of his offices alike in the faculty of letters and in the Normal School . The Normal School itself was swept away, and Cousin shared at the hands of a narrow and illiberal See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government the See also:

• FATE

fate of See also:

• GUIZOT, FRANCOIS PIERRE GUILLAUME (1787-1874)

Guizot, who was ejected from the chair of history . This enforced See also:

• ABANDONMENT (Fr. abandonnement, from abandonner, to abandon, relinquish; abandonner was originally equivalent to mettred banddn, to leave to the jurisdiction, i.e. of another, bandon being from Low Latin bandum, bannum, order, decree, " ban ")

abandonment of public teaching was not wholly an evil . Ile set out for Germany with a view to further philosophical study . While at See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin in 1824–1825 he was thrown into See also:

• PRISON (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. prehensio, seizure)

prison, either on some See also:

• ILL

ill-defined political See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge at the instance of the French See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police, or on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of certain incautious expressions which he had let fall in conversation . Liberated after six months, he continued under the suspicion of the French government for three years . It was during this period, however, that he thought out and developed what is distinctive in his philosophical See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine .

His See also:

• ECLECTICISM (from Gr. fr)

eclecticism, his See also:

• ONTOLOGY (adapted from a modern Latin form ontologia used by Jean le Clerc 1692; Gr. 6v, Evros, pres. part. of dam, to be, and klryos, science)

ontology and his philosophy of history were declared in principle and in most of their salient details in the Fragmens philosophiques (Paris, 1826) . The preface to the pm, second edition (1833) and the Avertissement to the mens third (1838) aimed at a vindication of his principles Philosoagainst contemporary See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism . Even the best of his Phiques. later books, the Philosophic ecossaise (4th ed., 1863), the Du vrai, du beau, et du bien (12th ed., 1872; Eng. trans., 3rd ed., See also:

• EDINBURGH

Edinburgh, 1854), and the Philosophic de Locke (4th ed., 1861) were simply matured revisions of his lectures during the period from 1815 to 182o . The lectures on Locke were first sketched in 1819, and fully developed in the course of 1829 . During the seven years of enforced abandonment of teaching he produced, besides the Fragmens, the edition of the See also:

• WORKS

works of See also:

• PROCLUS, or PROCULUS (A.D. 410-485)

Proclus (6 vols., 1820-1827), and the works of See also:

• DESCARTES, RENE (1596-1650)

Descartes (II vols., 1826) . He also commenced his See also:

• TRANSLATION

Translation of See also:

• PLATO

Plato (13 vols.), which occupied his leisure time from 1825 to 1840 . We see in the Fragmens very distinctly the See also:

• FUSION

fusion of the different philosophical influences by which his opinions were finally matured . For Cousin was as eclectic in thought and See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit of mind as he was in philosophical principle and See also:

• SYSTEM

system . It is 1 Fragmens philosophiques—preface deuxieme . Political troubles . with the publication of the Fragmens of 1826 that the first great widening of his reputation is associated . In 1827 followed the Cours de 1'histoire de la philosophie .

In 1828 M. de Vatimesnil, See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister of public instruction in See also:

• MARTIGNAC, JEAN BAPTISTE SYLVERE GAY, VICOMTE DE (1778-183z)

Martignac's See also:

• MINISTRY

ministry, recalled Cousin and Guizot to their professorial positions in the university . The three lecturers a years which followed were the period of Cousin's greatest See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph as a lecturer . His return to the chair was the See also:

• SYMBOL (Gr. o-uµ(3oXov, a sign)

symbol of the triumph of constitutional ideas and was greeted with See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm . The hall of the Sorbonne was crowded as the hall of no philosophical teacher in Paris had been since the days of See also:

• ABELARD, PETER (1079-1142)

Abelard . The lecturer had a singular See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of identifying himself for the time with the system which he expounded and the See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character he portrayed . Clear and comprehensive in the grasp of the general outlines of his subject, he was methodical and vivid in the See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation of details . In exposition he had the rare See also:

• ART

art of unfolding and aggrandizing . There was a See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich, deep-toned, resonant eloquence mingled with the speculative exposition; his See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style of expression was clear, elegant and forcible, abounding in happy turns and striking antitheses . To this was joined a singular power of rhetorical See also:

• CLIMAX, JOHN (c. 525–600 A.D.)

climax . His philosophy exhibited in a striking manner the generalizing tendency of the French See also:

• INTELLECT (Lat. intellectus, from intelligere, to understand)

intellect, and its logical need of grouping details See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round central principles . There was withal a moral See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation in his spiritual philosophy which came See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home to the See also:

• HEARTS

hearts of his hearers, and seemed to afford a ground for higher development in See also:

• NATIONAL

national literature and art, and even in politics, than the traditional philosophy of France had appeared capable of yielding . His lectures produced more ardent disciples, imbued at least with his spirit, than those of any other See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

professor of philosophy in France during the 18th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century .

Tested by the power and effect of his teaching influence, Cousin occupies a foremost See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in the See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank of professors of philosophy, who like Jacobi, Schelling and Dugald See also:

• STEWART, ALEXANDER TURNEY (1803-1876)
• STEWART, BALFOUR (1828-1887)
• STEWART, CHARLES (1778–1869)
• STEWART, DUGALD (1753-1828)
• STEWART, J
• STEWART, JOHN (1749—1822)
• STEWART, JULIUS L
• STEWART, SIR DONALD MARTIN (1824–19o0)
• STEWART, SIR HERBERT (1843—1885)
• STEWART, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1540—c. 1605)
• STEWART, STUART
• STEWART, WILLIAM (c. 1480-c. 1550)

Stewart have See also:

• UNITED

united the gifts of speculative, expository and imaginative power . Tested even by the strength of the reaction which his writings have in some cases occasioned, his influence is hardly less remarkable . The See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste for philosophy—especially its history—was revived in France to an extent unknown since the 17th century . Among the men who were influenced by Cousin we may See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note T . S . See also:

• JOUFFROY, JEAN (c. 1412–1473)
• JOUFFROY, THEODORE SIMON (1796-1842)

Jouffroy, J . P . See also:

• DAMIRON, JEAN PHILIBERT (1794-1862)

Damiron, See also:

• GARNIER, CLEMENT JOSEPH (1813–1881)
• GARNIER, GERMAIN, MARQUIS (1754-1821)
• GARNIER, JEAN LOUIS CHARLES (1825-1898)
• GARNIER, MARIE JOSEPH FRANCOIS [FRANCIS] (1839–1873)
• GARNIER, ROBERT (c. 1545–c.1600)

Garnier, J . See also:

• BARTHELEMY
• BARTHELEMY, ANATOLE
• BARTHELEMY, AUGUSTE MARSEILLE (1796–1867)
• BARTHELEMY, FRANCOIS, MARQUIS DE (1747 or 1750-1830)
• BARTHELEMY, JEAN JACQUES (1716–1795)

Barthelemy St Hilaire, F . Ravaisson-See also:

• MOLLIEN, NICOLAS FRANCOIS, COUNT (1758-1850)

Mollien, See also:

• REMUSAT, JEAN PIERRE ABEL (1788-1832)

Remusat, Jules See also:

• SIMON, ABRAHAM (1622-1692)
• SIMON, JULES FRANCOIS (1814–1896)
• SIMON, RICHARD (1638–1712)
• SIMON, SIR JOHN (1816–1904)
• SIMON, THOMAS (c. 1623-1665)

Simon and A . See also:

• FRANCK
• FRANCK, CESAR (1822-1890)
• FRANCK, or FRANK [latinized FRANCUS], SEBASTIAN (c. 1499-c. 1543)

Franck . Jouffroy and Damiron were first See also:

• FELLOW

fellow-students and then disciples .

Jouffroy, however, always kept See also:

• FIRM

firm to the early—the French and Scottish—impulses of Cousin's teaching . Cousin continued to lecture regularly for two years and a See also:

• HALF

half after his return to the chair . Sympathizing with the revolution of See also:

• JULY

July, he was at once recognized by the new government as a friend of national See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty . See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

Writing in See also:

• JUNE

June 1833 he explains both his philosophical and his political position: " I had the See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of holding united against me for many years both the sensational and the theological school . In 1830 both See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools descended into the See also:

• ARENA (Lat. for " sand ")

arena of politics . The sensational school quite naturally produced the demagogic party, and the theological school became quite as naturally See also:

• ABSOLUTISM

absolutism, safe to See also:

• BORROW, GEORGE HENRY (18o3-1881)

borrow from time to time the See also:

• MASK (Fr. masque, apparently from med. Lat. mascus, masca, spectre, through Ital. maschera, Span. mascara)

mask of the See also:

• DEMAGOGUE (Gr. Srlµaywybs, from iyety, to lead, and Siµos, the people)

demagogue in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order the better to reach its ends, as in philosophy it is by See also:

• SCEPTICISM (o-Kesrroµai, I consider, reflect, hesitate, doubt)

scepticism that it under-takes to restore See also:

• THEOCRACY (Gr. Oeoeparia, the rule of God, from Oebr, god, and -Kparca, Kpare v, to rule)

theocracy . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, he who combated any exclusive principle in See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science was See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound to reject also any exclusive principle in the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, and to defend representative government." The government was not slow to do him See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour . He was induced by the ministry of which his friend Guizot was the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head to become a member of the See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council of public instruction and counsellor of state, and in 1832 he was made a peer of France . He ceased to lecture, but retained the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of professor of philosophy . Finally, he accepted the position of minister of public instruction in 1840 under See also:

• THIERS

Thiers . He was besides director of the Normal School and virtual head of the university, and from 184o a member of the See also:

• INSTITUTE (from Lat. instituere, to establish or set up)

Institute (See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy of the Moral and Political Sciences) . His character and his See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official position at this period gave him great power in the university and in the educa-tional arrangements of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country .

In fact, during the seventeen and a half years of the reign of See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis Philippe, Cousin mainly moulded the philosophical and even the See also:

• LITERARY

literary tendencies of the cultivated class in France . But the most important See also:

• WORK

work he accomplished during this period was the organization of See also:

• PRIMARY

primary instruction . It was to the efforts of Cousin that France owed her advance, in Relation to primary See also:

• EDUCATION

education, between 1830 and 1848 . See also:

• PRUSSIA
• PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; Lat. Borussia)

Prussia primary and See also:

• SAXONY
• SAXONY (Ger. Provinz Sachsen)

Saxony had set the national example, and France eduFcation was guided into it by Cousin . Forgetful of national to See also:

• RANCE, ARMAND JEAN LE BOUTHILLIER DE (1626-1700)

rance. calamity and of See also:

• PERSONAL

personal wrong, he looked to Prussia as affording the best example of an organized system of national education; and he was persuaded that " to carry back the education of Prussia into France afforded a nobler (if a bloodless) triumph than the trophies of See also:

• AUSTERLITZ (Czech Slavkov)

Austerlitz and See also:

• JENA

Jena." In the summer of 1831, commissioned by the government, he visited See also:

• FRANKFORT

Frankfort and Saxony, and spent some time in Berlin . The result was a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of reports to the minister, afterwards published as Rapport sur l'etat de l'instruction publique clans quelques pays de l'Allemagne et .particulierement en Prusse . (Compare also De l'instruction publique en Hollande, 1837.) His views were readily accepted on his return to France, and soon afterwards through his influence there was passed the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law of primary instruction . (See his Expose See also:

• DES

des motifs et projet de loi sur l'instruction primaire, presentee d la chambre des deputes, seance du 2 janvier 1833.) In the words of the Edinburgh See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review (July 1833), these documents " See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark an See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch in the progress of national education, and are directly conducive to results important not only to France but to See also:

• EUROPE

Europe." The See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

Report was translated into See also:

• ENGLISH

English by Mrs Sarah See also:

• AUSTIN
• AUSTIN, ALFRED
• AUSTIN, JOHN (179o-1859)
• AUSTIN, SARAH (1793-1867)
• AUSTIN, STEPHEN FULLER (1793-1836)

Austin in 1834 . The translation was frequently reprinted in the United States of See also:

• AMERICA

America . The legislatures of New See also:

• JERSEY
• JERSEY, EARLS OF

Jersey and See also:

• MASSACHUSETTS (an Indian name, originally applied to a tribe of Indians)

Massachusetts distributed it in the schools at the expense of the states . Cousin remarks that, among all the literary distinctions which he had received, " None has touched me more than the title of See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign member of the See also:

• AMERICAN

American Institute for Education." To the enlightened views of the ministries of Guizot and Thiers under the See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen-See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king, and to the zeal and ability of Cousin in the work of organization, France owes what is best in her system of primary education,—a national See also:

• INTEREST

interest which had been neglected under the Revolution, the See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire and the Restoration (see Expose, p . 17) .

In the first two years of the reign of Louis Philippe more was done for the education of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people than had been either sought or accomplished in all the history of France . In See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence of university studies he stood manfully forth in the chamber of peers in 1844, against the clerical party on the one hand and the levelling or See also:

• PHILISTINE

Philistine party on the other . His speeches on this occasion were published in a tractate Defense de l'universite et de la philosophie (1844 and 1845) . This period of official life from 1830 to 1848 was spent, so far as philosophical study was concerned, in revising his former lectures and writings, in maturing them for publication or reissue, and in See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research into certain periods of the See also:

• PHILO
• PHILO, HERENNIUS

Philo sophical history of philosophy . In 1835 appeared De la writings . Metaphysique d'Aristote, suivi d'un essai de traduction des deux premiers livres; in 1836, Cours de philosophie professe d la faculte des lettres See also:

• PENDANT (through Fr. from Lat. pendere, to hang)

pendant l'annee 1818, and Ouvrages inedits d'Abelard . This Cours de philosophie appeared later in 1854 as Du vrai, du beau, et du bien . From 1825 to 184o appeared Cours de l'histoire de la philosophie, in 1829 See also:

• MANUEL, EUGENE (1823–1901)
• MANUEL, JACQUES ANTOINE (1775-1827)
• MANUEL, LOUIS PIERRE (1751-1793)

Manuel de l'histoire de la philosophie de Tennemann, translated from the German . In 1840–1841 we have Cours d'histoire de la philosophie morale au XVIIIe siecle (5 vols.) . In 1841 appeared his edition of the (Euvres philosophiques de Maine-de-Biran; in 1842, Lecons de philosophie sur Kant (Eng. trans . A . G .

See also:

• HENDERSON
• HENDERSON, ALEXANDER (1583-1646)
• HENDERSON, EBENEZER (1784-1858)
• HENDERSON, GEORGE FRANCIS ROBERT (1854-1903)
• HENDERSON, JOHN (1747-1785)

Henderson, 1854), and in the same year Des Pensees de See also:

• PASCAL, BLAISE (1623-1662)
• PASCAL, JACQUELINE (1625-T661)

Pascal . The Nouveaux fragments were gathered together and republished in 1847 . Later, in 1859, appeared Petri Abaelardi See also:

• OPERA (Italian for " work ")

Opera . During this period Cousin seems to have turned with fresh interest to those literary studies which he had abandoned for See also:

• SPECULATION

speculation under the influence of Laromiguiere and Royer-Collard . To this renewed interest we owe his studies of men Disciples and followers . and See also:

• WOMEN

women of note in France in the 17th century . As the results of his work in this See also:

• LINE

line, we have, besides the Des Pensees de Pascal, 1842, Etudes sur See also:

• LES

les femmes et la societe du studies X VIIe siecle,1853 . He has sketched Jacqueline Pascal (1844), Madame de See also:

• LONGUEVILLE
• LONGUEVILLE, ANNE GENEVIEVE, DUCHESSE DE (1619—1679)

Longueville (1853), the marquise de See also:

• SABLE
• SABLE, AMERICAN
• SABLE, CHINESE
• SABLE, MADELEINE DE SOUVRE, MARQUISE DE (1599—1678)
• SABLE, RUSSIAN

Sable (1854), the duchesse de Chevreuse (1856), Madame de Hautefort (1856) . When the reign of Louis Philippe came to a See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close through the opposition of his ministry, with Guizot at its head, to the demand for electoral reform and through the policy of the See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish marriages, Cousin, who was opposed to the government on these points, See also:

• LENT (0. Eng. lenclen, " spring," M. Eng. lenten, lente, lent; cf. Dut. lente, Ger. Lenz, " spring," 0. H. Ger. lenzin, lengizin, lenzo, probably from the same root as " long " and referring to " the lengthening days ")

lent his sympathy to See also:

• CAVAIGNAC, JEAN BAPTISTE (1762–1829)
• CAVAIGNAC, LOUIS EUGENE (1802–1857)

Cavaignac and the Provisional government . He published a pamphlet entitled See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

Justice et charite, the purport of which showed the moderation of his political views . It was markedly See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-socialistic . But from this period he passed almost entirely from public life, and ceased to wield the personal influence which he had done during the preceding years .

After the coup d'etat of the 2nd of See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December, he was deprived of his position as permanent member of the superior council of public instruction . From See also:

• NAPOLEON

Napoleon and the Empire he stood aloof . A See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

decree of 1852 placed him along with Guizot and See also:

• VILLEMAIN, ABEL FRANCOIS (179o-1867)

Villemain in the rank of honorary professors . His sympathies were apparently with the See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy, under certain constitutional safeguards . Speaking in 1853 of the political issues of the spiritual philosophy which he had taught during his lifetime, he says,—" It conducts human See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

societies to the true See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic, that See also:

• DREAM (from a root dreug, connected with Germ. trugen, to deceive)

dream of all generous souls, which in our time can be realized in Europe only by constitutional monarchy." 1 During the last years of his life he occupied a See also:

• SUITE (Suite de pieces; Ordre; Partita)

suite of rooms in the Sorbonne, where he lived simply and unostentatiously . The chief feature of the rooms was his See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble library, the cherished collection of a lifetime . He died at See also:

• CANNES

Cannes on the 13th of See also:

• JANUARY

January 1867, in his sixty-fifth year . In the front of the Sorbonne, below the lecture rooms of the faculty of letters, a tablet records an See also:

• EXTRACT (from Lat. extrahere, to draw out)

extract from his will, in which he bequeaths his noble and cherished library to the halls of his professorial work and triumphs . Philosophy.—There are three distinctive points in Cousin's philosophy . These are his method, the results of his method, and the application of the method and its results to history,—especially to the history of philosophy . It is usual to speak of his philosophy as eclecticism . It is eclectic only in a secondary and subordinate sense .

All eclecticism that is not self-condemned and inoperative implies a system of doctrine as its basis,—in fact, a criterion of truth . Otherwise, as Cousin himself remarks, it is simply a See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind and useless See also:

• SYNCRETISM (Gr. o'vyKprlrurw51, from aim and Kep&vvv,uc, mingle or blend, or, according to Plutarch, from en, and Kprlri'ecv, to combine against a common enemy after the manner of the cities of Crete)

syncretism . And Cousin saw and proclaimed from an early period in his philosophical teaching the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity of a system on which to See also:

• BASE

base his eclecticism . This is indeed advanced as an See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration or See also:

• CONFIRMATION (Lat. confirmatio, from confirmare, to establish, make firm)

confirmation of the truth of his system,—as a See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof that the facts of history correspond to his analysis of consciousness . These three points—the method, the results, and the philosophy of history—are with him intimately connected; they are developments in a natural order, of sequence . They become in practice See also:

• PSYCHOLOGY
• PSYCHOLOGY (>Guxrl, the mind or soul, and X yos, theory)

Psychology, Ontology and Eclecticism in history . First, as to method . On no point has Cousin more strongly insisted than the importance of method in philosophy . That Method. which he adopts, and the necessity of which he so strongly proclaims, is the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary one of observation, analysis and See also:

• INDUCTION (from Lat. inducere, to lead into; cf. Gr. ilrayu yli)

induction . This observational method Cousin regards as that of the a8th century,—the method which Descartes began and abandoned, and which Locke and Condillac applied, though imperfectly, and which See also:

• REID, ROBERT (1862– )
• REID, SIR GEORGE (1841- )
• REID, SIR ROBERT GILLESPIE (184o-19o8)
• REID, SIR WILLIAM (1791-1858)
• REID, THOMAS (1710-1796)
• REID, THOMAS MAYNE (1818-1883)
• REID, WHITELAW (1837- )

Reid and Kant used with more success, yet not completely . He insists that this is the true method of philosophy as applied to consciousness, in which alone the facts of experience appear . But the proper See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the application of the method is that it shall not through See also:

• PREJUDICE (Lat. praejudicium)

prejudice of system omit a single fact of consciousness .

If the authority of consciousness is See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good in one instance, it is good in all . If not to be trusted in one, it is not to be trusted in any . Previous systems have erred in not presenting the facts of consciousness, 1 Du vrai, du beau, et du bien (preface) . i.e. consciousness itself, in their totality . The observational method applied to consciousness gives us the science of psycho-logy . This is the basis and the only proper basis of ontology or See also:

• METAPHYSICS
• METAPHYSICS, or METAPHYSIC (from Gr. /sera, after, d v med, things of nature, lots, i.e. the natural universe)

metaphysics—the science of being—and of the philosophy of history . To the observation of consciousness Cousin adds induction as the See also:

• COMPLEMENT (Lat. complementum, from complere, to fill up)

complement of his method, by which he means inference as to reality necessitated by the data of consciousness, and regulated by certain laws found in consciousness, viz. those of reason . By his method of observation and induction as thus explained, his philosophy will be found to be marked off very clearly, on the one hand from the deductive construction of notions of an See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute system, as represented either by Schelling or Hegel, which Cousin regards as based simply on See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis and See also:

• ABSTRACTION (Lat. abs and trahere)

abstraction, illegitimately obtained; and on the other, from that of Kant, and in a sense, of See also:

• SIR

Sir W . See also:

• HAMILTON
• HAMILTON (GRAND or ASHUANIPI)
• HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (1757-1804)
• HAMILTON, ANTHONY, or ANTOINE (1646-1720)
• HAMILTON, ELIZABETH (1758–1816)
• HAMILTON, EMMA, LADY (c. 1765-1815)
• HAMILTON, JAMES (1769-1831)
• HAMILTON, JAMES HAMILTON, 1ST DUKE OF (1606-1649)
• HAMILTON, JOHN (c. 1511–1571)
• HAMILTON, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF
• HAMILTON, PATRICK (1504-1528)
• HAMILTON, ROBERT (1743-1829)
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1730-1803)
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN (1805-1865)
• HAMILTON, THOMAS (1789-1842)
• HAMILTON, WILLIAM (1704-1754)
• HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD (1729-1796)

Hamilton, both of which in the view of Cousin are limited to psychology, and merely relative or phenomenal knowledge, and issue in scepticism so far as the great realities of ontology are concerned . What Cousin finds psychologically in the individual consciousness, he finds also spontaneously expressed in the See also:

• COMMON

common sense or universal experience of humanity . In fact, it is with him the See also:

• FUNCTION

function of philosophy to classify and explain universal convictions and beliefs; but common-sense is not with him philosophy, nor is it the See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument of philosophy; it is simply the material on which the philosophical method works, and in See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony with which its results must ultimately be found . The three great results of psychological observation Results. are Sensibility, Activity or Liberty, and Reason .

These three facts are different in character, but are not found apart in consciousness . Sensations, or the facts of the sensibility, are necessary; we do not impute them to ourselves . The facts of reason are also necessary, and reason is not less See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent of the will than the sensibility . Voluntary facts alone are marked in the eyes of consciousness with the characters of imputability and personality . The will alone is the See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person or Me . The me is the centre of the intellectual See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere without which consciousness is impossible . We find ourselves in a See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange See also:

• WORLD

world, between two orders of phenomena which do not belong to us, which we apprehend only on the condition of our distinguishing ourselves from them . Further, we apprehend by means of a See also:

• LIGHT

light which does not come from ourselves . All light comes from the reason, and it is the reason which apprehends both itself and the sensibility which envelops it, and the will which it obliges but does not constrain . Consciousness, then, is composed of these three integrant and inseparable elements . But Reason is the immediate ground of knowledge and of consciousness itself . But there is a peculiarity in Cousin's doctrine of activity or freedom, and in his doctrine of reason, which enters deeply into his system .

This is the See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element of spontaneity in volition and in reason . This is the See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart of what is new alike in his doctrine of knowledge and being . Liberty or freedom is a generic See also:

• TERM

term which means a cause or being endowed with self-activity . This is to itself and its own development its own ultimate cause . See also:

• FREE

Free-will is so, although it is preceded by deliberation and determination, i.e. reflection, for we are always conscious that even after determination we are free to will or not to will . But there is a primary See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of volition which has not reflection for its condition, which is yet free and spontaneous . We must have willed thus spontaneously first, otherwise we could not know, before our reflective volition, that we could will and See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act . Spontaneous volition is free as reflective, but it is the See also:

• PRIOR (from Lat. prior—former, and hence superior, through O. Fr. priour)
• PRIOR, MATTHEW (1664-1721)

prior act of the two . This view of liberty of will is the only one in accordance with the facts of humanity; it excludes reflective volition, and explains the enthusiasm of the poet and the artist in the act of creation; it explains also the ordinary actions of mankind, which are done as a See also:

• RULE

rule spontaneously and not after reflective deliberation . But it is in his doctrine of the Reason that the distinctive principle of the philosophy of Cousin lies . The reason given to us by psychological observation, the reason of our consciousness, is impersonal in its nature . We do not make it; its character is precisely the opposite of individuality; it is universal and Spontaneity In will .

necessary . The recognition of universal and necessary principles in knowledge is the essential point in psychology; it ought to be put first and emphasized to the last that these unperson- exist, and that they are wholly impersonal or absolute. silty o real on . . The number of these principles, their enumeration reas and See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification, is an important point, but it is secondary to that of the recognition of their true nature . This was the point which Kant missed in his analysis, and this is the fundamental truth which Cousin thinks he has restored to the integrity of philosophy by the method of the observation of consciousness . And how is this impersonality or absoluteness of the conditions of knowledge to be established ? The See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer is in substance that Kant went wrong in putting necessity first as the criterion of those laws . This brought them within the sphere of reflection, and gave as their See also:

• GUARANTEE (sometimes spelt " guarantie " or " guaranty "; an O. Fr. form of " warrant," from the Teutonic word which appears in German as wahren, to defend or make safe and binding)

guarantee the impossibility of thinking them reversed; and led to their being regarded as wholly relative to human intelligence, restricted to the sphere of the phenomenal, incapable of revealing to us substantial reality—necessary, yet subjective . But this test of necessity is a wholly secondary one; these laws are not thus guaranteed to us; they are each and all given to us, given to our consciousness, in an act of spontaneous See also:

• APPERCEPTION (Lat. ad and percipere, perceive)

apperception or' See also:

• APPREHENSION (Lat. ad, to; prehendere, to seize)

apprehension, immediately, instantaneously, in a sphere above the reflective consciousness, yet within the reach of knowledge . And " all subjectivity with all reflection expires in the spontaneity of apperception . The reason becomes subjective by relation to the voluntary and free self; but in itself it is impersonal; it belongs not to this or to that self in humanity; it belongs not even to humanity . We may say with truth that nature and humanity belong to it, for without its laws both would perish." But what is the number of those laws ? Kant reviewing the enterprise of See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle in modern times has given a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list taws of of the laws of thought, but it is arbitrary in classificareason, tion and may be legitimately reduced .

According to Cousin, there are but two primary laws of thought, that of causality and that of substance . From these flow naturally all the others . In the order of nature, that of substance is the first and causality second . In the order of acquisition of our knowledge, causality precedes substance, or rather both are given us in each other, and are contemporaneous in consciousness . These principles of reason, cause and substance, given thus psychologically, enable us to pass beyond the limits of the relative and subjective to See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective and absolute reality,—enable us, in a word, to pass from psychology, or the science of know-ledge, to ontology or the science of being . These laws are inextricably mixed in consciousness with the data of volition and sensation, with free activity and fatal See also:

• ACTION

action or impression, and they See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide us in rising to a personal being, a self or free cause, and to an impersonal reality, a not-me—nature, the world of force—lying out of us, and modifying us . As I refer to myself the act of See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention and volition, so I cannot but refer the sensation to some cause, necessarily other than myself, that is, to an See also:

• EXTERNAL

external cause, whose existence is as certain for me as my own existence, since the phenomenon which suggests it to me is as certain as the phenomenon which had suggested my reality, and both are given in each other . I thus reach an objective impersonal world of forces which corresponds to the variety of my sensations . The'relation of these forces or causes to each other is the order of the universe . But these two forces, the me and the not-me, are reciprocally limitative . As. reason has apprehended these two simultaneous phenomena, attention and sensation, and led us The immediately to conceive the two sorts of distinct See also:

• INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere, to deave)

Infinite or absolute. causes, correlative and reciprocally finite, to which they are related, so, from the notion of this See also:

• LIMITATION, STATUTES OF

limitation, we find it impossible under the same guide not to conceive a supreme cause, absolute and infinite, itself the first and last cause of all . This is relatively to self and not-self what these are to their proper effects .

This cause is self-sufficient, and is sufficient for the reason . This is See also:

• GOD

God; he must be conceived under the notion of cause, related to humanity and the world . He is absolute substance only in so far as he is absolute cause,and his essence lies precisely in his creative power . He thus creates, and he creates necessarily . This theodicy of Cousin laid him open obviously enough to the charge of See also:

• PANTHEISM (Gr. 7rav, all, Oeos, god)

pantheism . This he repels, and his answer may be summed up as follows . Pantheism is properly the deification of the law of phenomena, the universe God. charge of But I distinguish the two finite causes self and not-self , &fl from each other and from the infinite cause . They are not See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere modifications of this cause or properties, as with See also:

• SPINOZA, BARUCH (1632-1677)

Spinoza,—they are free forces having'their power or See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring of action in themselves, and this is sufficient for our See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of independent finite reality . I hold this, and I hold the relation of these as effects to the one supreme cause . The God I plead for is neither the deity of Pantheism, nor the absolute unity of the Eleatics, a being divorced from all possibility of creation or See also:

• PLURALITY (0. Fr. pluralitd, Late Lat. pluralitas, plural number)

plurality, a mere metaphysical abstraction . The deity I maintain is creative, and necessarily creative . The deity of Spinoza and the Eleatics is a mere substance, not a cause in any sense .

As to the necessity under which Deity exists of acting or creating, this is the highest form of liberty, it is the freedom of spontaneity, activity without deliberation . His action is not the result of a struggle between See also:

• PASSION (post-classical Lat. passio, formed from pati, passus, to suffer, endure)

passion and virtue . He is free in an unlimited manner the purest spontaneity in See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man is but the See also:

• SHADOW (0. Eng. Schadewe, sceadu; a form of " shade "; connected with Gr. 6-Ore's, darkness)

shadow of the freedom of God . He acts freely but not arbitrarily, and with the consciousness of being able to choose the opposite See also:

• PART

part . He cannot deliberate or will as we do . His spontaneous action excludes at once the efforts and the miseries of will and the