See also:

• CRACOW (Pol. Krakov; Ger. Krakau)

CRACOW (Pol. Krakov; Ger. Krakau)  , a See also:

• TOWN

town and episcopal see of See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria, in See also:

• GALICIA (Ger. Galizien; Pol. Halicz)
• GALICIA (the ancient Gallaecia or Callaecia, KaMauci,a or KaXau da)

Galicia, 212 M . W. by N. of See also:

• LEMBERG (Pol. Lwdw, Lat. Leopolis)

Lemberg by See also:

• RAIL

rail . Pop . (1900) 91,310, of which 21,000 were See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews, 5000 Germans and the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder Poles . Although in regard to its See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population it is only the second See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in Galicia, See also:

• CRACOW (Pol. Krakov; Ger. Krakau)

Cracow is the most interesting town in the whole of See also:

• POLAND (Polish Polska, Ger. Polen), (see POLAND, RUSSIAN, below)
• POLAND, RUSSIAN

Poland . No other See also:

• POLISH

Polish town possesses so many old and historic buildings, none of them contains so many See also:

• NATIONAL

national See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics, or has been so closely associated with the development and destinies of Poland as Cracow . And the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital is still the intellectual centre of the Polish nation . Cracow is situated in a fertile See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain on the See also:

• LEFT

left See also:

• BANK

bank of the See also:

• VISTULA (Ger. Weichsel, Polish Wisla)

Vistula (which becomes navigable here) and occupies a position of See also:

• GREAT

great strategical importance . It consists of the old inner town and seven suburbs . The only relics of the fortifications of the old town, whose place is now occupied by shady promenades, is the See also:

• FLORIAN, JEAN PIERRE CLARIS DE (1755-1794)
• FLORIAN, SAINT

Florian's See also:

• GATE

Gate and the Rondell, a circular structure, built in 1498 . Cracow has 39 churches—about See also:

• HALF

half the number it formerly had—and 25 convents for monks and nuns . Of these the most important is the See also:

• STANISLAUS

Stanislaus See also:

• CATHEDRAL

cathedral, in See also:

• GOTHIC

Gothic See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style, consecrated in 1359, and built on the Wawel, the rocky See also:

• EMINENCE (Lat. eminentia)

eminence to the S.W. of the old town .

Here the See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings of Poland were crowned, and this See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church is also the See also:

• PANTHEON (Lat. pantheum or pantheon; Gr. srav& ov, all-holy, from re, s, all, and Oeor god)

Pantheon of the Polish nation, the See also:

• BURIAL

burial place of its kings and its great men . Here See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie the remains of See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John Sobieski, of Thaddaeus See also:

• KOSCIUSZKO, TADEUSZ ANDRZEJ BONAWENTURA (1746-1817)

Kosciuszko, of See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph Poaiatowski and of See also:

• ADAM
• ADAM (or ADAN) DE LE HALE (died c. 1288)
• ADAM, ALEXANDER (1741–1809)
• ADAM, JULIETTE (1836– )
• ADAM, LAMBERT SIGISBERT (1700-1759)
• ADAM, MELCHIOR (d. 1622)
• ADAM, PAUL (1862– )
• ADAM, ROBERT (1728—1792)
• ADAM, SIR FREDERICK (1781-1853)
• ADAM, WILLIAM (1751-1839)

Adam See also:

• MICKIEWICZ, ADAM (1798-1855)

Mickiewicz . Here also are conserved the remains of St Stanislaus, the See also:

• PATRON

patron See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

saint of the Poles, who, as See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop of Cracow, was slain before the See also:

• ALTAR (Lat. altare, from alias, high; some ancient etymological guesses are recorded by St Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae xv. 4)

altar by See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King Boleslaus in 1079 . The cathedral is adorned with many valuable See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of See also:

• ART

art, paintings and sculptures, by such artists as See also:

• VEIT, PHILIPP (1793-1877)

Veit See also:

• STOSS, VEIT (1438 or 1440-1533)

Stoss, Guido Reni, See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter See also:

• VISCHER
• VISCHER, FRIEDRICH THEODOR (1807-1887)

Vischer, See also:

• THORWALDSEN, BERTEL (1770.1844)

Thorwaldsen, &c . See also:

• PART

Part of the ancient Polish See also:

• REGALIA (Lat. regalis, royal, from rex, king)

regalia is also kept here . The Gothic church of St See also:

• MARY
• MARY (1457-1482)
• MARY (1496-1533)
• MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS

Mary, founded in 1223, rebuilt in the 14th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century with several chapels added in the 15th and 16th centuries, was restored in 188g-1893, and decorated with paintings from the designs by Matejko . It contains a huge high altar, the See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master-piece of Veit Stoss, who was a native of Cracow, executed in-CRACOW 359 1477–1489; a See also:

• COLOSSAL

colossal See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone crucifix, dating from the end of the 15th century, and several sumptuous tombs of See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble families from the 16th and 17th centuries . The Dominican church, a Gothic See also:

• BUILDING

building of the 13th century, but practically rebuilt after a See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire in 1850; the Franciscan church, also of the 13th century, also much modernized; the church of St Florian of the 12th century, rebuilt in 1768, which contains the See also:

• LATE

late-Gothic altar by Veit Stoss, executed in 1518, during his last sojourn in Cracow; the church of St Peter, with a colossal See also:

• DOME (Lat domus, house; Ital. duomo, cathedral)

dome, built in 1597, after the See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model of that of St Peter at See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, and the beautiful Augustinian church in the suburb of Kazimierz, are all See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth mentioning . Of the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular buildings, the royal See also:

• CASTLE
• CASTLE (Lat. castellum, a fort, diminutive of castra, a camp; Fr. chateau and chdtel)

castle (Zamek KrOlowsk), a huge building, begun in the 13th century, and successively enlarged by Casimir the Great and by See also:

• SIGISMUND (1368-1437)

Sigismund I . Jagiello (1510-1533), is situated on the Wawel, and was until 1610 the See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence of the Polish kings . It suffered much from fires and other disasters, and from 1846 onward was used as a See also:

• BARRACKS (derived through the French from the Late Lat. barra, a bar)
• BARRACKS, CAMP

barracks and a military See also:

• HOSPITAL (Lat. haspitalis, the adjective of hospes, host or guest)

hospital; it has now, however, been cleared out and restored . The Jagellonian university, now housed in a magnificent Gothic building erected in 1881-1887, was attended in 1901 by 1255 students, and had 175 professors and lecturers .

The See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language of instruction is Polish . It is the second See also:

• OLDEST

oldest university in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe—the oldest being that of See also:

• PRAGUE (Ger. Prag; Bohemian Praha)

Prague—and was famous during the 15th and 16th centuries . It was founded by Casimir the Great in 1364, and completed by See also:

• LADISLAUS [I.]

Ladislaus Jagiello in 1400 . Its See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich library is now housed in the old university buildings, erected in the 15th century, in the beautiful Gothic See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of which a See also:

• BRONZE

bronze statue of See also:

• COPERNICUS (or KOPPERNIGK), NICOLAUS (1473-1543)

Copernicus was placed in 1900 . The Polish See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy of See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

Science, founded in 1872, is housed in the new university buildings . In the See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

Ring-Platz, or the principal square, opposite the church of St Mary, is the Tuchhaus (See also:

• CLOTH

cloth-See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

hall, Pol . Sukiennice) , a building erected in 1257, several times renovated and enlarged, most recently in 1879, which contains the Polish national museum of art . Behind it is a Gothic See also:

• TOWER (Lat. turris; Fr. tour, clocker; Ital. torre; Ger. Thurm)

tower, the only relic of the old town hall, demolished in 1820 . The See also:

• CZARTORYSKI, ADAM GEORGE, PRINCE (1770-1861)
• CZARTORYSKI, FRYDERYK MICHAL, PRINCE (1696-1775)

Czartoryski museum contains a large collection of objects of art, a rich library and a See also:

• PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium)

precious collection of See also:

• MANUSCRIPTS

manuscripts, See also:

• RELATING

relating to the See also:

• HISTORY

history of Poland . Among the manufactures of the town are machinery, agricultural implements, chemicals, See also:

• SOAP

soap, See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco, &c . But Cracow is more important as a trading than as an See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial centre . Its position on the Vistula and at the junction of several See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways makes it the natural mart for the See also:

• EXCHANGE

exchange of the products of See also:

• SILESIA

Silesia, See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary and See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian and See also:

• AUSTRIAN

Austrian Poland .

Its See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade in See also:

• TIMBER

timber, See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt, textiles, See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle, See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine and agricultural produce of all kinds is very considerable . In the neighbourhood of Cracow there are mines of See also:

• COAL

coal and See also:

• ZINC

zinc, and not far away lies the See also:

• VILLAGE

village of Krzeszowice with See also:

• SULPHUR

sulphur See also:

• BATHS

baths . About 22 M . N.W. lies the Kosciuszko See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

Hill, a See also:

• MOUND

mound of See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo ft. high, thrown up in 1820—1823 on the Borislava hill (1093 ft.), in See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour of Thaddaeus Kosciuszko, the See also:

• HERO (Gr. open)
• HERO, THE YOUNGER

hero of Poland . On the opposite bank of the Vistula, See also:

• UNITED

united to Cracow by a See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge, lies the town of Podgorze (pop . 18,142); near it is the Krakus Hill, smaller than the Kosciuszko Hill, and a thousand years older than it, erected in honour of Krakus, the founder of Cracow . About 8 m . S.E. of Cracow is situated See also:

• WIELICZKA

Wieliczka (q.v.), with its famous salt mines . History.—Tradition assigns the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of Cracow to the mythical Krak, a Polish See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince who is said to have built a strong-hold here about A.D . 700 . Its See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early history is, however, entirely obscure . In the latter part of the loth century it was annexed to the Bohemian principality, but was recaptured by Boleslaus Chrobry, who made it the seat of a bishopric, and it became the capital of one of the most important of the principalities into which Poland was divided from the 12th century onwards .

The See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city was practically ruined during the first Tatar invasion in 1241, but the introduction of See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German colonists restored its prosperity, and in 1257 it received " See also:

• MAGDEBURG

Magdeburg rights," i.e. a civic constitution modelled on that of-Magdeburg . In this See also:

• YEAR

year the Tuchhalle was built . The town, however, had yet to pass through many vicissitudes . It suffered again from Tatar invasions; in 1290 it was captured by See also:

• WENCESLAUS (1361-1419)

Wenceslaus II. of Bohemia and was held by the Bohemians until, in 1305, the Polish king Ladislaus Lokietek recovered it from Wenceslaus III . Ladislaus made it his capital, and from this See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time until 1764 it remained the See also:

• CORONATION (Lat. corona, crown)

coronation' and burial place of the Polish kings, even after the royal residence had been removed by Siegmund III . (1587–1632) to See also:

• WARSAW
• WARSAW (Polish Warszawa, Ger. Warschau, Fr. Varsovie)

Warsaw . On the third See also:

• PARTITION

partition of Poland in 1795 Austria took See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of Cracow; but in 1809 See also:

• NAPOLEON

Napoleon wrested it from that See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power, and incorporated it with the duchy of Warsaw, which was placed under the See also:

• RULE

rule of the king of See also:

• SAXONY
• SAXONY (Ger. Provinz Sachsen)

Saxony . In the See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign of 18'2 the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander made himself master of this and the other territory which formed the duchy of Warsaw . At the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement of the affairs of Europe by the great See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers in 1815, it was agreed that Cracow and the adjoining territory should be formed into a See also:

• FREE

free See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state; and, by the Final See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

Act of the See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

congress signed at See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna in 1815, " the town of Cracow, with its territory, is declared to be for ever a free, See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent and strictly neutral city, under the See also:

• PROTECTION

protection of See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia, Austria and See also:

• PRUSSIA
• PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; Lat. Borussia)

Prussia." In See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 1846, however, an insurrection See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke out in Cracow, apparently a ramification of a widely spread See also:

• CONSPIRACY (from Lat. conspirare, literally to breathe together, to agree, combine, and especially to form a secret plot)

conspiracy throughout Poland . The See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate and the other authorities of Cracow were unable to subdue the rebels or to maintain See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order, and, at their See also:

• REQUEST, LETTERS OF

request, the city was occupied by a See also:

• CORPS (pronounced as in French, from which it is taken, being a late spelling of tors, from Lat. corpus, a body; cf. " corpse ")

corps of Austrian troops for the protection of the inhabitants . The three powers, Russia, Austria and Prussia, made this a pretext for extinguishing this independent state; and as the outcome of a See also:

• CONFERENCE

conference at Vienna (See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 1846) the three courts, contrary to the assurance previously given, and in opposition to the expressed views of the See also:

• BRITISH

British and See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French governments, decided to extinguish the state of Cracow and to incorporate it with the dominions of Austria .