See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. See also:

• CANDIA

Candia)  , after See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily, See also:

• SARDINIA (Gr. 'IXs'o"uva, from a fancied resemblance to a footprint in its shape, Ital. Sardegna)

Sardinia and See also:

• CYPRUS
• CYPRUS, CHURCH OF

Cyprus the largest See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island in the Mediterranean, situated between 34°5o'and 35°4o' N. See also:

• LAT

lat. and between 23°3o' and 26°2o' E. See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long . Its See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-eastern extremity, Cape Sidero, is distant about See also:

• ITO, HIROBUMI, PRINCE (1841-1909)

Ito m. from Cape Krio in See also:

• ASIA

Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor, the See also:

• INTERVAL

interval being partly filled by the islands of Carpathos and See also:

• RHODES
• RHODES, CECIL JOHN (1853-1902)
• RHODES, JAMES FORD

Rhodes; its north-western, Cape Grabusa, is within 6o m. of Cape Malea in the Morea . See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

Crete thus forms the natural limit between the Mediterranean and the See also:

• ARCHIPELAGO

Archipelago . The island is of elongated See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form; its length from E. to W. is 16o m., its breadth from N. to S. varies from 35 to 72 m., its See also:

• AREA

area is 3330 sq. m . The See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast-See also:

• LINE

line is much indented . On the W. two narrow mountainous promontories, the western terminating in Cape Grabusa or Busa (See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient Corycus), the eastern in Cape Spada, shut in the See also:

• BAY

Bay of Kisamos; beyond the Bay of See also:

• CANEA, or KHANIA

Canea, to the E., the rocky See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula of Akrotiri shelters the magnificent natural See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

harbour of Suda (82 sq. m.), the only completely protected anchorage for large vessels which the island affords . Farther E. are the bays of See also:

• CANDIA

Candia and Malea, the deep Mirabello Bay and the Bay of Sitia . The See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south coast is less broken, and possesses no natural harbours, the mountains in many parts rising almost like a See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall from the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea; in the centre is Cape Lithinos, the southernmost point of the island, partly sheltering the Bay of Messara on the W . Immediately to the E. of Cape Lithinos is the small bay of See also:

• KALI (black)

Kali Limenes or See also:

• FAIR

Fair Havens, where the See also:

• SHIP

ship conveying St See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul took See also:

• REFUGE

refuge (Acts See also:

• XXVII

xxvii . 8) . Of the islands in the neighbourhood of the Cretan coast the largest is Gavdo (ancient Clauda, Acts A 2.j B 2s° C 26 D MED!T£RRANEAN SEA CRETE 35 e ao See also:

• COE

Coe See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

Miles C }N SQO Ito `i~ w p ^,nS Ppnt~eonsl`~ ti xsa s5a of e 1 Ennecno 4 st0°~ cK ~ 'a ~ , '~° )l,.e o 5 0 20 Slot; See also:

• COL
• COL (Fr. for " neck," Lat. collum)

Col r -~.r: h Capfuls of Departments, o Mrnoan and l 2akro sites mtaer/mede7 rean dt I s e 1 s _. qp oto vN, s c 0otee d Csoo has at So`O°°a 3' 4 ,o c.s°rm°ne 4, 2akro '' N°~° bg Qd s b'' f8 Gpo See also:

• MARA, GERTRUD ELISABETH (1749-1833)

Mara n 6Q C . See also:

• MAI, ANGELO (1782—1854)

Mai so,e p 777~~IIi ~-a•• (2 - J o Q'NfiE6..s Cevdopu~on ,tt; KophigR , a Gaudo~/~ MeaN9°~1 ~ 9 e (C,e°d, ~~~~iF6 J o I u~ °o, ''~OSA .

~GVtM s tlo nPr .f _ o 2 z o d i use HW. s.c . 2a` See also:

• LONGITUDE (from Lat. longitudo, " length ")

Longitude See also:

• LAS

Las, 25' of GreenmIch 26' xxvii . 16), about 25 M. from the south coast at Sphakia, in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages the see of a See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop . On the N. See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side the small island of Dia, or Standia, about 8 m. from Candia, offers a convenient shelter against northerly See also:

• GALES (mod. Calvi)

gales . Three small islands on the northern coast—Grabusa at the N.W. extremity, Suda, at the entrance to Suda harbour, and Spinalonga, in Mirabello Bay—remained for some See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time in the See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of See also:

• VENICE
• VENICE (continued)
• VENICE (Venezia)

Venice after the See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest of Crete by the See also:

• TURKS

Turks . Grabusa, long regarded as an impregnable fortress, was surrendered in 1692, Suda (where the flags of See also:

• TURKEY

Turkey and the four protecting See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers are now hoisted) and Spinalonga in 1715 . Natural Features.—The greater See also:

• PART

part of the island is occupied by ranges of mountains which form four See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups . In the western portion rises the massive range of the See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

White Mountains (Aspra ,Vouna), directly overhanging the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern coast with spurs projecting towards the W. and N.W . (highest See also:

• SUMMIT

summit, . Hagios Theodoros, 7882 ft.) . In the centre is the smaller, almost detached See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of Psiloriti (`T1/stXoperriov, ancient See also:

• IDA (d. 559)

Ida), culminating in Stavros (8193 ft.), the highest summit in the island . To the E. are the Lassithi mountains with Aphenti Christos (7165 ft.), and farther E. the mountains of Sitia with Aphenti Kavousi (485o ft.) .

The Kophino mountains (3888 ft.) See also:

• SEPARATE

separate the central See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain of Messara from the southern coast . The isolated See also:

• PEAK, THE

peak of Iuktas (about 2700 ft.), nearly due S. of Candia, was regarded with veneration in antiquity as the See also:

• BURIAL

burial-See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of See also:

• ZEUS

Zeus . The principal groups are for the greater part of the See also:

• YEAR

year covered with See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow, which remains in the deeper clefts throughout the summer; the intervals between them are filled by connecting chains which sometimes reach the height of 3000 ft . The largest plain is that of Monofatsi and Messara, a fertile See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract extending between Mt . Psiloriti and the Kophino range, about 37 M. in length and 10 m. in breadth . The smaller plain, or rather slope, adjoining Canea and the valley of Alikianfl, through which the Platanos (ancient Iardanos) flows, are of See also:

• GREAT

great beauty and fertility . A See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar feature is presented by the level upland basins which furnish abundant pasturage during the summer months; the more remarkable are the Omalo in the White Mountains (about 4000 ft.) drained by subterranean outlets (Kara/@oOpa), Nida (eh Tim "Hap) in Psiloriti (between 5000 and 6000 ft.), and the Lassithi plain (about 3000 ft.), a more extensive area, on which are several villages . Another remarkable characteristic is found in the deep narrow ravines (Oapayyra), bordered by precipitous cliffs, which See also:

• TRAVERSE

traverse the mountainous districts; into some of these the daylight scarcely penetrates . Numerous large caves exist in the mountains; among the most remarkable are the famous Idaean See also:

• CAVE (Lat. cavea, from caves, hollow)
• CAVE, EDWARD (1691–1754)
• CAVE, WILLIAM (1637–1713)

cave in Psiloriti, the caves of Melidoni, in Mylopotamo, and Sarchu, in Malevisi, which sheltered hundreds of refugees after the insurrection of 1866, and the Dictaean cave in Lassithi, the See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth-place of Zeus . The so-called See also:

• LABYRINTH (Gr. Xa(3vpcvOos, Lat. labyrinthus)

Labyrinth, near the ruins of See also:

• GORTYNA, or GORTYN

Gortyna, was a subterranean See also:

• QUARRY

quarry from which the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city was built . The principal See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers are the Metropoli Potamos and the Anapothiari, which drain the plain of Monofatsi and enter the southern sea E. and W. respectively of the Kophino range; the Platanos, which flows northwards from the White Mountains into the Bay of Canea; and the Mylopotamo (ancient Oaxes) flowing northwards from Psiloriti to the sea E. of Retimo . See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology.'—The metamorphic rocks of western Crete form a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series some 9000 to 10,000 ft. in thickness, of very varied See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition .

They include See also:

• GYPSUM

gypsum, See also:

• DOLOMITE

dolomite, conglomerates, phyllites, and a basic series of eruptive rocks (gabbros, peridotites, serpentines) . Glaucophane rocks are widely spread . In the centre of the folds fossiliferous beds with crinoids have been found, and the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black slates at the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of the series contain Myophoria and other fossils, indicating that the rocks are of Triassic See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age . It is, however, not impossible that the metamorphic series includes also some of the See also:

• LIAS

Lias . The later beds of the island belong to the See also:

• JURASSIC

Jurassic, Cretaceous and See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary systems . At the western See also:

• FOOT

foot of the Ida See also:

• MASSIF

massif calcareous beds with See also:

• CORALS (KoRAis), ADAMANTIOS [in French, DIAMANT CORAY] (1748–1833)

corals, brachiopods (Rhynchonella inconstans, &c.) have been found, the fossils indicating the See also:

• HORIZON (Gr. 6pfTwv, dividing)

horizon of the Kimmeridge See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay . See also:

• LOWER

Lower Cretaceous limestones and See also:

• SCHISTS (Gr. vxq'ecv, to split)

schists, with radiolarian cherts, arc extensively See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed; and in many parts of the island Upper Creta- ' See L . Cayeux, " See also:

• LES

Les Lignes directrices See also:

• DES

des plissements de See also:

• FILE

file de Crete," C.R . IX . Cong. geol. internat . See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna, pp . 383-392 (1904).ceous limestones with Rudistes and See also:

• EOCENE (Gr. *In, dawn, icauvos, recent)

Eocene beds with nummuliteo have been found .

All these are involved in the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth movements to which the mountains of the island owe their formation, but the See also:

• MIOCENE

Miocene beds (with Clypeaster) and later deposits See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie almost undisturbed upon the coasts and the See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low-lying ground . With the Jurassic beds is associated an extensive series of eruptive rocks (See also:

• GABBRO

gabbro, See also:

• PERIDOTITE

peridotite, See also:

• SERPENTINE

serpentine, See also:

• DIORITE (from the Gr. S&oi4eiv to distinguish, from hA through, Epos, a boundary)

diorite, See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite, &c.) ; they are chiefly of Jurassic age, but the eruptions may have continued into the Lower Cretaceous . The structure of the island is complex . In the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west the folds run from north to south, curving gradually westward towards the southern and western coasts; but in the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east the folds appear to run from west to east, and to be the continuation of the Dinaric folds of the See also:

• BALKAN

Balkan peninsula . The structure is further complicated by a great thrust-See also:

• PLANE

plane which has brought the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous beds upon the Upper Cretaceous and Eocene beds . Vegetation.—The forests which once covered the mountains have for the most part disappeared and the slopes are now desolate wastes . The See also:

• CYPRESS (Cupressus)

cypress still grows See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild in the higher regions; the lower hills and the valleys, which are extremely fertile, are covered with See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods . Oranges and lemons also abound, and are of excellent quality, furnishing almost the whole See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental See also:

• GREECE

Greece and See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople . See also:

• CHESTNUT (nux Castanea)

Chestnut woods are found in the Selino See also:

• DISTRICT

district, and forests of the valonia See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak in that of Retimo; in some parts the carob See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree is abundant and supplies an important See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article of See also:

• CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

consumption . See also:

• PEARS

Pears, apples, quinces, mulberries and other See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit-trees flourish, as well as vines; the Cretan wines, however, no longer enjoy the reputation which they possessed in the time of the Venetians . See also:

• TOBACCO

Tobacco and See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton succeed well in the plains and low grounds, though not at See also:

• PRESENT

present cultivated to any great extent . _ Animals.—Of the wild animals of Crete, the wild See also:

• GOAT (a common Teut. word; O. Eng. gat, Goth. gaits, Mod. Ger. Geiss, cognate with Lat. haedus, a kid)

goat or agrimi (Capra aegagrus) alone need be mentioned; it is still found in considerable See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers on the higher summits of Psiloriti and the White Mountains .

The same See also:

• SPECIES

species is found in the See also:

• CAUCASUS

Caucasus and See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount See also:

• TAURUS (" the Bull ")

Taurus, and is distinct from the See also:

• IBEX

ibex or bouquetin of the See also:

• ALPS

Alps . Crete, like several other large islands, enjoys See also:

• IMMUNITY (from Lat. immunis, not subject to a munus or public service)

immunity from dangerous serpents—a See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege ascribed by popular belief to the intercession of See also:

• TITUS
• TITUS, FLAVIUS SABINUS VESPASIANUS
• TITUS, THE EPISTLE TO

Titus, the See also:

• COMPANION (through the O. Fr. compaignon or compagnon, from the Late Lat. companio,—cum, with, and panis, bread,—one who shares meals with another; the word has been wrongly derived from the Late Lat. compagnus, one of the same pages or district)

companion of St Paul, who according to tradition was the first bishop of the island, and became in consequence its See also:

• PATRON

patron See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

saint . Wolves also are not found in the island, though See also:

• COMMON

common in Greece and Asia Minor . The native breed of mules is remarkably See also:

• FINE

fine . See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

Population.—The population of Crete under the Venetians was estimated at about 250,000 . After the See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish conquest it greatly diminished, but afterwards gradually See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose, till it was supposed to have attained to about 260,000, of whom about See also:

• HALF

half were Mahommedans, at the time, of the outbreak of the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek revolution in 1821 . The ravages of the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war from 1821 to 1830, and the See also:

• EMIGRATION (from Lat. emigrare; e, ex, out of, and migrare, to depart)

emigration that followed, caused a great diminution, and the population was estimated by Pashley in 1836 at only about 130,000 . In the next See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation it again materially increased; it was calculated by See also:

• SPRATT, THOMAS ABEL BRIMAGE (1811-1888)

Spratt in 1865 as amounting to 210,000 . According to the See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census taken in 1881, the See also:

• COMPLETE

complete publication of which was interdicted by the Turkish authorities, the population of the island was 279,165, or 35.78 to the square kilometre . Of this See also:

• TOTAL

total, 141,602 were See also:

• MALES

males, 137,563 See also:

• FEMALES

females; 33,173 were literate, 242,114 illiterate; 205,010 were orthodox Christians, 73,234 Moslems, and 921 of other religious persuasions . The Moslem See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element predominated in the principal towns, of which the population was—Candia, 21,368; Canea, 13,812; Retimo, 9274 . According to the census taken in See also:

• JUNE

June 1900, the population of the island was 301,273, the Christians having increased to 267,266, while the Moslems had diminished to 33,281 .

The Moslems, as well as the Christians, are of Greek origin and speak Greek . Towns.—The three principal towns are on the northern coast and possess small harbours suitable for vessels of See also:

• LIGHT

light See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught . Candia, the former See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital and the see of the See also:

• ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

archbishop of Crete (pop. in 1900, 22,501), is officially styled Herakleion; it is surrounded by remarkable Venetian fortifications and possesses a museum with a valuable collection of See also:

• OBJECTS

objects found at See also:

• CNOSSUS

Cnossus, Phaestus, the Idaean cave and elsewhere . It has been occupied since 1897 by See also:

• BRITISH

British troops . Canea (Xavia), the seat of See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government since 1840 (pop . 20,972), is built in the See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style; its walls and interesting See also:

• GALLEY (derived through the 0. Fr. galee, galie, from the Med. Lat. galea, Ital. galea, Port. gale, of uncertain origin; from the Med. Lat. variant form galera are derived the Mod. Fr. galere, Span. and Ital. galera)

galley-slips recall the Venetian See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period . The See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence of the high See also:

• COMMISSIONER

commissioner and the consulates of the powers are in the suburb of Halepa . Retimo (PEBvµvos) is, like Canea, the see of a bishop (pop . 9311) . The other towns, Hierapetra, Sitia, Kisamos, Selino and Sphakia, are unimportant . See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

Production and See also:

• INDUSTRIES

Industries.—Owing to the volcanic nature of its See also:

• SOIL

soil, Crete is probably See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in minerals . See also:

• RECENT

Recent experiments See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead to the conclusion that See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron, lead, See also:

• MANGANESE (symbol Mn; atomic weight, 54.93 (0=16)], a metallic chemical element. Its dioxide (pyrolusite)

manganese, See also:

• LIGNITE (Lat. lignum, wood)

lignite and See also:

• SULPHUR

sulphur exist in considerable abundance .

See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

Copper and See also:

• ZINC

zinc have also been found . A large number of applications for See also:

• MINING

mining See also:

• CON

con-cessions have been received since the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of the autonomous government . The principal See also:

• WEALTH

wealth of the island is derived from its olive groves; notwithstanding the destruction of many See also:

• THOU, JACQUES AUGUSTE DE [THUANUS] (1553-1617)
• THOU, NOM

thou-sands of trees during each successive insurrection, the production is apparently undiminished, and will probably increase very considerably owing to the planting of See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young trees and the improved methods of cultivation which the Government is endeavouring to promote . The See also:

• ORANGE
• ORANGE (Citrus Aurantium)
• ORANGE, HOUSE OF

orange and See also:

• LEMON
• LEMON, MARK (1809-1870)

lemon groves have also suffered considerably, but new varieties of the orange tree are now being introduced, and an impulse will be given to the export See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade in this fruit by the removal of the restriction on its importation into Greece . See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

Agriculture is still in a See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition; notwithstanding the fertility of the arable See also:

• LAND

land the supply of cereals is far below the requirements of the population . A great portion of the central plain of Monofatsi, the principal See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain-producing district, is lying See also:

• FALLOW

fallow owing to the See also:

• EXODUS, BOOK OF
• EXODUS, THE

exodus of the Moslem peasantry . The cultivation of See also:

• SILK

silk cocoons, formerly a flourishing See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry, has greatly declined in recent years, but efforts are now being made to revive it . There are few manufactures . See also:

• SOAP

Soap is produced at fifteen factories in the principal towns, and there are two distilleries of See also:

• COGNAC

cognac at Candia . See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

Commerce.—The expansion of Cretan commerce has been retarded by many drawbacks, such as the unsatisfactory condition of the harbours, the want of See also:

• DIRECT

direct steamship lines to See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England and other countries, and the deficiency of See also:

• INTERNAL

internal communications . The total value of imports in the four years 1901–1904 was £1,756,888, of exports £1,386,777; excess of imports over exports, £37o,III, Exports in 1904 were valued at £419,642, the principal items being agricultural products (oranges, lemons, carobs, almonds, grapes, valonia, &c.), value £153,858, See also:

• OLIVES, MOUNT OF, or MOUNT OLIVET ("Opus 'EXc uwos or riov 'EXauav; mod. Jebel-et-Tur)

olives and products of olives (oil, soap, &c.), £134,788, and wines and liquors, f48,544 . The countries which accept the largest See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share of Cretan produce are Turkey, England, See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt, See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria and See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia .

Imports in 1904 were valued at £549,665, including agricultural products (mainly See also:

• FLOUR

flour and See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn), value £162,535 and textiles, £I29,349• Cereals are imported from the Black Sea and See also:

• DANUBE (Ger. Donau, Hungarian Duna, Rumanian Dunarea, Lat. Danubius or Danuvius, and in the lower part of its course Ister)

Danube ports, ready-made clothing from Austria and See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, articles of luxury from Austria and See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, and cotton textiles from England . Imports are charged 8 %, exports 1 % ad valorem See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty . According to a See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law published in 1899, Turkish merchandise became subjected to the same rates as that of See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign nations . Constitution and Government.—During the past half-See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century the affairs of Crete have repeatedly occupied the See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . Owing to the existence of a strong Mussulman minority among its inhabitants, the warlike See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the natives, and the mountainous configuration of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country, which enabled a portion of the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian population to maintain itself in a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of partial See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence, the island has constantly been the See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene of prolonged and sanguinary struggles in which the numerical superiority of the Christians was counterbalanced by the aid rendered to the Moslems by the See also:

• OTTOMAN

Ottoman troops . This unhappy state of affairs was aggravated and perpetuated by the intrigues set on foot at Constantinople against successive See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors of the island, the conflicts between the See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

Palace and the See also:

• PORTE, THE SUBLIME (Arab. babi-'ali, the high gate, through the French translation la sublime porte)

Porte, the duplicity of the Turkish authorities, the dissensions of the representatives of the great powers, the machinations of Greek See also:

• AGITATORS, or ADJUTATORS

agitators, the rivalry of Cretan politicians, and prolonged See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial mismanagement . A long series of insurrections—those of 1821, 1833, 1841, 1858, 1866–1868, 1878, 1889 and 1896 may be especially mentioned—culminated in the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• REBELLION

rebellion of 1897, which led to the interference of Greece, the intervention of the great powers, the See also:

• EXPULSION (Lat. expulsio, from expellere)

expulsion of the Turkish authorities, and the establishment of an autonomous Cretan government under the See also:

• SUZERAINTY

suzerainty of the See also:

• SULTAN (an Arabic word meaning " victorious " or " a ruler," sultat, dominion)

sultan . According to the autonomous constitution of 1899 the supreme See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power was vested in See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

Prince See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George of Greece, acting as high commissioner of the protecting powers . The authority thus conferred was confided exclusively to the prince, and was declared liable to modification by law in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of his successor . The modified constitution of See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 1907 curtailed the large exceptional legislative and administrative powers then accorded . The high commissioner is irresponsible,but his decrees, except in certain specified cases, must be See also:

• COUNTER

counter-signed by a member of his See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council . He convokes, prorogues and dissolves the chamber, sanctions See also:

• LAWS

laws, exercises the right of See also:

• PARDON (through the Fr. from Late Lat. perdonare, to remit a debt or other obligation on a penalty)

pardon in case of See also:

• POLITICAL

political offences, represents the island in its foreign relations and is See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief of its military forces .

The chamber (,3ov o ), which is elected in the proportion of one See also:

• DEPUTY (through the Fr. from a Late Lat. use of deputare, to cut off, allot; putare having the original sense of to trim, prune)

deputy to every 5000 inhabitants, meets annually for a session of two months . New elections are held every two years . The chamber exercises a complete financial See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control, and no taxes can be imposed without its consent . The high commissioner is aided in the See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration by a See also:

• CABINET

cabinet of three members, styled " councillors " (ovµ/3ovXoa), who superintend the departments of See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice, See also:

• FINANCE

finance, See also:

• EDUCATION

education, public See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security and the interior . The councillors, who are nominated and dismissed by the high commissioner, are responsible to the chamber, which may impeach them before a See also:

• SPECIAL

special tribunal for any illegal See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act or neglect of duty . In general the Cretan constitution is characterized by a conservative spirit, and contrasts with the ultra-democratic systems established in Greece and the Balkan States . A further point of difference is the more liberal See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment of public functionaries in Crete . For administrative purposes the departmental divisions existing under the Turkish government have been retained . There are 5 nomoi or prefectures (formerly sanjaks) each under a See also:

• PREFECT (prefet)

prefect (voµapXos), and 23 eparchies (formerly kazas) each under a sub-prefect (€7rapXos) . All these functionaries are nominated by the high commissioner . The prefects are assisted by depart-See also:

• MENTAL

mental See also:

• COUNCILS

councils . The See also:

• SYSTEM

system of municipal and communal government remains practically unchanged .

The island is divided into 86 communes, each with a See also:

• MAYOR (Lat. major, greater)
• MAYOR, JOHN EYTON BICKERSTETH (1825– )

mayor, an assistant-mayor, and a communal council elected by the See also:

• PEOPLE

people . The councils assess within certain limits the communal taxes, maintain roads, See also:

• BRIDGES
• BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844– )

bridges, &c., and generally superintend See also:

• LOCAL

local affairs . Public See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order is maintained by a force of See also:

• GENDARMERIE

gendarmerie (XwpokuXaKtil) organized and at first commanded by Italian See also:

• OFFICERS

officers, who were replaced by Greek officers in See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1906 . The constitution authorizes the formation of a See also:

• MILITIA (Fr. milice, Ger. Miliz, from Lat. miles, soldier, militia, military service)

militia (iroXtrock vXaKij) to be enrolled by See also:

• CONSCRIPTION (from Lat. con-, together, and scribere, to write)

conscription, but in existing circumstances the embodiment of this force seems unnecessary . Justice.—The administration of justice is on the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model . A supreme See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of See also:

• APPEAL

appeal, which also discharges the functions of a court of cassation, sits at Canea . There are two See also:

• ASSIZE

assize courts at Canea and Candia respectively with See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction in regard to serious offences (Kaxon pryilµara) . Minor offences (7rXt7µ ssXibuara) and See also:

• CIVIL

civil causes are tried by courts of first instance in each of the five departments . There are 26 justices of See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace, to whose decision are referred slight contraventions of the law (irraivµara) and civil causes in which the amount claimed is below 600 francs . These functionaries also hold monthly sessions in the various communes . The See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges are chosen without regard to religious belief, and precautions have been taken to render them See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent of political parties . They are appointed, promoted, transferred or removed by order of the council of justice, a See also:

• BODY

body composed of the five highest judicial dignitaries, sitting at Canea .

An order for the removal of a See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge must be based upon a conviction for some specified offence before a court of law . The See also:

• JURY

jury system has not been introduced . The Greek penal See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code has been adopted with some modifications . The Ottoman civil code is maintained for the present, but it is proposed to establish a code recently See also:

• DRAWN

drawn up by Greek jurists which is mainly based on Italian and Saxon law . The Mussulman cadis retain their jurisdiction in regard to religious affairs, See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage, See also:

• DIVORCE

divorce, the wardship of minors and See also:

• INHERITANCE

inheritance . See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

Religion and Education.—The vast See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the Christian population belongs to the Orthodox (Greek) See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church, which is governed by a See also:

• SYNOD
• SYNOD (Gr. vbvobos)

synod of seven bishops under the See also:

• PRESIDENCY

presidency of the See also:

• METROPOLITAN (Lat. metropolitanus, Gr. µnrpoiroXtrns)

metropolitan of Candia . The Cretan Church is not, strictly speaking, See also:

• AUTOCEPHALOUS (from Gr. abaes, self, and Ke¢aXi7, head)

autocephalous, being dependent on the patriarchate of Constantinople . There were in 1907 3500 Greek churches in the island with 53 monasteries and 3 nunneries; 55 mosques, 4 See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic churches and 4 synagogues . Education `s nominally compulsory . In 1907 there were 547 See also:

• PRIMARY

primary See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools (527 Christian and 20 See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

Mahommedan), and 31 secondary schools (all Christian) . About £20,000 is granted annually by the state for the purposes of education . Finance.—Owing to the havoc wrought during repeated insurrections, the impoverishment of the peasants, the desolation of the districts formerly inhabited by the Moslem agricultural population, and the drain of See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold resulting from the See also:

• SALE
• SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736)
• SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782—1845)

sale of Moslem lands and emigration of the former proprietors, together with other causes, the financial situation has been unsatisfactory .

Notwithstanding the advance of £160,000 made by the four protecting powers after the institution of autonomous government and the profits (£61,937) derived from the issue of a new currency in 1900, there was at the beginning of 1906 an accumulated deficit of £23,470, which represents the floating See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt . In addition to the above-mentioned debt to the powers, the state contracted a See also:

• LOAN (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Swed. Mn, Icel. lan, Dut. leen; the O.E. laen appears in " lend," the ultimate source is seen in the root of Gr. Xeiaecv and Lat. linquere, to leave)

loan of £60,000 in 1901 to acquire the rights and privileges of the Ottoman Debt, to which the See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt See also:

• MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

monopoly has been conceded for 20 years . In the budgets for 1905 and 1906 considerable economies were effected by the curtailment of salaries, the abolition of various posts, and the reduction of the estimates for education and public See also:

• WORKS

works . The estimated See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue and See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure for 1906 were as follows: Revenue . Expenditure . Drachmae (gold) . Drachmae (gold) . Direct taxes . 1,494,000 High Commissioner . 200,000 Indirect taxes . 1,715,000 Financial adminis- tration . 694,670 See also:

• STAMP (from " to stamp," to strike or tread heavily, hence to impress, O. Eng. stempen, Du. stampen, Ger. stampfen, whence, O. Fr. estamper, mod. etamper)

Stamp dues .

351,700 Interior (including gendarmerie) . . 1,678,566 Other See also:

• SOURCES

sources 780,967 Education and Justice 1,453,500 4,341,667 4,026,736 The See also:

• SALARY

salary of the high commissioner was reduced in 1907 to 100,000 drachmae . Improved communications are much needed for the transport of agricultural produce, but the state of the See also:

• TREASURY

treasury does not admit of more than a nominal expenditure on road-making and other public works . On these the See also:

• AVERAGE

average yearly expenditure between 1898 and 1905 was £x3,404 . The prosperity of the island depends on the development of agriculture, the acquirement of industrious habits by the people, and the See also:

• ABANDONMENT (Fr. abandonnement, from abandonner, to abandon, relinquish; abandonner was originally equivalent to mettred banddn, to leave to the jurisdiction, i.e. of another, bandon being from Low Latin bandum, bannum, order, decree, " ban ")

abandonment of political agitation . The Cretans were in 1906 more lightly taxed than any other people in Europe . The tithe had been replaced by an export tax on exported agricultural produce levied at the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom-houses, and the smaller See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

peasant proprietors and shepherds of the mountainous districts were practically exempt from any contribution to the state . The communal tax did not exceed on the average two francs annually for each See also:

• FAMILY

family . The poorer communes are aided by a state subvention . (J . D . B.) See also:

• ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. &pxa1a, ancient things, and Xoyos, theory or science)

Archaeology .

The recent exploration and excavation of See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early sites in Crete have entirely revolutionized our knowledge of its Early, remote past, and afforded the most astonishing Middle See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of the existence of a highly advanced and See also:

• LATE