See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. See also:

• CANDIA

Candia)  , after See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily, See also:

• SARDINIA (Gr. 'IXs'o"uva, from a fancied resemblance to a footprint in its shape, Ital. Sardegna)

Sardinia and See also:

• CYPRUS
• CYPRUS, CHURCH OF

Cyprus the largest See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island in the Mediterranean, situated between 34°5o'and 35°4o' N. See also:

• LAT

lat. and between 23°3o' and 26°2o' E. See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long . Its See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-eastern extremity, Cape Sidero, is distant about See also:

• ITO, HIROBUMI, PRINCE (1841-1909)

Ito m. from Cape Krio in See also:

• ASIA

Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor, the See also:

• INTERVAL

interval being partly filled by the islands of Carpathos and See also:

• RHODES
• RHODES, CECIL JOHN (1853-1902)
• RHODES, JAMES FORD

Rhodes; its north-western, Cape Grabusa, is within 6o m. of Cape Malea in the Morea . See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

Crete thus forms the natural limit between the Mediterranean and the See also:

• ARCHIPELAGO

Archipelago . The island is of elongated See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form; its length from E. to W. is 16o m., its breadth from N. to S. varies from 35 to 72 m., its See also:

• AREA

area is 3330 sq. m . The See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast-See also:

• LINE

line is much indented . On the W. two narrow mountainous promontories, the western terminating in Cape Grabusa or Busa (See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient Corycus), the eastern in Cape Spada, shut in the See also:

• BAY

Bay of Kisamos; beyond the Bay of See also:

• CANEA, or KHANIA

Canea, to the E., the rocky See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula of Akrotiri shelters the magnificent natural See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

harbour of Suda (82 sq. m.), the only completely protected anchorage for large vessels which the island affords . Farther E. are the bays of See also:

• CANDIA

Candia and Malea, the deep Mirabello Bay and the Bay of Sitia . The See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south coast is less broken, and possesses no natural harbours, the mountains in many parts rising almost like a See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall from the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea; in the centre is Cape Lithinos, the southernmost point of the island, partly sheltering the Bay of Messara on the W . Immediately to the E. of Cape Lithinos is the small bay of See also:

• KALI (black)

Kali Limenes or See also:

• FAIR

Fair Havens, where the See also:

• SHIP

ship conveying St See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul took See also:

• REFUGE

refuge (Acts See also:

• XXVII

xxvii . 8) . Of the islands in the neighbourhood of the Cretan coast the largest is Gavdo (ancient Clauda, Acts A 2.j B 2s° C 26 D MED!T£RRANEAN SEA CRETE 35 e ao See also:

• COE

Coe See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

Miles C }N SQO Ito `i~ w p ^,nS Ppnt~eonsl`~ ti xsa s5a of e 1 Ennecno 4 st0°~ cK ~ 'a ~ , '~° )l,.e o 5 0 20 Slot; See also:

• COL
• COL (Fr. for " neck," Lat. collum)

Col r -~.r: h Capfuls of Departments, o Mrnoan and l 2akro sites mtaer/mede7 rean dt I s e 1 s _. qp oto vN, s c 0otee d Csoo has at So`O°°a 3' 4 ,o c.s°rm°ne 4, 2akro '' N°~° bg Qd s b'' f8 Gpo See also:

• MARA, GERTRUD ELISABETH (1749-1833)

Mara n 6Q C . See also:

• MAI, ANGELO (1782—1854)

Mai so,e p 777~~IIi ~-a•• (2 - J o Q'NfiE6..s Cevdopu~on ,tt; KophigR , a Gaudo~/~ MeaN9°~1 ~ 9 e (C,e°d, ~~~~iF6 J o I u~ °o, ''~OSA .

~GVtM s tlo nPr .f _ o 2 z o d i use HW. s.c . 2a` See also:

• LONGITUDE (from Lat. longitudo, " length ")

Longitude See also:

• LAS

Las, 25' of GreenmIch 26' xxvii . 16), about 25 M. from the south coast at Sphakia, in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages the see of a See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop . On the N. See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side the small island of Dia, or Standia, about 8 m. from Candia, offers a convenient shelter against northerly See also:

• GALES (mod. Calvi)

gales . Three small islands on the northern coast—Grabusa at the N.W. extremity, Suda, at the entrance to Suda harbour, and Spinalonga, in Mirabello Bay—remained for some See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time in the See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of See also:

• VENICE
• VENICE (continued)
• VENICE (Venezia)

Venice after the See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest of Crete by the See also:

• TURKS

Turks . Grabusa, long regarded as an impregnable fortress, was surrendered in 1692, Suda (where the flags of See also:

• TURKEY

Turkey and the four protecting See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers are now hoisted) and Spinalonga in 1715 . Natural Features.—The greater See also:

• PART

part of the island is occupied by ranges of mountains which form four See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups . In the western portion rises the massive range of the See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

White Mountains (Aspra ,Vouna), directly overhanging the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern coast with spurs projecting towards the W. and N.W . (highest See also:

• SUMMIT

summit, . Hagios Theodoros, 7882 ft.) . In the centre is the smaller, almost detached See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of Psiloriti (`T1/stXoperriov, ancient See also:

• IDA (d. 559)

Ida), culminating in Stavros (8193 ft.), the highest summit in the island . To the E. are the Lassithi mountains with Aphenti Christos (7165 ft.), and farther E. the mountains of Sitia with Aphenti Kavousi (485o ft.) .

The Kophino mountains (3888 ft.) See also:

• SEPARATE

separate the central See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain of Messara from the southern coast . The isolated See also:

• PEAK, THE

peak of Iuktas (about 2700 ft.), nearly due S. of Candia, was regarded with veneration in antiquity as the See also:

• BURIAL

burial-See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of See also:

• ZEUS

Zeus . The principal groups are for the greater part of the See also:

• YEAR

year covered with See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow, which remains in the deeper clefts throughout the summer; the intervals between them are filled by connecting chains which sometimes reach the height of 3000 ft . The largest plain is that of Monofatsi and Messara, a fertile See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract extending between Mt . Psiloriti and the Kophino range, about 37 M. in length and 10 m. in breadth . The smaller plain, or rather slope, adjoining Canea and the valley of Alikianfl, through which the Platanos (ancient Iardanos) flows, are of See also:

• GREAT

great beauty and fertility . A See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar feature is presented by the level upland basins which furnish abundant pasturage during the summer months; the more remarkable are the Omalo in the White Mountains (about 4000 ft.) drained by subterranean outlets (Kara/@oOpa), Nida (eh Tim "Hap) in Psiloriti (between 5000 and 6000 ft.), and the Lassithi plain (about 3000 ft.), a more extensive area, on which are several villages . Another remarkable characteristic is found in the deep narrow ravines (Oapayyra), bordered by precipitous cliffs, which See also:

• TRAVERSE

traverse the mountainous districts; into some of these the daylight scarcely penetrates . Numerous large caves exist in the mountains; among the most remarkable are the famous Idaean See also:

• CAVE (Lat. cavea, from caves, hollow)
• CAVE, EDWARD (1691–1754)
• CAVE, WILLIAM (1637–1713)

cave in Psiloriti, the caves of Melidoni, in Mylopotamo, and Sarchu, in Malevisi, which sheltered hundreds of refugees after the insurrection of 1866, and the Dictaean cave in Lassithi, the See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth-place of Zeus . The so-called See also:

• LABYRINTH (Gr. Xa(3vpcvOos, Lat. labyrinthus)

Labyrinth, near the ruins of See also:

• GORTYNA, or GORTYN

Gortyna, was a subterranean See also:

• QUARRY

quarry from which the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city was built . The principal See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers are the Metropoli Potamos and the Anapothiari, which drain the plain of Monofatsi and enter the southern sea E. and W. respectively of the Kophino range; the Platanos, which flows northwards from the White Mountains into the Bay of Canea; and the Mylopotamo (ancient Oaxes) flowing northwards from Psiloriti to the sea E. of Retimo . See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology.'—The metamorphic rocks of western Crete form a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series some 9000 to 10,000 ft. in thickness, of very varied See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition .

They include See also:

• GYPSUM

gypsum, See also:

• DOLOMITE

dolomite, conglomerates, phyllites, and a basic series of eruptive rocks (gabbros, peridotites, serpentines) . Glaucophane rocks are widely spread . In the centre of the folds fossiliferous beds with crinoids have been found, and the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black slates at the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of the series contain Myophoria and other fossils, indicating that the rocks are of Triassic See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age . It is, however, not impossible that the metamorphic series includes also some of the See also:

• LIAS

Lias . The later beds of the island belong to the See also:

• JURASSIC

Jurassic, Cretaceous and See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary systems . At the western See also:

• FOOT

foot of the Ida See also:

• MASSIF

massif calcareous beds with See also:

• CORALS (KoRAis), ADAMANTIOS [in French, DIAMANT CORAY] (1748–1833)

corals, brachiopods (Rhynchonella inconstans, &c.) have been found, the fossils indicating the See also:

• HORIZON (Gr. 6pfTwv, dividing)

horizon of the Kimmeridge See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay . See also:

• LOWER

Lower Cretaceous limestones and See also:

• SCHISTS (Gr. vxq'ecv, to split)

schists, with radiolarian cherts, arc extensively See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed; and in many parts of the island Upper Creta- ' See L . Cayeux, " See also:

• LES

Les Lignes directrices See also:

• DES

des plissements de See also:

• FILE

file de Crete," C.R . IX . Cong. geol. internat . See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna, pp . 383-392 (1904).ceous limestones with Rudistes and See also:

• EOCENE (Gr. *In, dawn, icauvos, recent)

Eocene beds with nummuliteo have been found .

All these are involved in the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth movements to which the mountains of the island owe their formation, but the See also:

• MIOCENE

Miocene beds (with Clypeaster) and later deposits See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie almost undisturbed upon the coasts and the See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low-lying ground . With the Jurassic beds is associated an extensive series of eruptive rocks (See also:

• GABBRO

gabbro, See also:

• PERIDOTITE

peridotite, See also:

• SERPENTINE

serpentine, See also:

• DIORITE (from the Gr. S&oi4eiv to distinguish, from hA through, Epos, a boundary)

diorite, See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite, &c.) ; they are chiefly of Jurassic age, but the eruptions may have continued into the Lower Cretaceous . The structure of the island is complex . In the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west the folds run from north to south, curving gradually westward towards the southern and western coasts; but in the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east the folds appear to run from west to east, and to be the continuation of the Dinaric folds of the See also:

• BALKAN

Balkan peninsula . The structure is further complicated by a great thrust-See also:

• PLANE

plane which has brought the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous beds upon the Upper Cretaceous and Eocene beds . Vegetation.—The forests which once covered the mountains have for the most part disappeared and the slopes are now desolate wastes . The See also:

• CYPRESS (Cupressus)

cypress still grows See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild in the higher regions; the lower hills and the valleys, which are extremely fertile, are covered with See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods . Oranges and lemons also abound, and are of excellent quality, furnishing almost the whole See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental See also:

• GREECE

Greece and See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople . See also:

• CHESTNUT (nux Castanea)

Chestnut woods are found in the Selino See also:

• DISTRICT

district, and forests of the valonia See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak in that of Retimo; in some parts the carob See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree is abundant and supplies an important See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article of See also:

• CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

consumption . See also:

• PEARS

Pears, apples, quinces, mulberries and other See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit-trees flourish, as well as vines; the Cretan wines, however, no longer enjoy the reputation which they possessed in the time of the Venetians . See also:

• TOBACCO

Tobacco and See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton succeed well in the plains and low grounds, though not at See also:

• PRESENT

present cultivated to any great extent . _ Animals.—Of the wild animals of Crete, the wild See also:

• GOAT (a common Teut. word; O. Eng. gat, Goth. gaits, Mod. Ger. Geiss, cognate with Lat. haedus, a kid)

goat or agrimi (Capra aegagrus) alone need be mentioned; it is still found in considerable See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers on the higher summits of Psiloriti and the White Mountains .

The same See also:

• SPECIES

species is found in the See also:

• CAUCASUS

Caucasus and See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount See also:

• TAURUS (" the Bull ")

Taurus, and is distinct from the See also:

• IBEX

ibex or bouquetin of the See also:

• ALPS

Alps . Crete, like several other large islands, enjoys See also:

• IMMUNITY (from Lat. immunis, not subject to a munus or public service)

immunity from dangerous serpents—a See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege ascribed by popular belief to the intercession of See also:

• TITUS
• TITUS, FLAVIUS SABINUS VESPASIANUS
• TITUS, THE EPISTLE TO

Titus, the See also:

• COMPANION (through the O. Fr. compaignon or compagnon, from the Late Lat. companio,—cum, with, and panis, bread,—one who shares meals with another; the word has been wrongly derived from the Late Lat. compagnus, one of the same pages or district)

companion of St Paul, who according to tradition was the first bishop of the island, and became in consequence its See also:

• PATRON

patron See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

saint . Wolves also are not found in the island, though See also:

• COMMON

common in Greece and Asia Minor . The native breed of mules is remarkably See also:

• FINE

fine . See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

Population.—The population of Crete under the Venetians was estimated at about 250,000 . After the See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish conquest it greatly diminished, but afterwards gradually See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose, till it was supposed to have attained to about 260,000, of whom about See also:

• HALF

half were Mahommedans, at the time, of the outbreak of the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek revolution in 1821 . The ravages of the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war from 1821 to 1830, and the See also:

• EMIGRATION (from Lat. emigrare; e, ex, out of, and migrare, to depart)

emigration that followed, caused a great diminution, and the population was estimated by Pashley in 1836 at only about 130,000 . In the next See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation it again materially increased; it was calculated by See also:

• SPRATT, THOMAS ABEL BRIMAGE (1811-1888)

Spratt in 1865 as amounting to 210,000 . According to the See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census taken in 1881, the See also:

• COMPLETE

complete publication of which was interdicted by the Turkish authorities, the population of the island was 279,165, or 35.78 to the square kilometre . Of this See also:

• TOTAL

total, 141,602 were See also:

• MALES

males, 137,563 See also:

• FEMALES

females; 33,173 were literate, 242,114 illiterate; 205,010 were orthodox Christians, 73,234 Moslems, and 921 of other religious persuasions . The Moslem See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element predominated in the principal towns, of which the population was—Candia, 21,368; Canea, 13,812; Retimo, 9274 . According to the census taken in See also:

• JUNE

June 1900, the population of the island was 301,273, the Christians having increased to 267,266, while the Moslems had diminished to 33,281 .

The Moslems, as well as the Christians, are of Greek origin and speak Greek . Towns.—The three principal towns are on the northern coast and possess small harbours suitable for vessels of See also:

• LIGHT

light See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught . Candia, the former See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital and the see of the See also:

• ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

archbishop of Crete (pop. in 1900, 22,501), is officially styled Herakleion; it is surrounded by remarkable Venetian fortifications and possesses a museum with a valuable collection of See also:

• OBJECTS

objects found at See also:

• CNOSSUS

Cnossus, Phaestus, the Idaean cave and elsewhere . It has been occupied since 1897 by See also:

• BRITISH

British troops . Canea (Xavia), the seat of See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government since 1840 (pop . 20,972), is built in the See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style; its walls and interesting See also:

• GALLEY (derived through the 0. Fr. galee, galie, from the Med. Lat. galea, Ital. galea, Port. gale, of uncertain origin; from the Med. Lat. variant form galera are derived the Mod. Fr. galere, Span. and Ital. galera)

galley-slips recall the Venetian See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period . The See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence of the high See also:

• COMMISSIONER

commissioner and the consulates of the powers are in the suburb of Halepa . Retimo (PEBvµvos) is, like Canea, the see of a bishop (pop . 9311) . The other towns, Hierapetra, Sitia, Kisamos, Selino and Sphakia, are unimportant . See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

Production and See also:

• INDUSTRIES

Industries.—Owing to the volcanic nature of its See also:

• SOIL

soil, Crete is probably See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in minerals . See also:

• RECENT

Recent experiments See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead to the conclusion that See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron, lead, See also:

• MANGANESE (symbol Mn; atomic weight, 54.93 (0=16)], a metallic chemical element. Its dioxide (pyrolusite)

manganese, See also:

• LIGNITE (Lat. lignum, wood)

lignite and See also:

• SULPHUR

sulphur exist in considerable abundance .

See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

Copper and See also:

• ZINC

zinc have also been found . A large number of applications for See also:

• MINING

mining See also:

• CON

con-cessions have been received since the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of the autonomous government . The principal See also:

• WEALTH

wealth of the island is derived from its olive groves; notwithstanding the destruction of many See also:

• THOU, JACQUES AUGUSTE DE [THUANUS] (1553-1617)
• THOU, NOM

thou-sands of trees during each successive insurrection, the production is apparently undiminished, and will probably increase very considerably owing to the planting of See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young trees and the improved methods of cultivation which the Government is endeavouring to promote . The See also:

• ORANGE
• ORANGE (Citrus Aurantium)
• ORANGE, HOUSE OF

orange and See also:

• LEMON
• LEMON, MARK (1809-1870)

lemon groves have also suffered considerably, but new varieties of the orange tree are now being introduced, and an impulse will be given to the export See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade in this fruit by the removal of the restriction on its importation into Greece . See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

Agriculture is still in a See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition; notwithstanding the fertility of the arable See also:

• LAND

land the supply of cereals is far below the requirements of the population . A great portion of the central plain of Monofatsi, the principal See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain-producing district, is lying See also:

• FALLOW

fallow owing to the See also:

• EXODUS, BOOK OF
• EXODUS, THE

exodus of the Moslem peasantry . The cultivation of See also:

• SILK

silk cocoons, formerly a flourishing See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry, has greatly declined in recent years, but efforts are now being made to revive it . There are few manufactures . See also:

• SOAP

Soap is produced at fifteen factories in the principal towns, and there are two distilleries of See also:

• COGNAC

cognac at Candia . See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

Commerce.—The expansion of Cretan commerce has been retarded by many drawbacks, such as the unsatisfactory condition of the harbours, the want of See also:

• DIRECT

direct steamship lines to See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England and other countries, and the deficiency of See also:

• INTERNAL

internal communications . The total value of imports in the four years 1901–1904 was £1,756,888, of exports £1,386,777; excess of imports over exports, £37o,III, Exports in 1904 were valued at £419,642, the principal items being agricultural products (oranges, lemons, carobs, almonds, grapes, valonia, &c.), value £153,858, See also:

• OLIVES, MOUNT OF, or MOUNT OLIVET ("Opus 'EXc uwos or riov 'EXauav; mod. Jebel-et-Tur)

olives and products of olives (oil, soap, &c.), £134,788, and wines and liquors, f48,544 . The countries which accept the largest See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share of Cretan produce are Turkey, England, See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt, See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria and See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia .

Imports in 1904 were valued at £549,665, including agricultural products (mainly See also:

• FLOUR

flour and See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn), value £162,535 and textiles, £I29,349• Cereals are imported from the Black Sea and See also:

• DANUBE (Ger. Donau, Hungarian Duna, Rumanian Dunarea, Lat. Danubius or Danuvius, and in the lower part of its course Ister)

Danube ports, ready-made clothing from Austria and See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, articles of luxury from Austria and See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, and cotton textiles from England . Imports are charged 8 %, exports 1 % ad valorem See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty . According to a See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law published in 1899, Turkish merchandise became subjected to the same rates as that of See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign nations . Constitution and Government.—During the past half-See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century the affairs of Crete have repeatedly occupied the See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . Owing to the existence of a strong Mussulman minority among its inhabitants, the warlike See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the natives, and the mountainous configuration of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country, which enabled a portion of the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian population to maintain itself in a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of partial See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence, the island has constantly been the See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene of prolonged and sanguinary struggles in which the numerical superiority of the Christians was counterbalanced by the aid rendered to the Moslems by the See also:

• OTTOMAN

Ottoman troops . This unhappy state of affairs was aggravated and perpetuated by the intrigues set on foot at Constantinople against successive See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors of the island, the conflicts between the See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

Palace and the See also:

• PORTE, THE SUBLIME (Arab. babi-'ali, the high gate, through the French translation la sublime porte)

Porte, the duplicity of the Turkish authorities, the dissensions of the representatives of the great powers, the machinations of Greek See also:

• AGITATORS, or ADJUTATORS

agitators, the rivalry of Cretan politicians, and prolonged See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial mismanagement . A long series of insurrections—those of 1821, 1833, 1841, 1858, 1866–1868, 1878, 1889 and 1896 may be especially mentioned—culminated in the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• REBELLION

rebellion of 1897, which led to the interference of Greece, the intervention of the great powers, the See also:

• EXPULSION (Lat. expulsio, from expellere)

expulsion of the Turkish authorities, and the establishment of an autonomous Cretan government under the See also:

• SUZERAINTY

suzerainty of the See also:

• SULTAN (an Arabic word meaning " victorious " or " a ruler," sultat, dominion)

sultan . According to the autonomous constitution of 1899 the supreme See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power was vested in See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

Prince See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George of Greece, acting as high commissioner of the protecting powers . The authority thus conferred was confided exclusively to the prince, and was declared liable to modification by law in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of his successor . The modified constitution of See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 1907 curtailed the large exceptional legislative and administrative powers then accorded . The high commissioner is irresponsible,but his decrees, except in certain specified cases, must be See also:

• COUNTER

counter-signed by a member of his See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council . He convokes, prorogues and dissolves the chamber, sanctions See also:

• LAWS

laws, exercises the right of See also:

• PARDON (through the Fr. from Late Lat. perdonare, to remit a debt or other obligation on a penalty)

pardon in case of See also:

• POLITICAL

political offences, represents the island in its foreign relations and is See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief of its military forces .

The chamber (,3ov o ), which is elected in the proportion of one See also:

• DEPUTY (through the Fr. from a Late Lat. use of deputare, to cut off, allot; putare having the original sense of to trim, prune)

deputy to every 5000 inhabitants, meets annually for a session of two months . New elections are held every two years . The chamber exercises a complete financial See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control, and no taxes can be imposed without its consent . The high commissioner is aided in the See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration by a See also:

• CABINET

cabinet of three members, styled " councillors " (ovµ/3ovXoa), who superintend the departments of See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice, See also:

• FINANCE

finance, See also:

• EDUCATION

education, public See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security and the interior . The councillors, who are nominated and dismissed by the high commissioner, are responsible to the chamber, which may impeach them before a See also:

• SPECIAL

special tribunal for any illegal See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act or neglect of duty . In general the Cretan constitution is characterized by a conservative spirit, and contrasts with the ultra-democratic systems established in Greece and the Balkan States . A further point of difference is the more liberal See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment of public functionaries in Crete . For administrative purposes the departmental divisions existing under the Turkish government have been retained . There are 5 nomoi or prefectures (formerly sanjaks) each under a See also:

• PREFECT (prefet)

prefect (voµapXos), and 23 eparchies (formerly kazas) each under a sub-prefect (€7rapXos) . All these functionaries are nominated by the high commissioner . The prefects are assisted by depart-See also:

• MENTAL

mental See also:

• COUNCILS

councils . The See also:

• SYSTEM

system of municipal and communal government remains practically unchanged .

The island is divided into 86 communes, each with a See also:

• MAYOR (Lat. major, greater)
• MAYOR, JOHN EYTON BICKERSTETH (1825– )

mayor, an assistant-mayor, and a communal council elected by the See also:

• PEOPLE

people . The councils assess within certain limits the communal taxes, maintain roads, See also:

• BRIDGES
• BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844– )

bridges, &c., and generally superintend See also:

• LOCAL

local affairs . Public See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order is maintained by a force of See also:

• GENDARMERIE

gendarmerie (XwpokuXaKtil) organized and at first commanded by Italian See also:

• OFFICERS

officers, who were replaced by Greek officers in See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1906 . The constitution authorizes the formation of a See also:

• MILITIA (Fr. milice, Ger. Miliz, from Lat. miles, soldier, militia, military service)

militia (iroXtrock vXaKij) to be enrolled by See also:

• CONSCRIPTION (from Lat. con-, together, and scribere, to write)

conscription, but in existing circumstances the embodiment of this force seems unnecessary . Justice.—The administration of justice is on the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model . A supreme See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of See also:

• APPEAL

appeal, which also discharges the functions of a court of cassation, sits at Canea . There are two See also:

• ASSIZE

assize courts at Canea and Candia respectively with See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction in regard to serious offences (Kaxon pryilµara) . Minor offences (7rXt7µ ssXibuara) and See also:

• CIVIL

civil causes are tried by courts of first instance in each of the five departments . There are 26 justices of See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace, to whose decision are referred slight contraventions of the law (irraivµara) and civil causes in which the amount claimed is below 600 francs . These functionaries also hold monthly sessions in the various communes . The See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges are chosen without regard to religious belief, and precautions have been taken to render them See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent of political parties . They are appointed, promoted, transferred or removed by order of the council of justice, a See also:

• BODY

body composed of the five highest judicial dignitaries, sitting at Canea .

An order for the removal of a See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge must be based upon a conviction for some specified offence before a court of law . The See also:

• JURY

jury system has not been introduced . The Greek penal See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code has been adopted with some modifications . The Ottoman civil code is maintained for the present, but it is proposed to establish a code recently See also:

• DRAWN

drawn up by Greek jurists which is mainly based on Italian and Saxon law . The Mussulman cadis retain their jurisdiction in regard to religious affairs, See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage, See also:

• DIVORCE

divorce, the wardship of minors and See also:

• INHERITANCE

inheritance . See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

Religion and Education.—The vast See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the Christian population belongs to the Orthodox (Greek) See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church, which is governed by a See also:

• SYNOD
• SYNOD (Gr. vbvobos)

synod of seven bishops under the See also:

• PRESIDENCY

presidency of the See also:

• METROPOLITAN (Lat. metropolitanus, Gr. µnrpoiroXtrns)

metropolitan of Candia . The Cretan Church is not, strictly speaking, See also:

• AUTOCEPHALOUS (from Gr. abaes, self, and Ke¢aXi7, head)

autocephalous, being dependent on the patriarchate of Constantinople . There were in 1907 3500 Greek churches in the island with 53 monasteries and 3 nunneries; 55 mosques, 4 See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic churches and 4 synagogues . Education `s nominally compulsory . In 1907 there were 547 See also:

• PRIMARY

primary See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools (527 Christian and 20 See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

Mahommedan), and 31 secondary schools (all Christian) . About £20,000 is granted annually by the state for the purposes of education . Finance.—Owing to the havoc wrought during repeated insurrections, the impoverishment of the peasants, the desolation of the districts formerly inhabited by the Moslem agricultural population, and the drain of See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold resulting from the See also:

• SALE
• SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736)
• SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782—1845)

sale of Moslem lands and emigration of the former proprietors, together with other causes, the financial situation has been unsatisfactory .

Notwithstanding the advance of £160,000 made by the four protecting powers after the institution of autonomous government and the profits (£61,937) derived from the issue of a new currency in 1900, there was at the beginning of 1906 an accumulated deficit of £23,470, which represents the floating See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt . In addition to the above-mentioned debt to the powers, the state contracted a See also:

• LOAN (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Swed. Mn, Icel. lan, Dut. leen; the O.E. laen appears in " lend," the ultimate source is seen in the root of Gr. Xeiaecv and Lat. linquere, to leave)

loan of £60,000 in 1901 to acquire the rights and privileges of the Ottoman Debt, to which the See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt See also:

• MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

monopoly has been conceded for 20 years . In the budgets for 1905 and 1906 considerable economies were effected by the curtailment of salaries, the abolition of various posts, and the reduction of the estimates for education and public See also:

• WORKS

works . The estimated See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue and See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure for 1906 were as follows: Revenue . Expenditure . Drachmae (gold) . Drachmae (gold) . Direct taxes . 1,494,000 High Commissioner . 200,000 Indirect taxes . 1,715,000 Financial adminis- tration . 694,670 See also:

• STAMP (from " to stamp," to strike or tread heavily, hence to impress, O. Eng. stempen, Du. stampen, Ger. stampfen, whence, O. Fr. estamper, mod. etamper)

Stamp dues .

351,700 Interior (including gendarmerie) . . 1,678,566 Other See also:

• SOURCES

sources 780,967 Education and Justice 1,453,500 4,341,667 4,026,736 The See also:

• SALARY

salary of the high commissioner was reduced in 1907 to 100,000 drachmae . Improved communications are much needed for the transport of agricultural produce, but the state of the See also:

• TREASURY

treasury does not admit of more than a nominal expenditure on road-making and other public works . On these the See also:

• AVERAGE

average yearly expenditure between 1898 and 1905 was £x3,404 . The prosperity of the island depends on the development of agriculture, the acquirement of industrious habits by the people, and the See also:

• ABANDONMENT (Fr. abandonnement, from abandonner, to abandon, relinquish; abandonner was originally equivalent to mettred banddn, to leave to the jurisdiction, i.e. of another, bandon being from Low Latin bandum, bannum, order, decree, " ban ")

abandonment of political agitation . The Cretans were in 1906 more lightly taxed than any other people in Europe . The tithe had been replaced by an export tax on exported agricultural produce levied at the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom-houses, and the smaller See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

peasant proprietors and shepherds of the mountainous districts were practically exempt from any contribution to the state . The communal tax did not exceed on the average two francs annually for each See also:

• FAMILY

family . The poorer communes are aided by a state subvention . (J . D . B.) See also:

• ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. &pxa1a, ancient things, and Xoyos, theory or science)

Archaeology .

The recent exploration and excavation of See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early sites in Crete have entirely revolutionized our knowledge of its Early, remote past, and afforded the most astonishing Middle See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of the existence of a highly advanced and See also:

• LATE

Late See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization going far back behind the historic period . "Minoan" Great " Minoan " palaces have been brought to pertods. light at Cnossus and Phaestus, together with a minor but highly interesting royal See also:

• ABODE (from " abide," to dwell, properly " to wait for ," to bide)

abode at Hagia Triada near Phaestus . " Minoan " towns, some of considerable extent, have been discovered at Cnossus itself, at Gournia, Palaikastro, and at Zakro . The cave See also:

• SANCTUARY (from the late Lat. sanctuarium, a sacred place)

sanctuary of the Dictaean Zeus has been explored, and throughout the whole length and breadth of the island a mass of early materials has now been collected . The See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative evidence afforded by the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery of See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics shows that the Great Age of the Cretan palaces covers the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of the third and the first half of the second See also:

• MILLENNIUM (a pseudo-Latin word formed on the analogy of biennium, triennium, from Lat. milk, a thousand, and armies, year)

millennium before our era . But the contents of early tombs and dwellings and indications supplied by such objects as See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone vases and See also:

• SEAL
• SEAL, FUR
• SEAL, HAIR

seal-stones show that the Cretans had already attained to a considerable degree of culture, and had opened out communication with the See also:

• NILE
• NILE, BATTLE OF THE
• NILE, SOBAT

Nile valley in the time of the earliest Egyptian dynasties . This more primitive phase of the indigenous culture, of which several distinct stages are traceable, is known as the Early Minoan, and roughly corresponds with the first half of the third millennium B.C . The succeeding period, to which the first palaces are due and to which the name of Middle Minoan is appropriately given, roughly coincides with the Middle See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire of Egypt . An extraordinary perfection was at this time attained in many branches of See also:

• ART

art, notably in the painted pottery, often with polychrome decoration, of a class known as " Kamares " from its first discovery in a cave of that name on Mount Ida . Imported specimens of this See also:

• WARE

ware were found by See also:

• FLINDERS, MATTHEW (1774-1814)

Flinders See also:

• PETRIE, GEORGE (179o-1866)
• PETRIE, WILLIAM MATTHEW FLINDERS (1853– )

Petrie among XIIth See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

Dynasty remains at Kahun . The beginnings of a school of wall See also:

• PAINTING

painting also go back to the Middle Minoan period, and See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal technique and such arts as See also:

• GEM (Lat. gemma, a bud,—from the root gen, meaning " to produce,"—or precious stone; in the latter sense the Greek term is > d>os)
• GEM, ARTIFICIAL

gem See also:

• ENGRAVING

engraving show great advance . By the close of this period a manufactory of fine See also:

• FAIENCE

faience was attached to the palace of Cnossus .

The succeeding Late Minoan period, best illustrated by the later palace at Cnossus and that at Hagia Triada, corresponds in Egypt with the See also:

• HYKSOS

Hyksos period and the earlier part of the New Empire . In the first phase of this the Minoan civilization attains its See also:

• ACME (Gr. 6.Kµii, point)

acme, and the succeeding style already shows much that may be described as See also:

• ROCOCO, or ROCAILLE

rococo . The later phase, which follows on the destruction of the Cnossian palace, and corresponds with the diffused Mycenaean style of mainland Greece and else-where, is already partly decadent . Late Minoan art in its finest aspect is best illustrated by the animated See also:

• IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur)
• IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842)

ivory figures, wall paintings, and See also:

• GESSO

gesso duro reliefs at Cnossus, by the painted See also:

• STUCCO (Ital. stucco, adapted from O.H.G. stucchi, crust, piece, patch, Ger. Stuck, piece, allied to stock)

stucco designs at Hagia Triada, and the steatite vases found on the same site with zones in reliefs exhibiting See also:

• LIFE

life-like scenes of warriors, toreadors, See also:

• GLADIATORS (from Lat. gladius, sword)

gladiators, wrestlers and pugilists, and of a festal throng perhaps representing a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of " See also:

• HARVEST (A.S. hcerfest " autumn," O.H. Ger. herbist, possibly through an old Teutonic root representing Lat. car pere, " to pluck ")

harvest See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home." Of the more conventional side of Late Minoan life a graphic See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration is supplied by the remains of See also:

• MINIATURE

miniature wall paintings found in the palace of Cnossus, showing groups of court ladies in curiously See also:

• MODERN

modern costumes, seated on the terraces and balustrades of a sanctuary: A See also:

• GRAND

grand " palace style " of See also:

• VASE
• VASE (through Fr. from Lat. vas, a vessel, pl. vasa, of which the singular vasum is rarely found; the ultimate root is probably was-, to cover, seen in Lat: vestis, clothing, Eng. " vest," Gr. to-th c, and also in " wear," of garments)

vase painting was at the same time evolved, in See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony with the general decoration of the royal halls . It had been held till lately that the great civilization of pre-historic Greece, as first revealed to us by See also:

• SCHLIEMANN, HEINRICH (1822-1890)

Schliemann's discoveries at See also:

• MYCENAE

Mycenae, was not possessed of the art of See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing . In 1893, however, See also:

• ARTHUR (Fr. Arius)
• ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN (1830 – 1886)

Arthur See also:

• EVANS, CHRISTMAS (1766-1838)
• EVANS, EVAN HERBER (1836-1896)
• EVANS, OLIVER (1755–1819)
• EVANS, SIR GEORGE DE LACY (1787–1870)
• EVANS, SIR JOHN (1823-1908)

Evans observed some signs on seal-stones from Crete which led him to believe that a hieroglyphic system of writing had existed in Minoan times . Explorations carried out by him in Crete from 1894 onwards, for the purpose of investigating the prehistoric civilization of the island, fully corroborated this belief, and showed that a linear as well as a semi-pictorial form of writing was diffused in the island at a very early period (" Cretan Pictographs and Prae-Phoenician Script," Journ. of Hellenic Studies, xiv. pt . II) . In 1895 he obtained a See also:

• LIBATION (Lat. libatio, from libare, to take a portion of something, to taste, hence to pour out as an offering to a deity, &c.; cf. Gr. Aeid3ew)

libation-table from the Dictaean cave with a linear See also:

• DEDICATION (Lat. dedicatio, from dedicare, to proclaim, to announce)

dedication in the prehistoric writing (" Further Discoveries," &c., J.H.S. xvii.) . Finally in 1900 all See also:

• SCEPTICISM (o-Kesrroµai, I consider, reflect, hesitate, doubt)

scepticism in the learned See also:

• WORLD

world was set at See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest by his discovery in the palace of Cnossus of whole archives consisting of clay tablets inscribed both in the pictographic (hieroglyphic) and linear forms of the Minoan script (Evans, " Palace of Knossos," Reports of Excavation, 1900–1905; Scripta Minoa, vol. i., 1909) . Supplementary finds of inscribed tablets have since been found at Hagia Triada (F . Halbherr, Rapporto, &°c., Monumenti antichi, 1903) and elsewhere (Palaikastro, Zakro and Gournia) .

It thus appears that a highly developed system of writing existed in Minoan Crete some two thousand years earlier than the first introduction under Phoenician See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of Greek letters . In this, as in so many other respects, the old Cretan tradition receives striking See also:

• CONFIRMATION (Lat. confirmatio, from confirmare, to establish, make firm)

confirmation . According to the Cretan version preserved by Diodorus (v . 74), the Phoenicians did not invent letters but simply altered their forms . There is evidence that the use in Crete of both linear and pictorial signs existed in the Early Minoan period, contemporary with the first Egyptian dynasties . It is, however, Earlier during the Middle Minoan age, the centre point of which picto- corresponds with the Xllth Egyptian dynasty, See also:

• ACCORD (from Fr. accorder, to agree)

accord- grscraphic See also:

• ING

ing to the Sothic system of dating, c . 2000–1850 B.C., ipt: that a systematized pictographic or hieroglyphic script makes its See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance which is common both to signets and clay tablets . During the Third Middle Minoan period, the lower limits of which approach 1600 B.C., this pictographic script finally gives way to a still more developed linear system—which is itself divided into an earlier and a later class . The earlier class (A) is already found in the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple repositories of Cnossus belonging to the age immediately preceding the great remodelling of the Minoan script . palace, and this class is specially well represented in the tablets of Hagia Triada (M.M. iii. and L.M. i.) . The later class (B) of the linear script is that used on the great bulk of the clay tablets of the Cnossian palace, amounting in number to nearly 2000 . These clay archives are almost exclusively inventories and business documents .

Their general purport is shown in many cases by pictorial figures See also:

• RELATING

relating to various objects which appear on them—such as chariots and horses, ingots and metal vases, arms and implements, stores of corn, &c., flocks and herds . Many showing human figures apparently contain lists of See also:

• PERSONAL

personal names . A decimal system of numeration was used, with numbers going up to ro,000 . But the script itself is as yet undeciphered, though it is clear that certain words have changing suffixes, and that there were many See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound words . The script also recurs on walls in the shape of graffiti, and on vases, sometimes See also:

• INK (from Late Lat. encaustum, Gr. gysavorov, the purple ink used by Greek and Roman emperors, from iyKaiew, to burn in)

ink-written; and from the number of See also:

• SEALS

seals originally attached to perishable documents it is probable that See also:

• PARCHMENT

parchment or some similar material was also used . In the easternmost district of Crete, where the aboriginal " Eteocretan " element survived to historic times (Praesus, Palaikastro), later See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions have been discovered belonging to the 5th and succeeding centuries B.C., written in Greek letters but in the indigenous See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language (See also:

• COMPARETTI, DOMENICO (1835- )

Comparetti, Mon . See also:

• ANT
• ANT (O. Eng. aemete, from Teutonic a, privative, and maitan, cut or bite off, i.e. " the biter off "; aemete in Middle English became differentiated in dialect use to (mete, then amte, and so ant, and also to emete, whence the synonym " emmet," now only u

Ant. iii . 451 sqq.; R . S . See also:

• CONWAY (Conwy, or Aberconwy)
• CONWAY, HENRY SEYMOUR (1721-1795)
• CONWAY, HUGH
• CONWAY, MONCURE DANIEL (1832–1907)
• CONWAY, SIR WILLIAM MARTIN (1856– )

Conway, British School See also:

• ANNUAL

Annual, viii . 125 sqq. and ib. xl.) . In 1908 a remarkable discovery was made by the Italian See also:

• MISSION

Mission at Phaestus of a clay disk with imprinted hieroglyphic characters belonging to a non-Cretan system and probably from W .

See also:

• ANATOLIA (Gr. avaroX,7, sunrise, i.e. eastern land)

Anatolia . The remains of several shrines within the See also:

• BUILDING

building, and the religious element perceptible in the frescoes, show that a con- siderable part of the Palace of Cnossus was devoted character to purposes of cult . It is clear that the rulers, as so of Minoan religion. commonly in ancient states, fulfilled priestly as well as royal functions . The evidence supplied by this and other Cretan sites shows that the principal Minoan divinity was a kind of Magna Mater, a Great See also:

• MOTHER

Mother or nature goddess, with whom was associated a male See also:

• SATELLITE (from the Lat. satelles, an attendant)

satellite . The cult in fact corresponds in its See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main outlines with the early religious conceptions of See also:

• SYRIA

Syria and a large part of Anatolia—a See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence probably explained by a considerable amount of ethnic See also:

• AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from offinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary)
• AFFINITY, CHEMICAL

affinity existing between a large See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section of the primitive Cretan population and that of southern Asia Minor . The Minoan goddess is sometimes seen in her chthonic form with serpents, sometimes in a more See also:

• CELESTIAL, OR STELLAR

celestial aspect with doves, at times with lions . One part of her religious being survives in that of the later See also:

• RHEA

Rhea, another in that of See also:

• APHRODITE

Aphrodite, one of whose epithets, See also:

• ARIADNE (in Greek mythology)

Ariadne (=the exceeding See also:

• HOLY

holy), takes us back to the earliest Cnossian tradition . Under her native name, See also:

• BRITOMARTIS

Britomartis (=the sweet See also:

• MAIDEN, or MAID

maiden) or Dictynna, she approaches See also:

• ARTEMIS

Artemis and Leto, again associated with an See also:

• INFANT (in early forms enfaunt, enfant, through the Fr. enfant, from Lat. infans, in, not, and fans, the present participle of fari, to speak)

infant See also:

• GOD

god, and this Cretan virgin goddess was worshipped in See also:

• AEGINA
• AEGINA (EGINA or ENGIA)

Aegina under the name of Aphaea . It is -noteworthy that whereas, in Greece proper, Zeus attains a supreme position, the old superiority of the Mother Goddess is still visible in the Cretan traditions of Rhea and Dictynna and the infant Zeus . Although images of the divinities were certainly known, the principal objects of cult in the Minoan age were of the aniconic class; in many cases these were natural objects, such as rocks and See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain peaks, with their cave sanctuaries, like those of Ida or of Dicte . Trees and curiously shaped stones were also worshipped, and artificial pillars of See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood or stone . These latter, as in the well-known case of the See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

Lion's See also:

• GATE

Gate at Mycenae, often appear with See also:

• GUARDIAN

guardian animals as their supporters .

The essential feature of this cult is the bringing down of the celestial spirit by proper incantations and See also:

• RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom)

ritual into these fetish objects, the See also:

• DOVE
• DOVE (Dutch duyve, Dan. due, Ice. dufa, Ger. Taube)

dove perched on a See also:

• COLUMN (Lat. columna)

column sometimes indicating its descent . It is a primitive cult similar to that of Early See also:

• CANAAN, CANAANITES

Canaan, illustrated by the See also:

• PILLOW (O. Eng. pylu; Lat. pulvinus, a cushion)

pillow stone set up by See also:

• JACOB
• JACOB, JOHN (1812-1858)

Jacob, which was literally " See also:

• BETHEL (Heb. " House of God ")

Bethel " or the " See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

House of God." The See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story of the See also:

• BAETYLUS (Gr. fairvXos, (3aeri)Xzov)

baetylus, or stone swallowed by See also:

• SATURN
• SATURN [SATURNUS]

Saturn under the belief that it was his son, the Cretan Zeus, seems to See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover the same See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea and has been derived from the same Semitic word . A special form of this " baetylic " cult in Minoan Crete was therepresentation of the two principal divinities in their fetish form by See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double axes . Shrines of the Double Axes have been found in the palace of Cnossus itself, at Hagia Triada, and in a small palace at Gournia, and many specimens of the sacred See also:

• EMBLEM (Gr. Eµ3Xysa, something put in or inserted, from EµfiiXAew, to throw in)

emblem occurred in the Cave Sanctuary of Dicte, the mythical birthplace of the Cretan Zeus . Complete scenes of See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship in which libations are poured before the Sacred Axes are, moreover, given on a fine painted See also:

• SARCOPHAGUS (Gr. vapsorg yos, literally " flesh-eating," from vapt, flesh, ¢ayeiv, to eat)

sarcophagus found at Hagia Triada . The same cult survived to later times in See also:

• CARIA

Caria in the case of Zeus Labrandeus, whose name is derived from labrys, the native name for the double See also:

• AXE (0. Eng. aex; a word common, in different forms, in the Teutonic languages, and akin to the Greek 41v17; the New English Dictionary prefers the spelling " ax ")

axe, and it had already been Labyrinth suggested on philological grounds that the Cretan and " labyrinthos " was formed from a kindred form of See also:

• MINOTAUR (Gr. Mcvcn -avpos, from Mews, and Taps, bull)

Minotaur. the same word . The discovery that the great Minoan See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation at Cnossus was at once a palace and a sanctuary of the Double Axe and its associated divinities has now supplied a striking and it may well be thought an overwhelming confirmation of this view . We can hardly any longer hesitate to recognize in this vast building, with its winding corridors and subterranean ducts, the Labyrinth of later tradition; and as a See also:

• MATTER

matter of fact a See also:

• MAZE

maze See also:

• PATTERN

pattern recalling the conventional See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation of the Labyrinth in Greek art actually formed the decoration of one of the corridors of the palace . It is difficult, moreover, not to connect the repeated wall-paintings and reliefs of the palace illustrating the cruel See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

bull See also:

• SPORTS
• SPORTS, THE BOOK OF

sports of the Minoan See also:

• ARENA (Lat. for " sand ")

arena, in which girls as well as youths took part, with the See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend of the Minotaur, or bull of See also:

• MINOS

Minos, for whose grisly meals See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens was forced to pay annual See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute of her sons and daughters . It appears certain from the associations in which they are found at Cnossus, that these Minoan bull sports formed part of a religious ceremony . Actual figures of a See also:

• MONSTER (Lat. monstrum, from root of monere, to warn; i.e. something terrible or portentous)
• MONSTER, GEORG, COUNT ZU (1776-1844)

monster with a bull's See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head and See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man's body occurred on seals of Minoan fabric found on this and other Cretan sites . It is abundantly evident that whatever mythic element may have been interwoven with the old traditions of the spot, they have a solid substratum of reality .

With such remains Historic before us it is no longer sufficient to relegate Minos to sub-the regions of See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun-myths . His legendary presentation stratum of as the " Friend of God," like See also:

• ABRAHAM, or ABRAM (Hebrew for " father is high ")

Abraham, to whom as to Cretan See also:

• MOSES (Gr. Mwvo c, Mcoo-i3s)
• MOSES, ASSUMPTION OF

Moses the law was revealed on the holy mountain, calls myths. up indeed just such a See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest-See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of antiquity as the palace-sanctuary of Cnossus itself presupposes . It seems possible even that the ancient tradition which recorded an earlier or later king of the name of Minos may, as suggested above, cover a dynastic See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title . The earlier and later palaces at Cnossus and Phaestus, and the interrupted phases of each, seem to point to a See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession of dynasties, to which, as to its civilization as a whole, it is certainly convenient to apply the name " Minoan." It is interesting, as bringing out the personal element in the traditional royal seat, that an inscribed sealing belonging to the earliest period of the later palace of Cnossus bears on it the impression of two See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official signets with portrait heads of a man and of a boy, recalling the " associations " on the coinage of imperial See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome . It is clear that the later traditions in many respects accurately summed up the performances of the " Minoan " dynast who carried out the great buildings now brought to light . The palace, with its wonderful works of art, executed for Minos by the craftsman See also:

• DAEDALUS

Daedalus, has ceased to belong to the realms of See also:

• FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of " fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fantasie, modern fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. cbavraoia, Oavrai'ecv, Oat Pais, to show)

fancy . The extraordinary architectural skill, the sanitary and See also:

• HYDRAULIC

hydraulic See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science revealed in details of the building, bring us at the same time See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face to face with the power of See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical invention with which Daedalus was credited . The elaborate method and bureaucratic control visible in the clay documents of the palace point to a highly developed legal organization . The powerful See also:

• FLEET

fleet and maritime empire which Minos was said to have established will no doubt receive See also:

• FULLER, ANDREW (1954-1815)
• FULLER, GEORGE (1822—1884)
• FULLER, M
• FULLER, MARGARET, MARCHIONESS
• FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910)
• FULLER, THOMAS (16o8-1661)
• FULLER, WILLIAM (1670--c. 1717)

fuller illustration when the sea-See also:

• TOWN

town of Cnossus comes to be explored . The appearance of See also:

• SHIPS

ships on some of the most important seal-impressions is not needed, however, to show how widely Minoan influence made itself See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt in the neighbouring Mediterranean regions . The Nilotic influence visible in the vases, seals and other fabrics of the Early Minoan age, seems to imply a maritime activity on the part of the islanders going"back to the days of the first Egyptian dynasties . In a See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit at Kahun, belonging to Early the XIIth Dynasty, c .

2000 B.C., were already found relations imported polychrome vases of " Middle Minoan " with fabric . In the same way the important part played by Egypt . Cretan enterprise in the days of the New Egyptian empire is illustrated by repeated finds of Late Minoan pottery on Egyptian sites . A series of monuments, moreover, belonging to the early part of the XVIIIth Dynasty show the representa-The Kefts tives of the Kefts or peoples of " The See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

Ring " and of the and " Lands to the West " in the fashionable See also:

• COSTUME
• COSTUME (through the Fr. costume, from Ital. costume, Late Lat. costuma, a contracted form of Lat. consuetudinem, ace. of consuetudo, custom, habit, manner, &c.)

costume of Phi/is- the Cnossian court, bearing See also:

• PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium)

precious vessels and other tines. objects of typical Minoan forms . Farther to the east the recent excavations on the old See also:

• PHILISTINE

Philistine sites like See also:

• GEZER

Gezer have brought to light swords and vases of Cretan manufacture in the later palace style . The principal Philistine tribe is indeed known in the biblical records as the Cherethims or Cretans, and the Minoan name and the cult of the Cretan Zeus were preserved at See also:

• GAZA (or `AllAH, mod. Ghuzzeh)
• GAZA, THEODORUS (c. 1400-1475)

Gaza to the latest classical days . Similar evidence of Minoan contact, and indeed of wholesale colonization from the See also:

• AEGEAN

Aegean side, recurs in Cyprus . The culture of the more northerly Aegean islands, best revealed to us N . Aegean. by the excavations of the British School at Phylakopi in Melos, also attest a growing influence from the Cretan side, which, about the time of the later palace at Cnossus, becomes finally predominant . Turning to the mainland of Greece we see that the astonishing remains of a highly developed prehistoric civilization, which Minoan Schliemann first brought to light in 1876 at Mycenae, influence and which from those discoveries received the general on main- name of " Mycenaean," in the main represent a trans- land of marine offshoot from the Minoan stock . The earlier Greece . remains both at Mycenae and See also:

• TIRYNS

Tiryns, still imperfectly investigated, show that this Cretan influence goes back to the Middle Minoan age, with its characteristic style of polychrome vase decoration .

The contents of the royal tombs, on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, reveal a wholesale correspondence with the fabrics of the first, and, to a less degree, the second Late Minoan age, as illustrated by the relics belonging to the Middle Period of the later palace at Cnossus and by those of the royal See also:

• VILLA

villa at Hagia Triada . The See also:

• CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological centre of the great beehive tombs seems to be slightly lower . The See also:

• CEILING (from a verb " to ceil," i.e. to line or cover; of disputed etymology, but apparently connected with Fr. ciel, Lat. caelum, sky)

ceiling of that of Orchomenos, and the painted vases and gold cups from the See also:

• VAPHIO

Vaphio See also:

• TOMB (Gr. Tuµ/3a, Tuµ(3os, probably allied to Lat. tumulus, literally a swelling, tumere, to swell)

tomb by See also:

• SPARTA (Gr. Eirapril or AaKe5atycav)

Sparta, with their marvellous reliefs showing scenes of bull-See also:

• HUNTING (the verbal substantive from " hunt "; O. Eng. huntian, hunta; apparently connected with O. Eng. hentan, Gothic hinpan, to capture, O.H.G. hunda,booty)

hunting, represent the late palace style at Cnossus in its final development . The leading characteristics of this mainland civilization are thus indistinguishable from the Minoan . The funeral See also:

• RITES

rites are similar, and the religious representations show an identical form of worship . At the same time the local traditions and conditions differentiate the continental from the insular See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch . In Crete, in the later period, when the rulers could See also:

• TRUST

trust to the " wooden walls " of the Minoan See also:

• NAVY

navy, there is no parallel for the massive fortifications that we see at Tiryns or Mycenae . The colder See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter See also:

• CLIMATE

climate of mainland Greece dictated the use of fixed hearths, whereas in the Cretan palaces these seem to have been of a See also:

• PORT

port-able kind, and the different usage in this respect again reacted on the respective forms of the principal See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

hall or " See also:

• MEGARON

Megaron." Minoan culture under its mainland aspect See also:

• LEFT

left its traces on the See also:

• ACROPOLIS (Gr. aKpos, top, a6)Xts, city)

Acropolis at Athens,—a corroboration of the tradition which made the Athenians send their tribute See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children to Minos: Similar traces extend through a large part of northern Greece from Cephallenia and Leucadia to See also:

• THESSALY

Thessaly, and are specially well marked at Iolcus (near mod . See also:

• VOLO

Volo), the legendary embarking place of the See also:

• ARGONAUTS ('Apyovavrat, the sailors of the "Argo ")

Argonauts . This circumstance deserves attention owing to the special connexion traditionally existing between the Minyans of Iolcus and those of See also:

• ORCHOMENUS (local form on coins and inscriptions, Erchomenos)

Orchomenus, the point of all others on this side where the early Cretan influence seems most to have taken See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root . The Minoan remains at Orchomenus which are traceable to the latest period go far to substantiate the philological comparison between the name of Minyas, the traditional ancestor of this ancient See also:

• RACE

race, and that of Minos.423 Still farther to the north-west a distinct Minoan influence is perceptible in the old Illyrian lands east of the Adriatic, and its traces reappear in the neighbourhood of Venice . It is Adriatic well marked throughout southern See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy from See also:

• TARANTO (anc. Tarentum, q.v.)

Taranto and to See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF

Naples .

It was with Sicily, however, that the later Italian See also:

• HISTORY

history of Minos and his great craftsman Daedalus was See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension. in a special way connected by ancient tradition . Here, as in Crete, Daedalus executed great works like the temple of Eryx, and it was on Sicilian soil that Minos, engaged in a western See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign, was said to have met with a violent See also:

• DEATH

death at the hands of the native king Kokalos (Cocalus) and his daughters . His name is preserved in the Sicilian Minoa, and his tomb was pointed out in the neighbourhood of See also:

• AGRIGENTUM (Gr. 'Arcpayas, mod. Girgenti (q.v.))

Agrigentum, with a See also:

• SHRINE (Lat. scrinium, a case or chest for books, hence a casket; from scribere, to write, Fr. ecrin, Ital. scrigno)

shrine above dedicated to his native Aphrodite, the See also:

• LADY (0. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. ldfdi, lavedi; the first part of the word is hldf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development fr

lady of the dove; and in this connexion it must be observed that the cult of Eryx perpetuates to much later times the characteristic features of the worship of the Cretan Nature goddess, as now revealed to us in the palace of Cnossus and elsewhere . These ancient indications of a Minoan connexion with Sicily have now received interesting confirmation in the numerous discoveries, principally due to the recent excavations of P . Orsi, of arms and painted vases of Late Minoan fabric in See also:

• BRONZE

Bronze Age tombs of the provinces of See also:

• SYRACUSE
• SYRACUSE (Gr. Mvpaaovoat; Lat. Syracusae, Ital. Siracusa)

Syracuse and See also:

• GIRGENTI (anc. Agrigent'um, q.v.)

Girgenti (Agrigentum) belonging to the late Bronze Age . Some of these objects, such as certain forms of swords and vases, seem to be of local fabric, but derived from originals going back to the beginning of the Late Minoan age . The abiding tradition of the Cretan See also:

• ABORIGINES

aborigines, as preserved by See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus (vii . 171), ascribes the eventual See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement of the Greeks in Crete to a widespread desolation that had Minoan fallen on the central regions . It is certain that by crisis: the beginning of the 14th century B.C., when the signs c, 1400 of already decadent Minoan art are perceptible in the B . C. imported pottery found in the palace of Akhenaton at Tell el-Amarna, some heavy blows had fallen on the island power . Shortly before this date the palaces both of Cnossus and Phaestus had undergone a great destruction, and though during the ensuing period both these royal residences were partially reoccupied it was for the most part at any See also:

• RATE

rate by poorer denizens, and their great days as palaces were over for ever . Elsewhere at Cnossus, in the smaller palace to the west, the royal villa and the town houses, we find the evidence of a similar See also:

• CATASTROPHE (Gr. Karaurpoch, from KaraQrp4ecv, to over-turn)

catastrophe followed by an imperfect recovery, and the phenomenon meets us again at Palaikastro and other early settlements in the east of Crete .

At the same time, to whatever cause this serious setback of Minoan civilization was owing, it would be very unsafe to infer as yet any large displacement of the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original inhabitants by the invading swarms from the mainland or elsewhere . The evidence of a partial restoration of the domestic See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of the palace of Cnossus tends to show a certain measure of dynastic continuity . There is evidence, moreover, that the script and with it the indigenous language did not See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die out during this period, and that therefore the days of Hellenic settlement at Cnossus were not yet . The recent exploration of a See also:

• CEMETERY (Gr. Korrsnri7pwv, from Hoiµav, to sleep)

cemetery belonging to the close of the great palace period, and in a greater degree to the age succeeding the catastrophe, has now conclusively shown that there was no real break in the continuity of Minoan culture . This third Late Minoan period—the beginning of which may be fixed about 1400—is an age of stagnation and decline, but the point of departure continued to be the See also:

• MODELS

models supplied by the age that had preceded it . Art was still by no means See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct, and its forms and decorative elements are simply later derivatives of the great palace style . Not only the native form of writing, but the See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household arrangements, sepulchral usages, and religious rites remain substantially the same . The third Late Minoan age corresponds generally with the Late Mycenaean See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage in the Aegean world (see AEGEAN CIVILIZATION) . It is an age indeed in which the culture as a whole, though following a lower level, attains the greatest amount of uniformity . From Sicily and even the See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish coast to the See also:

• TROAD, CERAMICS, PLATE

Troad, southern Asia Minor, Cyprus and See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine from the Nile valley to the mouth of the Po, very similar forms were now diffused . Here and there, as in Cyprus, we See also:

• WATCH (in O. Eng. wcecce, a keeping guard or watching, from wacian, to guard, watch, wacan, to wake)

watch the development of some local schools . How far Crete Early relations with Cyprus and Minoan influences in N .

Greece . itself continued to preserve the See also:

• HEGEMONY (Gr. i7ye,uovia, leadership, from it-yo-Oat, to lead, the leadership especially of one particular state in a group of federated or loosely united states. The term was first applied in Greek history to the position claimed by different individual

hegemony which may reasonably be ascribed to it at an earlier age must remain doubtful . It is certain that towards the close of this third and concluding Late Minoan period in the island certain mainland types of swords and safety-pins make their appearance, which are symptomatic of the great invasion from that side that was now impending or had already begun . Principal Minoan Sites . It will be convenient here to give a general view of the more important Minoan remains recently excavated on various Cretan sites . Cnossus.—The palace of Cnossus is on the See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill of Kephala about 4 M. inland from Candia . As a scene of human settlement this site is of immense antiquity . The successive " Minoan " strata, which go well back into the See also:

• FOURTH

fourth millennium B.C., reach down to a See also:

• DEPTH

depth of about 17 ft . But below this again is a human deposit, from 20 to 26 ft. in thickness, representing a long and See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual course of See also:

• NEOLITHIC, or LATER STONE AGE (Gr. vEOr, new, and XLOos, stone)

Neolithic or Later Stone-Age development . Assuming that the lower strata were formed at approximately the same rate as the upper, we have an antiquity of from 12,000 to 14,000 years indicated for the first Neolithic settlement on this spot . The hill itself, like a Tell of Babylonia, is mainly formed of the debris of human settlements . The palace was approached from the west by a paved Minoan Way communicating with a considerable building on the opposite hill .

This road was flanked by magazines, some belonging to the royal armoury, and abutted on a paved area with stepped seats on two sides (theatral area) . The palace itself approximately formed a square with a large paved court in the centre . It had a N.S. See also:

• ORIENTATION

orientation . The principal entrance was to the north, but what appears to have been the royal entrance opened on a paved court on the west side . This entrance communicated with a See also:

• CORRIDOR (Fr. corridor, from Ital. corridore, Med. Lat. corridorium, a " running-place," from currere, to run)

corridor showing frescoes of a processional character . The west side of the palace contained a series of 18 magazines with great See also:

• STORE (from O. Fr. estor or estoire, Late Lat. staurum or instaurum, stock, provisions, supply, from the late use of instaurare, to provide, properly to construct, renew, restore)

store jars and cists and large hoards of clay documents . A remarkable feature of this quarter is a small council chamber with a gypsum See also:

• THRONE

throne of curiously See also:

• GOTHIC

Gothic aspect and lower stone benches See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round . The walls of the throne See also:

• ROOM

room show frescoes with sacred griffins confronting each other in a Nile landscape, and a small See also:

• BATH
• BATH, THOMAS THYNNE
• BATH, WILLIAM

bath chamber—perhaps of ritual use—is attached . This quarter of the palace shows the double axe sign constantly repeated on its walls and pillars, and remains of miniature wall-paintings showing See also:

• PILLAR (0. Fr. piler, Mod. pilier, Late Lat. pilare, from pila, column)

pillar shrines, in some cases with double axes See also:

• STUCK, FRANZ (1863— )

stuck into the wooden columns . Here too were found the repositories of an early shrine containing exquisite faience figures and reliefs, including a snake goddess—another aspect of the native divinity —and her votaries . The central See also:

• OBJECT

object of cult in this shrine was apparently a See also:

• MARBLE (from Lat. marmor, Gr. pApµapos, shining stone)

marble See also:

• CROSS

cross . Near the north-west See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle of the palace was a larger bath chamber, and by the N. entrance were remains of great reliefs of bull-hunting scenes in painted gesso duro .

South of the central court were found parts of a See also:

• RELIEF

relief in the same material, showing a personage with a fleur-de-lis See also:

• CROWN

crown and See also:

• COLLAR

collar . The east wing of the palace was the really residential part . Here was what seems to have been the See also:

• BASEMENT

basement of a very large hall or " Megaron," approached directly from the central court, and near this were found further reliefs, See also:

• FRESCO (Ital. for cool, " fresh ")

fresco representations of scenes of the bull-ring with See also:

• FEMALE

female as well as male toreadors, and remains of a magnificent gaming-See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

board of gold-plated ivory with intarsia See also:

• WORK

work of crystal plaques set on See also:

• SILVER

silver plates and See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue See also:

• ENAMEL (formerly " amel," derived through the Fr. amail, emmll, esmail, from a Latin word smaltum, first found in a 9th-century life of Leo IV.)

enamel (cyanus) . The true domestic quarter See also:

• LAY

lay to the south of the great hall, and was approached from the central court by a descending See also:

• STAIRCASE

staircase, of which three flights and traces of a fourth are preserved . This gives See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access to a whole series of halls and private rooms (halls " of the Colonnades," " of the Double Axes," " See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

Queen's Megaron" with bath-room attached and remains of the See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish fresco, " Treasury " with ivory figures and other objects of art), together with extensive remains of an upper See also:

• STOREY (equivalents are Fr. etage, Ital. piano, Ger. Stock)

storey . The drainage system here, including a See also:

• WATER

water-closet, is of the most complete and modern kind . Near this domestic quarter was found a small shrine of the Double Axes, with cult objects and See also:

• OFFERTORY (from the ecclesiastical Lat. offertorium, Fr. offertoire, a place to which offerings were brought)

offertory vessels in their places . The traces of an earlier " Middle Minoan " palace beneath the later See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor-levels are most visible on the east side, with splendid ceramic remains . Here also are early magazines with huge store jars . At the foot of the slope on this side, forming the eastern boundary of the palace, are massive supporting walls and a See also:

• BASTION (through the Fr. from late Lat. bastire, to build)

bastion with descending flights of steps, and a water-channel devised with extraordinary hydraulic science (Evans, " Palace of Knossos," " Reports of Excavations 1900-1905," in Annual of British School at Athens, vi. sqq.; Journ . R.I.B.A . (1902), pt. iv .

For the palace pottery see D . See also:

• MACKENZIE
• MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER (1822-1892)
• MACKENZIE, HENRY (1745-1831)
• MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER (c. 1755-1820)
• MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (1847— )
• MACKENZIE, SIR GEORGE (1636-1691)
• MACKENZIE, SIR MORELL (1837-1892)
• MACKENZIE, WILLIAM LYON (1795-1861)

Mackenzie, Journ. of Hellenic Studies, See also:

• XXIII

xxiii.) . The palace site occupies nearly six acres . To the N.E. of it came to light a " royal villa " with staircase, and a See also:

• BASILICA

basilica-like hall (Evans, B.S . Annual, ix . 130 seq.) . To the N.W. was a dependency containing an important hoard of bronze vessels (ib. p . 112 sqq.) . The building on the hill to the W. approached by the Minoan paved way has the appearance of a smaller palace (B.S . Annual, xii., 1906) . Many remains of private houses belonging to the prehistoric town have also come to light (See also:

• HOGARTH, WILLIAM (1697–1764)

Hogarth, B.S.A. vi . 219001, p .

70 sqq.) . A little N. of the town, at a spot called Zafer Papoura, an extensive Late Minoan cemetery was excavated in 1904 (Evans, The Prehistoric Tombs of Knossus, 1906), and on a height about 2 M . N. of this, a royal tomb consisting of a square chamber, which originally had a pointed vault of " Cyclopaean " structure approached by a forehall or See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock-cut passage . This monumental work seems to date from the close of the Middle Minoan age, but has been re-used for interments at successive periods (Evans, Archaeologic, 1906, p . 136 sqq.) . It is possibly the traditional tomb of See also:

• IDOMENEUS

Idomeneus . (For later discoveries see further Cnossus.) Phaestus.—The acropolis of this historic city looks on the Libyan Sea and commands the extensive plain of Messara . On the eastern hill of the acropolis, excavations initiated by F . Halbherr on behalf of the Italian Archaeological Mission and subsequently carried out by L . Pernier have brought to light another Minoan palace, much resembling on a somewhat smaller See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale that of Cnossus . The See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan here too was roughly quadrangular with a central court, but owing to the erosion of the hillside a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• DEAL

deal of the eastern quarter has disappeared . The Phaestian palace belongs to two distinct periods, and the earlier or " Middle Minoan " part is better preserved than at Cnossus .

The west court and entrance belonging to the earlier building show many analogies with those of Cnossus, and the court was commanded to the north by tiers of stone benches like those of the "theatral area " at Cnossus on a larger scale . Magazines with fine painted store jars came to light beneath the floor of the later " propylaeum." The most imposing See also:

• BLOCK
• BLOCK (from the Fr. bloc, and possibly connected with an Old Ger. Block, obstruction, cf. " baulk ")
• BLOCK, MAURICE (1816–19or)

block of the later building is formed by a See also:

• GROUP

group of structures rising from the See also:

• TERRACE (Fr. terrace, terrasse, from It. terraccia, terrazzo, Lat. terra, earth)

terrace formed by the old west wall . A fine paved corridor See also:

• RUNNING

running east from this gives access to a line of the later magazines, and through a columnar hall to the central court beyond, while to the left of this a broad and stately See also:

• FLIGHT

flight of steps leads up to a kind of entrance hall on an upper terrace . North of the central court is a domestic quarter presenting analogies with that of Cnossus, but throughout the later building there was a great dearth of the frescoes and other remains such as invest the Cnossian palace with so much See also:

• INTEREST

interest . There are also few remaining traces here of upper storeys . It is evident that in this case also the palace was overtaken by a great catastrophe, followed by a partial reoccupation towards the close of the Late Minoan age (L . Pernier, Scavi della missione italiana a Phaestos; Monumenti antichi, xii. and xiv.) . About a kilometre distant from the palace of Phaestus near the See also:

• VILLAGE

village of Kalyvia a Late Minoan cemetery was brought to light in 1901, belonging to the same period as that of Cnossus (Savignoni, Necropoli di Phaestos, 1905) . Hagia Triada.—On a low hill crowned by a small church of the above name, about 3 M. nearer the Libyan Sea than Phaestus, a small palace or royal villa was discovered by Halbherr and excavate& by the Italian Mission . In its structure and general arrangements it bears a general resemblance to the palace of Fhaestus and Cnossus on a smaller scale . The buildings themselves, with the usual halls, bath-rooms and magazines, together with a shrine of the Mother Goddess, occupy two sides of a rectangle, enclosing a court at a higher level approached by flights of stairs . Repositories also came to light containing treasure in the shape of bronze ingots .

In contrast to the palace of Phaestus, the contents of the royal villa proved exceptionally rich, and derive a special interest from the fact that the catastrophe which overwhelmed the building belongs to a somewhat earlier part of the Late Minoan age than that which overwhelmed Cnossus and Phaestus . Clay tablets were here found belonging to the earlier type of the linear script (Class A), together with a great number of clay sealings with religious and other devices and incised countermarks . Both the signet types and the other objects of art here discovered display the fresh See also:

• NATURALISM

naturalism that characterizes in a special way the first Late Minoan period . A remarkable wall-painting depicts a See also:

• CAT
• CAT, CIVET
• CAT, HOUSE

cat creeping over See also:

• IVY (A.S. ifig, Ger. Epheu, perhaps connected with apium, anent)

ivy-covered rocks and about to See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring on a See also:

• PHEASANT

pheasant . The steatite vases with reliefs are of great importance . One of these shows a ritual See also:

• PRO

pro-cession, apparently of reapers singing and dancing to the See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound of a See also:

• SISTRUM (Gr. veia'rpov, Ger. Rappel)

sistrum . On another a Minoan See also:

• WARRIOR

warrior prince appears before his retainers . A tall See also:

• FUNNEL (through an O. Fr. founil, found in Breton, from Lat. infundibulum, that through which anything is poured, from fundere, to pour)

funnel-shaped vase of this class, of which a considerable part has been preserved, is divided into zones showing bull-hunting scenes, wrestlers and pugilists in gladiatorial costume, the whole executed in a most masterly manner . The small palace was reconstructed at a later period, and at a somewhat higher level . To a period contemporary with the concluding age of the Cnossian palace must be referred a remarkable sarcophagus belonging toa neighbouring cemetery . The See also:

• CHEST (Gr. Kiarl, Lat. cista, O. Eng. cist, test, &c.)

chest is of See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone coated with stucco, adorned with life-like paintings of offertory scenes in connexion with the sacred Double Axes of Minoan cult . There See also:

• HALE, EDWARD EVERETT (1822-1909)
• HALE, HORATIO (1817–1896)
• HALE, JOHN PARKER (1806–1873)
• HALE, NATHAN (1756-1776)
• HALE, SIR MATTHEW (1609-1676)
• HALE, WILLIAM GARDNER (1849- )

hale also come to light remains of a great domed See also:

• MORTUARY (Med. Lat. mortuarium, from mortuus, dead)

mortuary chamber of primitive construction containing relics of the Early Minoan period (Halbherr, Monumenti Antichi, xiii .

(1903), p . 6 sqq., and Memomie del instituto See also:

• LOMBARDO

Lombardo, 1905; Paribeni, Lavori eseguiti della missione italiana nel Palazzo e nella necropoli di Haghia Triada; Rendiconti, &c., xi. and xii . ; Savignoni, Il Vaso di Haghia Triada) . Palaikastro.—Near this village, lying on the easternmost coast of Crete, the British School at Athens has excavated a section of a considerable Minoan town . The buildings here show a stratification analogous to that of the palace of Cnossus . The town was traversed by a well-paved See also:

• STREET
• STREET, GEORGE EDMUND (1824-1881)

street with a stone See also:

• SEWER

sewer, and contained several important private houses and a larger one which seems to have been a small palace . Among the more interesting relics found were ivory figures of Egyptian or strongly Egyptianizing fabric . On an adjacent hill were the remains of what seems to have been in later times a temple of the Dictaean Zeus, and from the occurrence of rich deposits of Minoan vases and sacrificial remains at a lower level, the religious tradition represented by the later temple seems to go back to prehistoric times . On the neighbouring height of Petsofa, by a rock-shelter, remains of another interesting shrine were brought to light dating from the Middle Minoan period, and containing interesting votive offerings of terra-See also:

• COTTA
• COTTA, BERNHARD VON (1808—1879)
• COTTA, GAIUS AURELIUS (c. 124—73 B.c.)

cotta, many of them apparently relating to See also:

• CURES

cures or to the warding off of diseases (R . C . Bosanquet, British School Annual, viii . 286 sqq., ix .

274 sqq . ; R . M . See also:

• DAWKINS, WILLIAM BOYD (1838– )

Dawkins, ibid. ix . 290 sqq., x . ; J . L . Myres, ibid. ix . 356 sqq.) . Gournia.—Near this See also:

• HAMLET

hamlet on the coast of the Gulf of Mirabello in east Crete,theAmerican archaeologist MissHarriet See also:

• BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON (1825—1899)
• BOYD, ROBERT BOYD, LORD (d. c. 1470)
• BOYD, ZACHARY (1585?-1653)

Boyd has excavated a great part of another Minoan town . It covers the sides of a long hill, its main See also:

• AVENUE (the past participle feminine of Fr. avenir, to come to)

avenue being a winding roadway leading to a small palace . It contained a shrine of the Cretan snake goddess, and was rich in minor relics, chiefly in the shape of bronze implements and pottery for household use .

The bulk of the remains belong here, as at Hagia Triada, to the beginning of the Late Minoan period, but there are signs of reoccupation in the decadent Minoan age . The remains supply detailed See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information as to the everyday life of a Cretan country town about the middle of the second millennium u.c . (H . Boyd, Excavations at Gournia) . Zakro.—Near the lower hamlet of that name on the S.E. coast important remains of a settlement contemporary with that of Gournia were explored by D . G . Hogarth, consisting of houses and pits containing painted pottery of exceptional beauty and a great variety of seal impressions . The deep bay in which Zakro lies is a well-known port of See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call for the fishing fleets on their way to the sponge grounds of the Libyan coast, and doubtless stood in the same See also:

• STEAD, WILLIAM THOMAS (1849– )

stead to the Minoan See also:

• SHIPPING

shipping (D.G.Hogarth, Annual of the British School, vii . 121 sqq., and Journ. of Hellenic Studies, xxii . 76 sqq. and 333 sqq.) . Dictaean Cave.—Near the village of Psychro on the Lassithi range, answering to the western Dicte, opens a large cave, identified with the legendary birthplace of the Cretan Zeus . This cavern also shared with that of Ida the claim to have been that in which Minos, Moses-like, received the law from Zeus .

The exploration begun by the Italian Mission under Halbherr and continued by Evans, who found here the inscribed libation table (see above), was completed by Hogarth in 1900 . Besides the great entrance hall of the cavern, which served as the upper shrine, were descending vaults forming a lower sanctuary going down deep into the bowels of the earth . Great quantities of votive figures and objects of cult, such as the fetish double axes and stone tables of offering, were found both above and below . In the lower sanctuary the natural pillars of stalagmite had been used as objects of worship, and bronze votive objects thrust into their crevices (Halbherr, Museo di antichitd classica, ii. pp . 906-910; Evans, Further Discoveries, &c., p . 350 sqq., Myc . Tree and Pillar Cult, p . 14 sqq . ; Hogarth, " The Dictaean Cave," Annual of British School at Athens, vi . 94 sqq.) . Pseira and Mochlos.—On these two islets on the northern coast of E . Crete, R .

Seager, an See also:

• AMERICAN

American explorer, has found striking remains of flourishing Minoan settlements . The contents of a series of tombs at Mochlos throw an entirely new light on the civilization of the Early Minoan age . The above See also:

• SUMMARY

summary gives, indeed, a very imperfect idea of the extent to which the remains of the great Minoan civiliza- tion are spread throughout the island . The "See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred Third Late ascribed cities to Crete by See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

Homer are in a fair way Minoan period. of becoming an ascertained reality . The great days of Crete lie thus beyond the historic period . The period of decline referred to above (Late Minoan III.), which begins about the beginning of the 14th century before our era, must, from the abundance of its remains, have been of consider-able duration . As to the character of the invading elements that hastened its close, and the date of their incursions, contemporary Egyptian monuments afford the best See also:

• CLUE

clue . The Keftiu who represented Minoan culture in Egypt in the concluding period of the Cnossian palace (Late Minoan II.) cease to appear on Egyptian monuments towards the end of the XVIIIth Dynasty (c . 1350 B.C.), and their place is taken by the "Peoples of the Sea." The See also:

• ACHAEANS ('AXaioi, Lat. Achivi)

Achaeans, under the name Akaiusha, already appear among the piratical invaders of Egypt in the time of See also:

• RAMESES, or RAMESSES (Gen. xlvii. r1; Exod. xii. 37; Num. xxxiii. 3)

Rameses III . (c . 1200 B.C.) of the XXth Dynasty (see H . R .

Hall, " Keftiu and the Peoples of the Sea," Annual of British School at Athens, viii . 157 sqq.) . Greek About the same time the evidences of imports of See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

settle- Late Minoan or " Mycenaean " fabrics in Egypt 'en"' definitely cease . In the Odyssey we already find the Crete . Achaeans together with See also:

• DORIANS

Dorians settled in central Crete . In the extreme east and west of the island the aboriginal" Eteocretan" element, however, as represented respectively by the Praesians or Cydonians, still held its own, and inscriptions written in Greek characters show that the old language survived to the centuries immediately preceding the Christian era . The mainland invasions which produced these great ethnic changes in Crete are marked archaeologically by signs of wide-spread destruction and by a considerable break in The dark the continuity of the insular civilization . New burial ages . customs, notably the rite of See also:

• CREMATION (Lat. cremare, to burn)

cremation in place of the older See also:

• CORPSE (Lat. corpus, the body)

corpse-burial, are introduced, and in many cases the earlier tombs were pillaged and re-used by new corners . The use of iron for arms and implements now finally triumphed over bronze . Northern forms of swords and safety-pins are now found in general use . A new geometrical style of decoration like that of contemporary Greece largely supplants the Minoan models .

The civic See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations which belong to this period, and which include the greater part of the massive ruins of Goulas and Anavlachos in the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of Mirabello and of Hyrtakina in the west, affect more or less precipitous sites and show a greater tendency to fortification . The old system of writing now See also:

• DIES, CHRISTOPH ALBERT (1755-1822)

dies out, and it is not till some three centuries later that the new alphabetic forms are introduced from a Semitic source . The whole course of the older Cretan civilization is awhile interrupted, and is separated from the new by the true dark ages of Greece . It is nevertheless certain that some of the old traditions were preserved by the remnants of the old population now reduced to a subject condition, and that these finally leavened the whole lump, so that once more—this time under a Hellenic See also:

• GUISE
• GUISE, HOUSE OF

guise—Crete was enabled to anticipate mainland Greece in nascent civilization . Already in 1883 A . Milchhofer (Anjange der Kunst) had called attention to certain remarkable examples of archaic Greek bronze-work, and the subsequent discovery of the votive bronzes in the cave of Zeus on Mount Ida, and notably the See also:

• SHIELDS, JAMES (181b-1879)

shields with their fine embossed designs, shows that by the 8th century B.C . Cretan technique in metal not only held its own beside imported Cypro-Phoenician work, but was distinctly ahead of that of the rest of Greece (Halbherr, Bronzi del antro di Zeus Ideo) . The recent excavations by the British School on the site of the Dictaean temple at Palaikastro See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear out this conclusion, and an archaic marble head of See also:

• APOLLO (Gr. 'A2r6XXwv,'Airkkhwv)

Apollo found at Eleutherna shows that classical tradition was not at See also:

• FAULT (Mid. Eng. faute, through the French, from the popular Latin use of fallere, to fail; the originallof the Latin being replaced in English in the 15th century)

fault in recording the existence of a very early school of Greek See also:

• SCULPTURE
• SCULPTURE (Lat. sculptura, from sculpere, to carve, cognate with Gr. yXb4ew)

sculpture in the island, illustrated by the names of Dipoenos and Scyllis . The Dorian dynasts in Crete seem in some sort to have claimed descent from Minos, and the Dorian legislators sought their See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

sanction in the laws which Minos was said to have received from the hands of the Cretan Zeus . The great See also:

• MONUMENT (Lat. monumentum or monumentum; from monere, to advise, bring to mind, remind; the German equivalent is Denkmal)

monument of Gortyna discovered by Halbherr and See also:

• FABRICIUS, GAIUS LUSCINUS (i.e. " the one-eyed ")
• FABRICIUS, GEORG (1516-1571)
• FABRICIUS, HIERONYMUS
• FABRICIUS, JOHANN ALBERT (1668-1736)
• FABRICIUS, JOHANN CHRISTIAN (1745-18o8)

Fabricius (Monumenti antichi, iii.) is the most important monument of early law hitherto brought to light in any part of the Greek world . Among other Greek remains in the island may be mentioned, besides the great inscription, the archaic temple of the Pythian Apollo at Gortyna, a plain square building with a pronaos added in later times, excavated by Halbherr, e,na ns . 1885 and 1887 (Mon .

Ant. iii . 2 seqq.), the Hellenic See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge and the vast rock-cut reservoirs of Eleutherna, the city walls of Itanos, See also:

• APTERA (Greek for " wingless ")

Aptera and Polyrrhenia, and at Phalasarna, the rock-cut throne of a divinity, the port, and the remains of a temple . The most interesting See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record, however, that has been preserved of later Hellenic civilization in the island is the coinage of the Cretan cities (J . N . Svoronos, Numismatique de la Crete ancienne; W . Wroth, B . M . See also:

• COIN
• COIN (older forms of the word are coyne, quoin and coign, all derived through the O. Fr. coing, and cuigne from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

Coin See also:

• CATALOGUE (a Fr. adaptation of the Gr. KaraXoyos, a register, from Karalyety, to enrol or pick out)

Catalogue, Crete, &c . P . See also:

• GARDNER
• GARDNER, PERCY (1846– )

Gardner, The Types of Greek Coins), which during the good period display a peculiarly picturesque See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic style distinct from that of the rest of the Greek world, and sometimes indicative of a revival of Minoan types . But in every case these artistic efforts were followed at See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short intervals by See also:

• GROSS

gross relapses into barbarism which reflect the anarchy of the political conditions . Under the See also:

• PAX (Lat. for " peace ")

Pax See also:

• ROMANA

Romana the Cretan cities again enjoyed a large measure of prosperity, illustrated by numerous edifices still existing at the time of the Venetian occupation .

A good See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of these is preserved in a-MS. description of the island drawn up under the Venetians about 1538, and existing in the library of St See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

Mark (published by Falkener, Museum Roman of Classical Antiquities, ii. pp . 263-3o3)• Very little remains . of-all this, however, has escaped the Turkish conquest and the ravages caused by the incessant insurrections of the last two centuries . The ruin-See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field of Gortyna still evokes something of the importance that it possessed in Imperial days, and at Lebena on the south coast are remains of a temple of See also:

• AESCULAPIUS (Gr. 'AoKXiprtos)

Aesculapius and its dependencies which stood in connexion with this city . At Cnossus, See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save some blocks of the See also:

• AMPHITHEATRE (Gr. 441, around, and O&arpov, a place for spectators)

amphitheatre, the Roman monuments visible in Venetian times have almost wholly disappeared . Among the early Christian remains of the island far and away the most important is the church of St Titus at Gortyna, which perhaps See also:

• DATES

dates from the Constantinian age . (A . J . E.) History . Ancient.—Lying midway between three continents, Crete was from the earliest period a natural stepping-stone for the passage of early culture from Egypt and the East to mainland Greece . On all this the recent archaeological discoveries (see the section on Archaeology) have thrown great light, but the earliest written history of Crete, like that of most parts of continental Greece, is mixed up with See also:

• MYTHOLOGY

mythology and See also:

• FABLE (Fr. fable, Lat. fabula)

fable to so great an extent as to render it difficult to arrive at any clear conclusions concerning it . The Cretans themselves claimed for their island to be the birthplace of Zeus, as well as the See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent of all the other divinities usually worshipped in Greece as the Olympian deities .

But passing from this region of pure mythology to the semi-mythic or heroic age, we find almost all the early legends and traditions of the island grouped around the name of Minos . According to the received tradition, Minos was a king of Cnossus in Crete; he was a son of Zeus, and enjoyed through life the privilege of habitual intercourse with his divine See also:

• FATHER

father . It was from this source that he derived the See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom which enabled him to give to the Cretans the excellent system of laws and governments that earned for him the reputation of being the greatest legislator of antiquity . At the same time he was reported to have been the first monarch who established a See also:

• NAVAL

naval power, and acquired what was termed by the Greeks the Thalassocracy, or dominion of the sea . This last tradition, which was received as an undoubted fact both by See also:

• THUCYDIDES (OovavMns)

Thucydides and See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle, has during the last few years received striking confirmation . The remarkable remains recently brought to light on Cretan soil tend to show that already some 2000 years before the Dorian conquest the island was exercising a dominant influence in the Aegean world . The great palaces now excavated at Cnossus and Phaestus, as well as the royal villa of Hagia Triada, exhibit the successive phases of a brilliant primitive civilization which had already attained mature development by the date of the XIIth Egyptian dynasty . To this civilization as a whole it is convenient to give the name "Minoan," and the name of Minos itself may be reasonably thought to cover a dynastic even more than a personal significance in much the same way as such historic terms as "See also:

• PHARAOH (Par'oh)

Pharaoh" or "See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar." The archaeological evidence outside Crete points to the actual existence of Minoan plantations as far afield on one side as Sicily and on the other as the coast of Canaan . The historictradition which identifies with the Cretans the principal element of the Philistine See also:

• CONFEDERATION (Fr. confederation, Lat. confoederatio, from foedus, a league, foederare, to form a league)

confederation, and places the tomb of Minos himself in western Sicily, thus receives remarkable confirmation . See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

Industrial relations with Egypt are also marked by the occurrence of a series of finds of pottery and other objects of Minoan fabric among the remains of the XVIIIth, XIIth and even earlier dynasties, while the same seafaring enterprise brought Egyptian fabrics to Crete from the times of the first Pharaohs . Even in the Homeric poems, which belong to an age when the great Minoan civilization was already decadent, the Cretans appear as the only Greek people who attempted to compete with the Phoenicians as bold and adventurous navigators . In the Homeric age the population of Crete was of a very mixed character, and we are told in the Odyssey (xix .

175) that besides the Eteocretes, who, as their name imports, must have been the original inhabitants, the island contained Achaeans, See also:

• PELASGIANS

Pelasgians and Dorians . Subsequently the Dorian element became greatly strengthened by fresh immigrations from the See also:

• PELOPONNESUS (" Island of Pelops ")

Peloponnesus, and during the See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical period all the principal cities of the island were either Dorian colonies, or had adopted the Dorian See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect and institutions . It is certain that at a very early period the Cretan cities were celebrated for their laws and system of government, and the most extensive monument of early Greek law is the great Gortyna inscription, discovered in 1884 . The origin of the Cretan laws was of course attributed to Minos, but they had much in common with those of the other Dorian states, as well as with those of See also:

• LYCURGUS
• LYCURGUS (c. 396–325 B.C.)
• LYCURGUS (Gr. AvKofpyor)

Lycurgus at Sparta, which were, indeed, according to one tradition, copied in great measure from those already existing in Crete.' It is certain that whatever merits the Cretan laws may have possessed for the internal regulation of the different cities, they had the one glaring defect, that they made no See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision for any federal See also:

• BOND
• BOND, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1815-1898)

bond or See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union among them, or for the government of the island as a whole . It was owing to the want of this that the Cretans scarcely figure in Greek history as a people, though the island, as observed by Aristotle, would seem from its natural position calculated to exercise a preponderating influence over Greek affairs . Thus they took no part either in the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian or in the Peloponnesian War, or in any of the subsequent civil contests in which so many of the cities and islands of Greece were engaged . At the same time they were so far from enjoying tranquillity on this account that the few notices we find of them in history always represent them as engaged in local See also:

• WARS

wars among one another; and See also:

• POLYBIUS (c. 204–122 B.C.)

Polybius tells us that the history of Crete was one continued series of civil wars, which were carried on with a See also:

• BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867– )

bitter animosity exceeding all that was known in the rest of Greece . In these domestic contests the three cities that generally took the lead, and claimed to exercise a kind of hegemony or supremacy over the whole island, were Cnossus, Gortyna and Cydonia . But besides these three, there were many other independent cities, which, though they generally followed the lead of one or other of these more powerful rivals, enjoyed complete See also:

• AUTONOMY (Gr. abr6s, self, and v6pos, law)

autonomy, and were able to shift at will from one See also:

• ALLIANCE

alliance to another . Among the most important of these were—Lyttus or Lyctus, in the interior, south-east of Cnossus; Rhaucus, between Cnossus and Gortyna; Phaestus, in the plain of Messara, between Gortyna and the sea; Polyrrhenia, near the north-west angle of the island; Aptera, a few miles inland from the Bay of Suda; Eleutherna and Axus, on the northern slopes of Mount Ida; and See also:

• LAPPA

Lappa, between the White Mountains and the sea . Phalasarna on the west coast, and Chersonesus on the north, seem to have been dependencies, and served as the ports of Polyrrhenia and Lyttus . Elyrus stood at the foot of the White Mountains, just 1 Among the features common to the two were the syssitia, or public tables, at which all the citizens dined in common .

Indeed, the . Cretan system, like that of Sparta, appears to have aimed at training up the young, and controlling them, as well as the citizens of more mature age, in all their habits and relations of life . The supreme governing authority was vested in magistrates called Cosmi, answering in some measure to the Spartan Ephori, but there was nothing corresponding to the two See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings at Sparta . These Cretan institutions were much extolled by some writers of antiquity, but receive only qualified praise from the judicious criticisms of Aristotle (See also:

• POUT

Pout. ii. to) . above the south coast . In the eastern portion of the island were Praesus in the interior, and Itanus on the coast, facing the east, while Hierapytna on the south coast was the only place of importance on the side facing See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa, and on this account rose under the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans to be one of the principal cities of the island . (A . J . E.) See also:

• MEDIEVAL

Medieval to I9111 Century.—Though it was continually torn by civil dissensions, the island maintained its independence of the various Macedonian monarchs by whom it was surrounded; but having incurred the enmity of Rome, first by an alliance with the great See also:

• MITHRADATES

Mithradates, and afterwards by taking active part with their neighbours,the pirates of See also:

• CILICIA

Cilicia, the Cretans were at length attacked by the Roman arms, and, after a resistance protracted for more than three years, were finally subdued by Q . See also:

• METELLUS

Metellus, who earned by this success the surname of Creticus (67 B.C.) . The island was now reduced to a Roman province, and subsequently See also:

• UNITED

united for administrative purposes with the district of See also:

• CYRENAICA

Cyrenaica or the Pentapolis, on the opposite coast of Africa . This arrangement lasted till the time of See also:

• CONSTANTINE

Constantine, by whom Crete was incorporated in the prefecture of See also:

• ILLYRIA

Illyria .

It continued to form part of the See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine empire till the 9th century, when it See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell into the hands of the See also:

• SARACENS

Saracens (823) . It then became a formidable See also:

• NEST

nest of pirates and a great slave mart; it defied all the efforts of the Byzantine sovereigns to recover it till the year 960, when it was reconquered by Nicephorus See also:

• PHOCAS

Phocas . In the See also:

• PARTITION

partition of the Greek empire after the See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, Crete fell to the See also:

• LOT
• LOT (Lat. Oltis)

lot of See also:

• BONIFACE (Bonifacius)
• BONIFACE, SAINT (680-754)

Boniface, See also:

• MARQUIS

marquis of See also:

• MONTFERRAT, COUNT OF

Montferrat, but was sold by-him to the Venetians, and thus passed under the dominion of that great See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic, to which it continued subject for more than four centuries . Under the Venetian government Candia, a fortress originally built by the Saracens, and called by them " Khandax," became the seat of government, and not only rose to be the capital and chief city of the island, but actually gave name to it, so that it was called in the official language of Venice " the island of Candia," a designation which from thence passed into modern maps . The ancient name of Krete or Kriti was, however, always retained in use among the Greeks, and is gradually resuming its place in the usage of See also:

• LITERARY

literary Europe . The government of Crete by the Venetian See also:

• ARISTOCRACY (Gr. apuvror, best; «paria, government)

aristocracy was, like that of their other dependencies, very arbitrary and oppressive, and numerous insurrections were the consequence . See also:

• DARU, PIERRE ANTOINE NOEL BRUNO, COUNT (1767-1829)

Daru, in his history of Venice, mentions fourteen between the years 1207 and 1365, the most important being that of 1361-1364,—a revolt not of the natives against the See also:

• RULE

rule of their Venetian masters, but of the Venetian colonists against the republic . But with all its defects their administration did much to promote the material prosperity of the country, and to encourage commerce and industry; and it is probable that the island was more prosperous than at any subsequent time . Their Venetian masters at least secured to the islanders See also:

• EXTERNAL

external tranquillity, and it is singular that the Turks were content to leave them in undisturbed possession of this opulent and important island for nearly two centuries after the fall of Constantinople . The Cretans themselves, however, were eager for a See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change, and, disappointed in the See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope of a Genoese occupation, were ready, as is stated in the See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report of a Venetian commissioner, to See also:

• EXCHANGE

exchange the rule of the Venetians for that of the Turks, whom they fondly expected to find more lenient, or at any rate less energetic, masters . It was not till 1645 that the Turks made any serious See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to effect the conquest of the island; but in that 'year they landed with an See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army of 50,000 men, and speedily reduced the important city of Canea . Retimo fell the following year, and in 1648 they laid See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege to the capital city of Candia .

This was the longest siege on record, having been protracted for more than twenty years; but in 1667 it was pressed with renewed vigour by the Turks under the grand See also:

• VIZIER

vizier Ahmed See also:

• KUPRILI

Kuprili, and the city was at length compelled to surrender (See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September 1669) . Its fall was followed by the submission of the whole island . Venice was allowed to retain possession of Grabusa, Suda and Spinalonga on the north, but in 1718 these three strongholds reverted to the Turks, and the island was finally lost to Venice . From this time Crete continued subject to Ottoman rule without interruption till the outbreak of the Greek revolution . After the conquest a large part of the inhabitants embraced Mahommedanism, and thus secured to themselves the chief share in the administration of the island . But far from this having a favourable effect upon the condition of the population, the result was just the contrary, and according to R . Pashley (Travels in Crete, 1837) Crete was the worst governed province of the Turkish empire . In 1770 an abortive attempt at revolt, the See also:

• HERO (Gr. open)
• HERO, THE YOUNGER

hero of which was " See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

Master " See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John, a Sphakiot chief, was repressed with great See also:

• CRUELTY (through the O. Fr. crualte, mod. cruaute, from the Lat. crudelitas)

cruelty . The See also:

• REGULAR

regular authorities sent from Constantinople were wholly unable to control the excesses of the See also:

• JANISSARIES (corrupted from Turkish yeni cheri, new troops)

janissaries, who exercised without See also:

• RESTRAINT (from " to restrain," Lat. restringere, to hold back, prevent)

restraint every kind of violence and oppression . In 1813 the ruthless severity of the See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor-general, Haji See also:

• OSMAN (1832-1900)
• OSMAN (`UsMAN)

Osman, who obtained the co-operation of the Christians, See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke the power of the janissaries; but after Osman had fallen a victim to the suspicions of the sultan, Crete again came under their control . When in 1821 the revolution broke out in continental Greece, the Cretans, headed by the Sphakiots, after a See also:

• MASSACRE

massacre at Canea at once raised the See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard of insurrection . They carried on hostilities with such success that they soon made themselves masters of the whole of the open country, and drove the Turks and Mussulman population to take refuge in the fortified cities .

The sultan then invoked the assistance of Mehemet See also:

• ALI

Ali, See also:

• PASHA

pasha of Egypt, who despatched 7000 Albanians to the island . Hostilities continued with no decisive result till 1824, when the arrival of further reinforcements enabled the Turkish See also:

• COMMANDER

commander to reduce the island to submission . In 1827 the See also:

• BATTLE

battle of See also:

• NAVARINO, BATTLE OF

Navarino took place, and in 1830 (3rd of February) Greece was declared independent . The allied powers (France, England and Russia) decided, however, that Crete should not be included amongst the islands annexed to the newly-formed See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of Greece; but recognizing that some change was necessary, they obtained from the sultan Mahmud II. its cession to Egypt, which was con-firmed by a See also:

• FIRMAN (an adaptation of the Per. ferman, a mandate or patent, cognate with the Sanskrit pramdna, a measure, authority)

firman of the loth of December 1832 . This change of masters brought some relief to the unfortunate Cretans, who at least exchanged the See also:

• LICENCE (through the French from Lat. licentia, licere, to be lawful)

licence of local See also:

• MISRULE, LORD OF

misrule for the oppression of an organized despotism; and the government of Mustafa Pasha, an Albanian like Mehemet Ali, the ruler of the island for a considerable period (1832-1852), was more enlightened and intelligent than that of most Turkish governors . He encouraged agriculture, improved the roads, introduced an Albanian See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police, and put down See also:

• BRIGANDAGE

brigandage . The period of his administration has been called the "See also:

• GOLDEN

golden age" of Crete . In 1840 Crete was again taken from Mehemet Ali, and replaced under the dominion of the Turks, but fortunately Mustafa still retained his governorship until he left for Constantinople to become grand vizier in 1852 . Four years later an insurrection broke out, owing to the violation of the provisions of an imperial See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

decree (February 1856), whereby See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty of See also:

• CONSCIENCE (Lat. con-scientia, literally " knowledge of a thing shared with another person " or " complete knowledge," and derivatively " consciousness in general)
• CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK (1812-1883)

conscience and equal rights and privileges with Mussulmans had been conferred upon Christians . The latter refused to lay down their arms until a firman was issued (See also:

• JULY

July 1858), confirming the promised con-cessions . These promises being again repudiated, in 1864 the inhabitants held an See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly and a See also:

• PETITION (Lat. for " seeking " or " praying ")

petition was drawn up for presentation at Constantinople by the governor . The sultan's reply was couched in the vaguest terms, and the Cretans were ordered to render unquestioning obedience to the authorities .

After a period of great See also:

• DISTRESS

distress and cruel oppression, in 1866, on the demand for reforms being again refused, a general insurrection took place, which was only put down by great exertions on the part of the Porte . It was followed by the concession of additional privileges to the Christians of the island and of a kind of constitutional government and other reforms embodied in what is known as the " Organic See also:

• STATUTE

Statute " of 1868 . (J . H . F.) Modern Constitutional.—Cretan constitutional history may be said to date from 1868, when, after the suppression of an insurrection which had extended over three years, the Turkish government consented to See also:

• GRANT (from A.-Fr. graunter, O. Fr. greanter for creanter, popular Lat. creantare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to believe, trust)
• GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838)
• GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823)
• GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835–1902)
• GRANT, JAMES (1822–1887)
• GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827–1892)
• GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892)
• GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
• GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878)
• GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808–1895)
• GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895)
• GRANT, U
• GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885)

grant a certain measure of autonomy to the island . The privileges now accorded were embodied in what is known as the Organic Statute, an See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument which eventually obtained a somewhat wider importance, being proposed by Article XXIII. of the See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin Treaty as a basis of reforms to be introduced in other parts of the Ottoman empire . Various privileges already acquired by the Christian population were confirmed; a general council, or representative body, was brought into existence, composed of deputies from every district in the island; mixed tribunals were introduced, together with a highly elaborate administrative system, under which all the more important functionaries, Christian and Mussulman, were provided with an See also:

• ASSESSOR (Lat. assessare, assidere, to sit by)

assessor of the opposite creed . The new constitution, however, proved costly and unworkable, and failed to satisfy either section of the population . The Christians were ready for another outbreak, when, in 1878, the Greek government, finding Hellenic aspirations ignored by the treaty of See also:

• SAN

San Stefano, gave the See also:

• SIGNAL

signal for agitation in the island . During the insurrection which followed, the usual barbarities were committed on both sides; the Christians betook themselves to the mountains, and the Mussulman peasants crowded into the fortified towns . Eventually the Cretan chiefs invoked the See also:

• MEDIATION (Lat. medius, middle)

mediation of England, which Turkey, exhausted by her struggle with Russia, was Pact of ready to accept, and the See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

convention known as the tialepa . Pact of Halepa was drawn up in 1878 under the auspices of Mr Sandwith, the British See also:

• CONSUL
• CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. praetor maximus)

consul, and Adossides Pasha, both of whom enjoyed the confidence of the Cretan population .

The privileges conferred by the Organic Statute were confirmed; the cumbersome and extravagant judicial and administrative systems were maintained; the judges were declared independent of the executive, and an Assembly composed of See also:

• FORTY

forty-nine Christian and See also:

• THIRTY

thirty-one Mussulman deputies took the place of the former general council . A See also:

• PARLIAMENTARY

parliamentary regime was thus inaugurated, and party warfare for a time took the place of the old religious antagonism, the Moslems attaching themselves to one or other of the political factions which now made their appearance among the Christians . The material interests of the island were neglected in the scramble for place and power; the finances fell into disorder, and the party which came off worst in the struggle systematically intrigued against the governor-general of the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day and conspired with his enemies at Constantinople . A crisis came about in 1889, when the " Conservative " leaders, finding themselves in a minority in the chamber, took up arms and withdrew to the mountains . Though the outbreak was unconnected with the religious See also:

• FEUD

feud, the latent fanaticism of both See also:

• CREEDS (Lat. credo, I believe), or CONFESSIONS OF FAITH

creeds was soon aroused, and the island once more became a scene of pillage and devastation . Unlike the two preceding movements, the insurrection of 1889 resulted unfavourably for the Christians . The Porte, having induced the Greek government to persuade the insurgents not to oppose the occupation of several strategic posts, despatched a military governor to the island, proclaimed See also:

• MARTIAL (MARCUS VALERIUS MARTIALIS)

martial law, and issued a firman abrogating many important provisions of the Halepa Pact . The mode of See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election to the assembly was altered, the number of its members reduced, and the customs revenue, which had hitherto been shared with the island, was appropriated by the Turkish treasury . The firman was undoubtedly illegal, as it violated a convention possessing a quasi-See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

international sanction, but the Christians were unable to resist, and the powers abstained from intervention . The elections held under the new system proved a failure, the Christians refusing to go to the polls, and for the next five years Crete was governed absolutely by a succession of Mahommedan Valis . The situation went from See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad to worse, the deficit in the See also:

• BUDGET (originally from a Gallic word meaning sack, latinized as bulga, leather wallet or bag, thence in O. Fr. bougette, from which the Eng. form is derived)

budget increased, the gendarmery, which received no pay,' became insubordinate, and See also:

• CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime multiplied . In 1894 the Porte, at the instance of the powers, nominated a Christian, Karatheodory Pasha, to the governorship, and the Christians, mollified by the concession, agreed to take part in the assembly which soon afterwards was convoked; no steps, however, were taken to remedy the financial situation, which became the immediate cause of the disorders that followed .

The refusal of the Porte to refund considerable sums which had been illegally diverted from the Cretan treasury or even to sanction a loan to meet immediate requirements caused no little exasperation in the island, which was increased by the recall of Karatheodory (See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 1895) . Before that event an Epitrope, or" See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

Committee of Reform," had appeared in the mountains—the See also:

• HARBINGER

harbinger of the prolonged struggle which ended in the emancipation of Crete . The Epitrope was at first nothing more than a handful of discontented politicians who had 1nsarrec tion of failed to find places in the administration, but some 1896-97 . slight reverses which it succeeded in inflicting on the Turkish troops brought thousands of armed Christians to its side, and in See also:

• APRIL

April 1896 it found itself strong enough to invest the important See also:

• GARRISON
• GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879)

garrison town of Vamos . The Moslem peasantry now flocked to the fortified tovdns and civil war began . Serious disturbances broke out at Canea on the 24th of May, and were only quelled by the arrival of foreign warships . The foreign consuls intervened in the hope of bringing about a peaceful settlement, but the Sultan resolved on the employment of force, and an expedition despatched to Vamos effected the relief of that town with a loss of 200 men . The advance of a Turkish detachment through the western districts, where other garrisons were besieged, was marked by pillage and devastation, and 5000 Christian peasants took refuge on the desolate promontory of Spada, where they suffered extreme privations . These events, which produced much excitement in Greece, quickened the energies of the powers . An international See also:

• BLOCKADE
• BLOCKADE (Fr. blocus, Ger. Blokade)

blockade of the island was proposed by Austria but rejected by England . The ambassadors at Constantinople urged peaceful counsels on the Porte, and the Sultan, alarmed at this juncture by an Armenian outbreak, began to display a conciliatory disposition . The Pact of Halepa was restored, the troops were withdrawn from the interior, financial aid was promised to the island, a Christian governor-general was appointed, the assembly was summoned, and an imperial commissioner was despatched to negotiate an arrangement .

The Christian leaders prepared a moderate See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme of reforms, based on the Halepa Pact, which, with a few exceptions, were approved by the powers and eventually sanctioned by the sultan . On the 4th of September 1896 the assembly formally accepted the new constitution and declared its gratitude to the powers for their intervention . The Moslem leaders acquiesced in the arrangement, which the powers undertook to See also:

• GUARANTEE (sometimes spelt " guarantie " or " guaranty "; an O. Fr. form of " warrant," from the Teutonic word which appears in German as wahren, to defend or make safe and binding)

guarantee, and, notwithstanding some symptoms of discontent at Candia, there was every See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to hope that the island was now entering upon a period of tranquillity . It soon became evident, however, that the Porte was endeavouring to obstruct the See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution of the new reforms . Several months passed without any step being taken towards this realization; difficulties were raised with regard to the composition of the international commissions charged with the reorganization of the gendarmery and judicial system; intrigues were set on foot against the Christian governor-general; and the presence of a special imperial commissioner, who had no place under the constitution, proved so injurious to the restoration of tranquillity that the powers demanded his immediate recall . The indignation of the Christians increased, a state of insecurity prevailed, and the Moslem peasants refused to return to their homes . A new See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor now became apparent in Cretan politics . Since the outbreak in May 1896 the Greek government had loyally co-operated with the powers in their efforts for the pacification of the island, but towards the close of the year a See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret society known as the Ethnike Hetaeria began to arrogate to itself the direction of Greek foreign policy . The aim of the society was a war with Turkey with a view to the acquisition of See also:

• MACEDONIA

Macedonia, and it found a ready instrument for its designs in the growing discontent of the Cretan Christians . Emissaries of the society now appeared in Crete, large consignments of arms were landed, and at the beginning of 1897 the island was practically in a state of insurrection . On the 21st of See also:

• JANUARY

January the Greek fleet was mobilized . :Let !

Affairs were brought to a See also:

• CLIMAX, JOHN (c. 525–600 A.D.)

climax by a series of conflicts vention. which took place at Canea on the 4th of February; the Turkish troops fired on the Christians, a conflagration broke out in the town, and many thousands of Christians took refuge on the foreign warships in the bay . The Greek government now despatched an ironclad and a cruiser to Canea, which were followed a few days later by a See also:

• TORPEDO

torpedo flotilla commanded by Prince George . The prince soon retired to Melos, but on the See also:

• NIGHT

night of the 14th of February a Greek expeditionary force under See also:

• COLONEL (derived either from Lat. column, Fr. colonne, column, or Lat. corona, a crown)

Colonel Vassos landed at Kolymbari, near Canea, and its commander issued a See also:

• PROCLAMATION (Lat. proclamare, to make public by announcement)

proclamation announcing the occupation of the island in the name of King George . On the same day Georgi Pasha, the Christian governor-general, took refuge on board a See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian ironclad, and, on the next, naval detachments from the warships of the powers occupied Canea . This step paralysed the movements of Colonel Vassos, who after a few slight engagements with the Turks remained practically inactive in the interior . The insurgents, however, continued to threaten the town, and their position was bombarded by the international fleet (21st February) . The intervention of Greece caused immense excitement among the Christian population, and terrible massacres of Moslem peasants took place in the eastern and western districts . The forces of the powers shortly afterwards occupied Candia and the other maritime towns, while the international fleet blockaded the Cretan coast . These See also:

• MEASURES

measures were followed by the presentation of collective notes to the Greek and Turkish governments (2nd March), announcing the decision of the powers that (1) Crete could in no case in present circumstances be annexed to Greece; (2) in view of the delays caused by Turkey in the application of the reforms Crete should now be endowed with an effective autonomous administration, intended to secure to it a separate government, under the suzerainty of the sultan . Greece was at the same time summoned to remove its army and fleet from the island, while the Turkish troops were to be concentrated in the fortresses and eventually withdrawn . The cabinet of Athens, however, declined to recall the expeditionary force, which remained in the interior till the 9th of May, when, after the Greek reverses in Thessaly and See also:

• EPIRUS, or EPEIRUS

Epirus, an order was given for its return . Meantime Cretan autonomy had been proclaimed (loth March) .

After the departure of the Greek troops the Cretan leaders, who had hitherto demanded See also:

• ANNEXATION (Lat. ad, to, and nexus, joining)

annexation to Greece, readily acquiesced in the decision of the powers, and the insurgent Assembly, under its See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president Dr Sphakianakis, a man of good sense and moderation, co-operated with the international commanders in the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of order . The pacification of the island, however, was delayed by the presence of the Turkish troops and the in-ability of the powers to agree in the choice of a new governor-general . The prospect of a final settlement was improved by the withdrawal of Germany and Austria, which had favoured Turkish pretensions, from the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• CONCERT (through the French from Lat. con-, with, and certare, to strive)

concert (April 1898); the remaining powers divided the island into four departments, which they severally undertook to administer . An attack made by the Moslems of Candia on the British garrison of that town, with the connivance of the Turkish authorities, brought home to the powers the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity of removing the Ottoman troops, and the last Turkish soldiers quitted the island on the 14th of See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 1898 . On the 26th of that See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month the nomination of Prince George of Greece as high commissioner of the powers in Crete for a Prince period of three years (renewed in 1901) was formally George's announced, and on the 21st of December the prince admirals- landed at Suda and made his public entry into Canea nation. amid enthusiastic demonstrations . For some time after his arrival complete tranquillity prevailed in the island, but the Moslem population, reduced to great distress by the prolonged insurrection, emigrated in large numbers . On the 27th of April 1899 a new autonomous constitution was voted by a constituent assembly, and in the following June the local administration was handed over to Cretan officials by the inter-See also:

• NATIONAL

national authorities . The extensive powers conferred by the constitution upon Prince George were increased by subsequent enactments . In 1901 M . Venezelo, who had played a noteworthy part in the last insurrection, was dismissed from the See also:

• POST

post of councillor by the prince, and soon afterwards became See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader of a strong opposition party, which denounced the arbitrary methods of the government . During the next four years party spirit ran high; in the spring of 1904 a deputation of chiefs and politicians addressed a protest to the prince, and early in the following year a See also:

• BAND

band of armed malcontents under M . Venezelo raised the standard of revolt at Theriso in the White Mountains .

The insurgents, who received moral support from Dr Sphakianakis, proclaimed the union of the island with Greece (March 1905), and their example was speedily followed by the assembly at Canea . The powers, however, reiterated their decision to maintain the status quo, and increased their military and naval forces; the Greek See also:

• FLAG (or " FLAGGE," a common Teutonic word in this sense, but apparently first recorded in English)

flag was hauled down at Canea and Candia, and some desultory engagements with the insurgents took place, the international troops co-operating with the native gendarmerie . In the autumn M . Venezelo and his followers, having obtained an See also:

• AMNESTY (from the Gr. &µvrly-ria, oblivion)

amnesty, laid down their arms . A See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission appointed by the powers to report on the administrative and financial situation See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew up a series of recommendations in January 1906, and a constituent assembly for the revision of the constitution met at Canea in the following June . On the 25th of July the powers announced a series of reforms, including the reorganization of the gendarmerie and militia under Greek officers, as a preliminary to the eventual withdrawal of the international troops, and the extension to Crete of the system of financial control established in Greece . On the 14th of September, under an agreement dated the 14th of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August, they invited King George of Greece, in the event of the high commissionership becoming vacant, to propose a See also:

• CANDIDATE

candidate for that post, to be nominated by the powers for a period of five years, and on the 25th of September Prince George left the island . He had done much for the welfare of Crete, but his participation in party struggles and his attitude towards the representatives of the powers had rendered his position untenable . His successor, M . See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander Zaimis, a former See also:

• PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING

prime See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister of Greece, arrived in Crete on the 1st of See also:

• OCTOBER

October . (J . D .

B.) On the 22nd of February 1907 M . Zaimis, as high commissioner, took the See also:

• OATH (0. Eng. ddh)

oath to the new constitution elaborated after much debate by the Cretan national assembly . His position was one of singular difficulty . Apart from the rivalry of the factions within the Assembly, there was the question of the Mussulman minority, dwindling it is true,' but still a force to be reckoned with . The high commissioner, true to his reputation as a prudent statesman and astute politician, showed great skill in dealing with the situation . From the first he had taken up an attitude of great reserve, appearing little in public and careful not to identify himself with any See also:

• FACTION (through the French, from Lat. factio, a company of persons combined for action, facere, to do; from the other French derivative facon comes " fashion ")

faction . In such matters as appointments to the judicial See also:

• BENCH (an O.E. and Eng. form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Bank, Dan. baenk and the Eng. doublet " bank ")

bench, indeed, his studied impartiality offended both parties; but on the whole his administration was a marked success, and the cessation of the chronic state of disturbance in the island justified the powers in preparing for the withdrawal of their troops . In spite of the See also:

• ADMISSION

admission of their co-religionists to high See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office in the government, the Mussulmans, it is true, still complained of continuous See also:

• ILL

ill-treatment having for its object their See also:

• EXPATRIATION (from Late Lat. expairiare, to exile, and patria, native land)

expatriation; but these complaints were declared by See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• EDWARD

Edward See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

Grey, in See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer to a question in See also:

• PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

parliament, to be exaggerated . The protecting powers had fixed the conditions preliminary to evacuation—(1) the organization of a native gendarmerie, (2) the maintenance of the tranquillity of the island, (3) the complete security of the Mussulman population . On the loth of March 1908 M . Zaimis called the attention of the powers to the fact that these conditions had been fulfilled, and on the 11th of May the powers announced to the high commissioner their intention of beginning the evacuation at once and completing it within a year . The first withdrawal of the troops (July 27), hailed with See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm by the Cretan Christians, led to rioting by the Mussulmans, who believed themselves abandoned to their See also:

• FATE

fate .

Meanwhile M . Zaimis had made a further advance towards the annexation of the island to Greece by a visit to Athens, where he arranged for a loan with the Greek National See also:

• BANK

Bank and engaged Greek officers for the new gendarmerie . The issue was precipitated by the See also:

• NEWS

news of the revolution in Turkey . On the 12th 1 The Mussulman population, 88,000 in 1895, had sunk to 40,000 in 1907, and the emigration was still continuing . The loss to the country in wealth exported and land going out of cultivation has been very serious . Decision of the powers . of October the Cretan Assembly once more voted the union with Greece, and in the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of M . Zaimis—who had gone for a See also:

• HOLIDAY

holiday to See also:

• SANTA

Santa Maumee-elected a committee of six to govern the island in the name of the king of Greece . Against this the Mussulman deputies protested, in a memorandum addressed to the British secretary of state for foreign affairs . His reply, while stating that his government would safeguard the interests of the Mussulmans, left open the question of the attitude of the powers, complicated now by sympathy with reformed Turkey . The efforts of See also:

• DIPLOMACY (Fr. diplomatic)

diplomacy were directed to allaying the resentment of the "Young Turks" on the one hand and the ardour of the Greek unionists on the other; and meanwhile the Cretan administration was carried on peaceably in the name of King George . At last (July 13, 1909) the powers announced to the Porte, in answer to a formal remonstrance, their decision to withdraw their remaining troops from Crete by July 26 and to station four war-ships off the island to protect the Moslems and to safeguard "the supreme rights" of the Ottoman Empire .

This arrangement, which was duly carried out, was avowedly " provisional " and satisfied neither party, leading in Greece especially to the military and constitutional crises of 1909 and 1910 . (W . A . P.) 1887) ; Stavrakis, L raruyruoi roi irXnOvcr so TijS KpijrifS (Athens, 189o) ; J . H . Freese, A Short Popular History of Crete (See also:

• LONDON

London, 1897) ; Bickford-See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith, Cretan Sketches (London, 1897); Laroche, La Crete ancienne et moderne (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1898); See also:

• VICTOR
• VICTOR, GAIUS JULIUS (4th cent. A.D.)
• VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS

Victor See also:

• BERARD, JOSEPH FREDERIC (1789-1828)

Berard, Les Affaires de Crete (Paris, 1898) ; Monumenti See also:

• VENETI

Veneti dell' isola de Creta (published by the Venetian See also:

• INSTITUTE (from Lat. instituere, to establish or set up)

Institute), vol. i . (1906), vol. ii . (1908) . See also Mrs See also:

• WALKER, FRANCIS AMASA (1840-1897)
• WALKER, FREDERICK (184o--1875)
• WALKER, GEORGE (c. 1618-169o)
• WALKER, HENRY OLIVER (1843— )
• WALKER, HORATIO (1858– )
• WALKER, JOHN (1732—1807)
• WALKER, OBADIAH (1616-1699)
• WALKER, ROBERT (d. c. 1658)
• WALKER, ROBERT JAMES (1801-1869)
• WALKER, SEARS COOK (1805—1853)
• WALKER, THOMAS (1784—1836)
• WALKER, WILLIAM (1824-1860)

Walker, Eastern Life and Scenery (London,1886), and Old Tracks and New Landmarks (London, 1897) ; H . F . Tozer, The Islands of the Aegean (See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford, 1890) ; J . D .

See also:

• BOURCHIER, ARTHUR (1864- )
• BOURCHIER, THOMAS (c. 1404-1486)

Bourchier, " The Stronghold of the Sphakiotes," Fortnightly See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review (August 1890) ; E . J . See also:

• DILLON, ARTHUR RICHARD (172I-1807)
• DILLON, JOHN (1851– )

Dillon, " Crete and the Cretans," Fortnightly Review (May 1897) .