CRIMINAL See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

LAW  . By criminal, or penal, See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law is now understood the law as to the See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition, trial and See also:

• PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment of crimes, i.e. of acts or omissions forbidden by law which affect injuriously public rights, or constitute a See also:

• BREACH (Mid. Eng. breche, derived from the common Teutonic root brec, which appears in " break," Ger. brechen, &c.)

breach of duties due to the whole community . The See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign is taken to be the See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person injured by the See also:

• CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime, as he represents the whole community, and prosecutions are in his name . Criminal law includes the rules as to the prevention, the investigation, See also:

• PROSECUTION

prosecution and punishment of crime (q.v.) . It See also:

• LAYS

lays down what constitutes a criminal offence, what See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof is necessary to establish the fact of a criminal offence and the culpability of the offender, what excuse or See also:

• JUSTIFICATION

justification for the See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act or omission can be legally admitted, what See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure should be followed in a criminal See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court, what degrees and kinds of punishment should be imposed for the various offences which come up for trial . Finally, it regulates the constitution of the tribunals established for the trial of offences according to the gravity of the infraction of law, and deals with the organization of the See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police and the proper management of prisons, and the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of See also:

• PRISON (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. prehensio, seizure)

prison discipline . (See See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

EVIDENCE; PRISON; POLICE.) Many acts or omissions, which are technically criminal and classified as offences and punished by See also:

• FINE

fine or imprisonment, cannot be said to have a strictly criminal See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, since they do not fall within the popular conception of crime . To this class belong such matters as stopping up a See also:

• HIGHWAY

highway under claim of right, or failing to repair it, or allowing a See also:

• CHIMNEY (through the Fr. cheminee, from caminata, sc. camera, a Lat. derivative of caminus, an oven or furnace)

chimney to emit See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black See also:

• SMOKE (from O. Eng. smeocan, to smoke, reek, cf. Dutch meek, Ger. Schmauch, probably allied to Gr. vol9caiv)

smoke in excessive quantities, or to catch See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire from being unswept, or breach of See also:

• BUILDING

building by-See also:

• LAWS

laws, or See also:

• DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages)

driving a motor See also:

• CAR (Late Lat. carra)

car on a highway at a See also:

• SPEED, JOHN (1552–1629)

speed in excess of the legal limit . Such breaches of law are under the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French law described as contraventions . In See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England most of them are described as See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty misdemeanours or offences punishable on See also:

• SUMMARY

summary conviction, or less happily as " summary offences," and some writers speak of them as See also:

• MALA

mala prohibita as distinguished from mala in se, i.e. as not involving any breach of See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary morality other than a breach of See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive regulations . See also:

• CONTINENTAL

Continental jurists at times speak of crimes de See also:

• DROIT (Fr. for " right," from Lat. directus, straight)

droit commun (i.e. offences See also:

• COMMON

common to all systems of law as distinguished from offences which are crimes only by a particular municipal law) . To this class of crimes de droit commun belong most of the offences included in See also:

• EXTRADITION (Lat. cx, out, and traditio, handing over)

extradition See also:

• TREATIES

treaties .

Criminal and See also:

• CIVIL

civil law overlap, and many acts or omissions are not only " wrongs " for which the person injured is entitled to recover See also:

• COMPENSATION (from Lat. compensare, to weigh one thing against another)

compensation for his own See also:

• PERSONAL

personal injury or damage, but also " offences " for which the offender may be prosecuted and punished in the See also:

• INTEREST

interest of the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state . In non-See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• EUROPEAN

European systems care is taken to prevent civil remedies from being extinguished by punishment: it is quite usual for the civil and criminal remedies to be pursued concurrently, theindividual appearing as partie civile and receiving an See also:

• AWARD (from O. Fr. ewart, or esguart, cf. " reward ")

award of compensation by the See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment which determines the punishment to be inflicted for the offence against the state . Under English law it is now exceptional to allow civil and criminal remedies to be pursued concurrently or in the same proceeding, or to award compensation to the injured party in criminal proceedings, and he is usually See also:

• LEFT

left to seek his remedy by See also:

• ACTION

action . Among the exceptions are the restitution of stolen goods on conviction of the thief if the prosecution has been at the instance or with the aid of the owner of the goods (See also:

• LARCENY (an adaptation of Fr. larcin, O. Fr. larrecin, from Lat. latrocinium, theft, latio, robber)

Larceny Act 1861, § Too), and the award of compensation to persons who have suffered injury to See also:

• PROPERTY

property by See also:

• FELONY (0. Fr. felonie, from felon, a word meaning " wicked," common to Romanic languages, cf. Italian fella, fellone, the ultimate origin of which is obscure, but is possibly connected either with Lat. fel, gall, or fallere, to deceive. The English " fel

felony (See also:

• FORFEITURE (from " forfeit," originally an offence, and hence a fine exacted as a penalty for such; derived through the O. Fr. forfeit, from the late Lat. foris factum, a trespass, that which is done foris, outside)

Forfeiture Act 1870) . As See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry See also:

• MAINE
• MAINE, ANNE LOUISE BENEDICTE DE BOURBON
• MAINE, SIR HENRY JAMES SUMNER (1822–1888)

Maine says (See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

Ancient Law, ed . 1906, p . 381), " All civilized systems of law agree in See also:

• DRAWING

drawing a distinction between offences against the state or community (crimes or crimina) and offences against the individual (wrongs, torts or delicta)." But the See also:

• PROCESS

process of See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical development by which this distinction has been ultimately established has given See also:

• GREAT

great occasion for study of See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early laws and institutions by eminent men, whose researches have disclosed the extremely See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution of the See also:

• MODERN

modern notion of criminal law enforced by the state from the See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive conceptions and customs of barbarous or semi-civilized communities . Of the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest codes or digests of customs which are available to the student it has been said the more archaic a See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code the See also:

• FULLER, ANDREW (1954-1815)
• FULLER, GEORGE (1822—1884)
• FULLER, M
• FULLER, MARGARET, MARCHIONESS
• FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910)
• FULLER, THOMAS (16o8-1661)
• FULLER, WILLIAM (1670--c. 1717)

fuller and minuter is its penal legislation: but this penal legislation is not true criminal law; it is the law, not of crimes, but of wrongs . The intervention of the community or tribe is in the first instance to persuade or compel the wronged person or his See also:

• FAMILY

family or tribe to abandon private vengeance or a See also:

• BLOOD

blood See also:

• FEUD

feud and to accept compensation for the wrong collectively or individually sustained; and in the tariffs of compensation preserved in early laws the importance of the injured person was the measure of the compensation or vengeance which he was recognized to be entitled to exact, and the scales of punishment or compensation are fixed from this point of view . The laws of Khammurabi (2285–2242), the oldest extant code, contain definite schemes and scales of offences and punishments, and indicate the existence of tribunals to try the See also:

• BABYLON (mod. Hillah)

Babylon. offences and to award the appropriate remedy . The punishments are very severe . It is not distinctly indicated whether the proceedings were at the instance of the state or the person wronged, but compensation and See also:

• PENALTY (Lat. poena, punishment)

penalty could be awarded in the same proceeding, and the provisions as to the lex talionis and See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale of compensation for injuries tend to show that the procedure was on private complaint and not on behalf of the state (see further BABYLONIAN LAW) .

Of the early criminal laws of See also:

• GREECE

Greece only fragments survive, e.g. those of See also:

• SOLON (7th and 6th century n.c.)

Solon and See also:

• DRACO (" the Dragon ")
• DRACO (7th century B.C.)

Draco . In See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens in early times crime was dealt with in the See also:

• AREOPAGUS ("Apews Ilayos)

Areopagus from the point of view vrewe. of See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion and by the archons from the point of view of compensation: and it was only when the state interests were directly affected that proceedings by way of eicayyeXia or See also:

• IMPEACHMENT (O. Fr. empeahement, empeschement, from em pecher or empescher, to hinder, Late Lat. impedicare, to entangle, pedica, fetter, pes, foot)

impeachment were taken . In classical times crimes See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell to be tried by panels of jurors or See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from the See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly and described as &Kaaripla . The earliest materials for ascertaining the criminal law of See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome are to be found in the Twelve Tables, Table VIII . The criminal law of imperial Rome is collected in books 47 Rome. and 48 of the See also:

• DIGEST

Digest . The See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification of crimes therein is capricious and anomalous . " In the early See also:

• ROMAN

Roman law the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of legislative See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power was so fully grasped and that of judicial power so little understood that the criminal See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction arose in the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of a legislative enactment applicable to particular cases." Crimes were classified according to the mode of prosecution into: r . Publica judicia, dealing with crimes specifically forbidden by definite laws, which took the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of the See also:

• STANDING

standing commissions (quaestiones perpetuae) of the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic . In the earlier stages of Roman law the state only interfered to punish offences which gravely affected it, and did so by privilegia, which correspond to impeachment or See also:

• BILL

Bill of Pains and Penalties . Development of modern criminal law . 2 . Extraordinaria crimina, crimes for which no See also:

• SPECIAL

special procedure or punishment was provided: the punishment being, within limits, left to the discretion of the See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge and the prosecution to the injured party .

3 . Privata delicta, offences for which a special form of action was open to the injured party, e.g. actio furti . The multiplicity of tribunals under the republic was replaced under the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire by a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete organization of the judiciary throughout the districts (dioceses) under the supervision of the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor in his privy See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council (see Maine, Ancient Law, ed . 1906, p . 393) . Public prosecution under the empire began by See also:

• ARREST (Fr. arrester, arreeter, to stop or stay)

arrest of the accused, who was taken before an eirenarclza, who examined him (by See also:

• TORTURE (from Lat. torquere, to twist)

torture in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of a slave or See also:

• PARRICIDE (probably for Lat. patricidia, from pater, father, and caedere, to slay); strictly the murder of a parent; the term however has been extended to include the murder of any relative or of an ascendant by a descendant. The first Roman law against p

parricide) and sent him on for trial before the praeses of the See also:

• DIOCESE (formed on Fr. diocese, in place of the Eng. form diocess—current until the 19th century—from Lat. dioecesis, med. Lat. variant diocesis, from Gr. Swucio•tc, " house-keeping," " administration," &miceas, " to keep house," " to govern ")

diocese (8zoi,Cl70'es) . Private prosecution followed, a procedure closely resembling that of civil actions, beginning with citatio (See also:

• SUMMONS (Fr. semonce, from semonner or semondre, Lat. summonere, summonitio)

summons), followed by libellus or See also:

• ACCUSATION (Lat. accusatio, accusare, to challenge to a causa, a suit or trial at law)

accusation, and See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment of a See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day for See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

hearing . The right of either party to See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call witnesses was very imperfectly established . The early laws of the See also:

• CELTIC

Celtic races are preserved as to See also:

• WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria)

Wales in the laws of Hywel Dda, and as to See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland in the See also:

• BOOK

Book of Aicill and other Brehon law tracts, which are See also:

• PRO

pro- Celtic law . fessional collections of precedents and formulae made by the hereditary law See also:

• CASTE (through the Fr. from Span. and Port. casta, lineage, Lat. cast us, pure)

caste (Brehons), whose business it was " to pass See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence from precedents and commentaries." (See BREHON LAWS.) The development of Celtic law was arrested by the Saxon and Anglo-See also:

• NORMAN
• NORMAN, SIR HENRY WYLIE (1826-1904)

Norman See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest: but the materials preserved indicate an origin common with that of Germanic law . The special characteristics of Irish criminal law, if it can be so called, were: 1 . The law was customary and theoretically unchangeable, and no legislative or judicial authority existed to alter or enforce it .

2 . All crimes were treated as wrongs, for which compensation was made by See also:

• ASSESSMENT, (from Lat. assessare, to sit beside, to judge)

assessment of See also:

• DAMAGES (through O. Fr. damage, mod. Fr. dommage, from Lat. damnum, loss)

damages by a consensual tribunal whose power to make awards depended on submission of the parties and the ultimate See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

sanction of public See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion or See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom . A customary See also:

• TARIFF (adapted in English from the French; the word comes through the Spanish tarifa, a list or schedule of prices, from the Arabic, ta'rifa, information, an inventory, 'arf, know-ledge)

tariff for compensation existed for all offences from wilful See also:

• MURDER

murder downwards . No crime was unamendable . The Irish law recognized a See also:

• BODY

body See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price or compensation (S. bot) and an See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour price or See also:

• ERIC

eric (S. wer), for which the family or tribe of the offender was collectively liable; but there is no clearly ascertained See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to the Saxon wife, or fine to the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief . The laws of the Germanic tribes, so far as preserved in the Germania of See also:

• TACITUS, CORNELIUS (c. 55-120)
• TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS

Tacitus, and in the compilations of customs known as the Salic and Ripuarian laws, the Leges Barbarorum, law. the Dooms of .IEthelberht and the collections of(fredus or friede), and bot, of punishment in See also:

• LIFE

life and See also:

• LIMB

limb . As regards the malefactor the community may assume one of four attitudes: it may make See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war on him; it may have him exposed to the vengeance of those whom he has wronged; it may suffer him to make See also:

• ATONEMENT

atonement; it may inflict on him a determinate punishment, See also:

• DEATH

death, See also:

• MUTILATION (from Lat. mutilus, maimed)

mutilation or the like." The wite or sum paid to the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king or See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

lord is now thought to have been originally not a penalty but a See also:

• FEE

fee for time and trouble taken in hearing and determining a controversy . But at an early See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage fines for breach of See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace were imposed . An evil result from the public point of view followed from the See also:

• SYSTEM

system of atoning for crime by pecuniary mulct . " Criminal jurisdiction became a source of See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue." So early as Canute's time certain crimes were pleas of the See also:

• CROWN

crown; but grants of criminal jurisdiction, with the attendant forfeitures, were freely made to prelates, towns and lords of manors, and some traces of this jurisdiction still survive (e.g. the criminal jurisdiction of the justices of the See also:

• SOKE (0. Eng. soc, connected ultimately with secan, to seek)

soke (See also:

• SOC

soc) of See also:

• PETERBOROUGH

Peterborough, and the rights of some boroughs, e.g . See also:

• NOTTINGHAM
• NOTTINGHAM, CHARLES HOWARD, 1ST EARL OF1 (1536-1624)
• NOTTINGHAM, EARLS OF

Nottingham, to forfeitures) . See also:

• OUTLAWRY

Outlawry soon ceased to be a mode of punishment, and became, as it still is, a process to compel submission to See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice (Crown See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

Office Rules, 1906, rules 88-r1o) .

Certain crimes, such as murder, See also:

• RAPE
• RAPE (from Lat. rapere, to seize)
• RAPE (Lat. rapum or rapa, turnip)

rape, See also:

• ARSON (from Lat. ardere, to burn)

arson and See also:

• BURGLARY (burgi latrocinium; in ancient English law, hamesucken2)

burglary, became unamendable or bootless, i.e. placed the offender's life, limb, lands and goods at the king's See also:

• MERCY (adapted from Fr. merci, Lat. merces, reward)
• MERCY (or MERCI), FRANZ, FREIHERR VON

mercy . These crimes came to be generally described by the name felony (q.v.) . Other crimes became punishable by fines which took the place of wites . These were styled trespasses and correspond to what is now called See also:

• MISDEMEANOUR (from O. Fr. mes- and demener, to conduct oneself ill)

misdemeanour (q.v.) . See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor acts of violence, dishonesty or See also:

• NUISANCE (through Fr. noisance, nuisance, from Lat. nocere, to hurt)

nuisance, were dealt with in seigniorial and See also:

• BOROUGH (A.S. nominative burh, dative byrig, which produces some of the place-names ending in bury, a sheltered or fortified place, the camp of refuge of a tribe, the stronghold of a chieftain; cf. Ger. Burg, Fr. bor, bore, bourg)
• BOROUGH [BURROUGH, BURROWE, BORROWS], STEVEN (1525–1584)

borough courts by presentment of the jurors of courts See also:

• BARON
• BARON (1835-1895)
• BARON, MICHEL (1653—1729)

baron and courts;leet, and punished by fine or in some cases by See also:

• PILLORY (0. Fr. pilori, Prov. espitlori, from Lat. speculatorium, a place of observation or " peep-hole ")

pillory, tumbril or See also:

• STOCKS

stocks . See also:

• GRAVE

Grave acts were dealt with by the See also:

• SHERIFF

sheriff as breaches of the peace . He sat with the freeholders in the See also:

• COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. comae, cf. O. Fr. cunte, conk', Mod. Fr. comae, from Lat. comitatus, cf. Ital. comitato, Prov. comtat; see COUNT)

county court, which sat twice a See also:

• YEAR

year, or in the See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred court, which sat every four See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks . So far as this involved dealing with pleas of the crown the sheriff's jurisdiction was abolished and was ultimately replaced by that of the justices or conservators of the peace . The sheriff then ceased to be a judge in criminal cases, but remained and still is in law responsible for the peace of his county, and is the officer for the See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution of the law . The royal See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control over crime was effectually established by the itinerant justices sent regularly throughout the See also:

• REALM

realm, who not only dealt with the ordinary proprietary and fiscal rights of the crown but also with the graver crimes (See also:

• TREASON (Fr. trahison, Lat. traditio)

treason and felony), and ultimately were commissioned to See also:

• DEAL

deal with the less grave offences now classed as indictable misdemeanours . The See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change resulted from the strengthening of royal authority throughout England, which enabled the crown gradually to enlarge the pleas of the crown and to weaken and finally to supersede the criminal jurisdiction, notably of the sheriff, but also of prelates and lords in ecclesiastical and other manors and franchises . " In the early English laws and constitution there existed a See also:

• NATIONAL

national See also:

• SOVEREIGNTY

sovereignty and See also:

• ORIGINAL

original criminal jurisdiction, but the ideas of legislative power and crime were very slowly See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed." During the 12th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century the criminal law was affected by the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church, which introduced into it elements from the See also:

• CANON

Canon and See also:

• MOSAIC (corresponding to Lat. opus musivum, from Gr. µovoeiov, an artificial grotto often decorated with mosaics; the word is only found in the sense of mosaic in late Greek, which generally uses k oXI yrlµa)

Mosaic laws, and also by the memory of the Roman empire and the renewed study of the Roman law, which enabled lawyers to draw a clearer distinction than had before been recognized between the criminal (dolus) and civil (culpa) aspect of wrongful acts .

The See also:

• STATUTE

Statute of Treasons (1351) is to a large extent an admixture of Roman with feudal law; and to the same source is probably due the more careful See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis of the See also:

• MENTAL

mental elements necessary to create criminal responsibility, summed up in the somewhat misleading expression nemo See also:

• REUS

reus est nisi mens sit rea . In the 14th century justices of the peace and See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter sessions were established to deal with offences not sufficiently important for the king's judges, and from that time the course of criminal justice in England has run substantially on the same lines, with the single and temporary interruption caused by the court of See also:

• STAR

star chamber . Germanic Anglo-Saxon law and custom (to be found in See also:

• THORPE [or TnoRP], JOHN (/l. 1570-1618)
• THORPE, BENJAMIN (1782-1870)

Thorpe's Ancient Laws and Institutes of England), do not indicate any adequate or definite See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division between crimes and causes of civil action, but, like the laws of Babylon, recognize the system and contain the tariffs of compensation for wrongs . The idea of the compensation was originally to put an end (finis) to blood feuds and private war or vengeance . These laws formed the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of the criminal law of See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, including the See also:

• NETHERLANDS

Netherlands, of England and of Scandinavia . But in each See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country the development of criminal law has been affected by influences other than Germanic, mainly consisting in an infusion more or less great of ideas derived from Roman law . In England under See also:

• ALFRED

Alfred some See also:

• PART

part of the Levitical law (Exod. xxi . 12-15) was incorporated, just as in 1567 the criminal law as to See also:

• INCEST (Lat. incestus, unchaste)

incest in See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland was taken bodily from See also:

• LEVITICUS

Leviticus xviii . The stage which the development of criminal law had reached in England by the reign of See also:

• EDWARD

Edward the See also:

• CONFESSOR

Confessor is thus described by See also:

• POLLOCK

Pollock and See also:

• MAITLAND (MAITLAND OF LETHINGTON), WILLIAM
• MAITLAND, EAST
• MAITLAND, EDWARD (1824-1897)
• MAITLAND, FREDERIC WILLIAM (1850-1906)
• MAITLAND, SIR RICHARD (LORD LETHINGTON) (1496-r586)

Maitland (Hist . Eng . Law, ii . 447): Anglo- " On the See also:

• EVE

eve of the Norman Conquest what we may call Saxon law, the criminal law of England (but it was also the law of torts or civil wrongs) contained four elements which deserve See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention: Its past See also:

• HISTORY

history had in the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main consisted of the varying relations between them .

We have to speak of outlawry, of the blood feud (faidus), of the tariffs of wer and wile Anglo-Norman See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period . tion of crimes . See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order and See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security of the state . ~' 2 . Offences against the See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration of police and against public authority . 3 . Acts injurious to the public in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general . . 4 . Offences against the person (life, See also:

• HEALTH

health, See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty and reputation), and conjugal and parental rights and duties . 5 . Offences See also:

• RELATING

relating to property and contracts (including See also:

• THEFT

theft, See also:

• FRAUD (Lat. fraus, deceit)

fraud, See also:

• FORGERY (derived through the French from Latin fabricare, to construct)

forgery and malicious damage) . The terminology by which crimes are described by reference to their See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative gravity varies considerably .

In many continental codes distinctions are drawn between crimes (Ger . Verbrechen; Norse vorbrydelser; Span. crimenes; Ital. reato), delicts (Ger . Vergehen; Ital. delilti; Span. delitos), and contraventions (Ital. contravenzioni; Span. faltas) . The classification adopted by English law is See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar to itself, " treason," " felony " and " misdemeanour," with a tentative See also:

• FOURTH

fourth class described as " summary offences." The particular distinctions between these three classes are dealt with under the titles TREASON; FELONY; MISDEMEANOUR, &c . Here it is enough to say that the distinction is a result of history and is marked for abolition and reclassification . Treason and most felonies and some misdemeanours would under See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign codes fall under the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of crime . Misdemeanour, roughly but not exactly, corresponds to the French See also:

• DELFT

delft, and summary offence to contravention . Elements In all systems of criminal law it is found necessary of criminal to determine the criterion of criminal responsibility, responsi- the mental elements of crime, the degrees of crimin- 6177ty. ality and the point at which the See also:

• LINE

line is to be drawn between intention and See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission . The full definition of every crime contains expressly or by implication a proposition as to a state of mind, and in all systems of criminal law, competent See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, sanity and some degree of freedom from See also:

• COERCION (from Lat. coercere, to restrain)
• COERCION, CONTRACT

coercion, are assumed to be essential to criminality; and it is also generally recognized that an act does not fall within the sanction of the criminal law if done by pure See also:

• ACCIDENT
• ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen)

accident or in an honest and reasonable belief in circumstances which if true would make it See also:

• INNOCENT (INNOCENTIUS)
• INNOCENT (POPES)

innocent; e.g. when a married person marries again in the honest and reasonable but mistaken belief that the former See also:

• SPOUSE, (O. Fr. espous, mod. epoux, espouse, epouse, Lat. sponsus, sponsa, a betrothed or promised man or woman, from spondere, to promise)

spouse is dead . Honest and reasonable See also:

• MISTAKE (i.e. take amiss)

mistake of fact stands on the same footing as See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of the reasoning See also:

• FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas, ability to do anything, from facilis, easy, facere, to do; another form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning)

faculty, as in infants, or perversion of that faculty, as in lunatics . Besides the elements essential to constitute crime generally, particular mental elements, which may differ widely, are involved in the definition of particular crimes; and in the case of statutory offences adequately and carefully defined, the mental elements necessary to constitute the crime may be limited by the definition so as to make the See also:

• PROHIBITION (Lat. prohibere, to prevent)

prohibition of the law against a particular act See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute for all persons who are not infants or lunatics . As a general See also:

• RULE

rule of English law, it is enough to prove that the acts alleged to constitute a crime were done by the accused, and to leave him to rebut the presumption that he intended the natural consequences of the acts by showing facts justifying or excusing him or otherwise making him not liable .

See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

Children are conclusively presumed to be incapable of crime up to seven years of age; and from seven to fourteen the presumption is against the capacity, but is not absolute . Under the common law, See also:

• INSANITY (from Lat. in, not, and sanus, sound)

insanity was an absolute See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer to an accusation of crime . Since 1883, where insanity is proved to have existed at the date of the commission of the incriminated acts, the accused is found guilty of the acts but insane when he did them, and is relegated to a criminal lunatic See also:

• ASYLUM (from Gr. b.-, privative, arid earl, right'of seizure)
• ASYLUM, RIGHT OF (Fr. droit d'asile; Ger. Asylrecht)

asylum . There was also at common law a presumption that a married woman committing certain crimes in the presence of her See also:

• HUSBAND

husband did so under his coercion . But under modern decisions and practice the presumption has become feeble almost to inanition (R. v . See also:

• MARY
• MARY (1457-1482)
• MARY (1496-1533)
• MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS

Mary See also:

• BAINES, EDWARD (1774-1848)

Baines, 'goo, 69 L.J . Q.B . 681) . Distinctions are also drawn between degrees of See also:

• GUILT

guilt or complicity . English criminal law punishes attempts to commit crime if the See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt passes from the stage of See also:

• RESOLUTION

resolution or intention to the stage of action, when the completion of the full offence is frustrated by something other than the will of the accused . Except in the case of attempt to commit murder, which is a felony, attempts to commit a crime are punished as misdemeanours . It also punishes the solicitation or incitement of others to commit crime, as a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate offence if the incitement fails, as the offence of being See also:

• ACCESSORY

accessory before the fact or See also:

• ABETTOR (from " to abet," O. Fr. abeter, d and beter, to bait, urge dogs upon any one ; this word is probably of Scandinavian origin, meaning to cause to bite)

abettor if the offence is committed as a result of the incitement; and it punishes persons who, after a more serious crime--felonyhas been committed, do any act to See also:

• SHIELD (0. Eng. scild, cf. Du. and Ger. Schild, Dan. Skjold; the origin is doubtful, but may be referred to the root seen in " shell " or " scale "; another suggestion connects it with Icel. skjalla, to clash, rattle; it is not connected with the Indo-Ger
• SHIELD, WILLIAM (1748—1829)

shield the offender from justice .

In the case of the crimes described as felonies the law distinguishes between principals in the first or second degree and accessories before or after the fact . In the case of misdemeanours the same punishment is incurred by the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal offenders, and by persons who are See also:

• PRESENT

present aiding and abetting the commission of the offence, or who, though not present, counselled or procured the commission of the offence (see AccEssokv) . Be-sides these degrees of crime there is one almost peculiar to English law known as See also:

• CONSPIRACY (from Lat. conspirare, literally to breathe together, to agree, combine, and especially to form a secret plot)

conspiracy, i.e. an agreement to commit crime or to do illegal acts (including interference with the due course of justice), which is punishable even if the conspiracy does not get beyond the stage of agreement . The exact nature of this form of crime and the propriety of abolishing it or limiting its See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope have been the subject of much controversy, especially with reference to combinations by See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade unions . The English law does not, but most European laws do, allow the See also:

• JURY

jury to reduce the penalty @of an offence by finding in their See also:

• VERDICT (O. Fr. verdit, Lat. vere dictum, truly said, used in Late Latin in one word with its present significance)

verdict that the commission of the offence was attended by extenuating circumstances; but when the jury recommend to mercy a person whom they find guilty the judge may give effect to the recommendation or See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report it to the See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

Home Office . In systems of criminal law derived from England the forms of crime or degrees of complicity above stated reappear with or without modification, but as to conspiracy with a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good deal of alteration . In the See also:

• INDIAN

Indian penal code, for instance, conspiracy is limited to cases of treason (§ 121 A), and when it goes beyond agreement in the case of other offences it is merely a form of abetment or participation (§ 107) . The criminal law of England' is not codified, but is composed of a large number of enactments resting on a basis of common law . A very large part is reduced to See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing in Dalai., statutes . The unwritten portion of the law includes tions of (I) principles relating to the excuse or justification of Particular acts or omissions which are prima facie criminal, (2) crimes. the See also:

• DEFINITIONS

definitions of many offences, e.g. murder, See also:

• ASSAULT (from Lat. ad, to or on, and saltare, to leap)

assault, theft, forgery, See also:

• PERJURY (through the Anglo-Fr. perjurie, modern parjure, Lat. perjurium, a false oath, perjurare, to swear falsely)

perjury, See also:

• LIBEL

libel, See also:

• RIOT (0. Fr. riote, of uncertain etymology)

riot, (3) parts of the law relating to procedure . The law is very See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in principles and rules embodied in judicial decisions and is extremely detailed and explicit, leaving to the judges very little See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude of See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation or expression . So far as the legislature is concerned there is an absence of systematic arrangement .

The definitions of particular crimes are still to be sought in the common law and the decisions of the judges . The Consolidation Acts of 1861 for the most part leave definitions as they stood, e.g. the Larceny Act 1861 does not define the crime of larceny . The consequence is that exact definitions are very difficult to See also:

• FRAME

frame, and the technical view of a crime sometimes includes more, sometimes less, than it ought . Thus the crime of murder, as settled by the existing law, would include offences of such very different moral gravity as killing 1 " It is founded," said Sir J . Fitzjames See also:

• STEPHEN
• STEPHEN (1097?-1154)
• STEPHEN (ISTVAN) BATHORY (1533-1586)
• STEPHEN, SIR JAMES (1789-1859)
• STEPHEN, SIR JAMES FITZJAMES, BART
• STEPHEN, SIR LESLIE (1832-1904)

Stephen, writing in 1863, " on a set of loose definitions and descriptions of crimes, the most important of which are as old as See also:

• BRACTON, HENRY DE (d. 1268)

Bracton . Upon this foundation there was built, principally in the course of the 18th century, an entire and irregular superstructure of acts of See also:

• PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

parliament, the enactments of which were for the most part intended to See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply the deficiencies of the original system . These acts have been re-enacted twice over in the present See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation—once between 1826 and 1832 and once in 1861; besides which they were all amended in 1837 . Finally, every part of the whole system has been made the subject of judicial comments and constructions occasioned by particular cases, the great See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of which have arisen within the last fifty years." (View of the Criminal Law of England, by J . Fitzjames Stephen.) The penal laws of modern states classify crimes somewhat differently, but in the main on the same general principles, dividing them into: Classifica- 1 . Offences against the See also:

• EXTERNAL

external and See also:

• INTERNAL

internal a See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man deliberately for the See also:

• SAKE

sake of robbing him, and killing a man accidentally in an attempt to rob him . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, offences which ought to have been criminal were constantly declared by the judges not to fall within the definition of the particular crimes alleged, and the legislature has constantly had to fill up the lacunae in the law as interpreted by the judges . The jurisdiction to deal with crime is primarily territorial, and can be exercised only as to acts done within the territory or territorial See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters, or on the See also:

• SHIPS

ships of the law-giver .

See also:

• JURIS

Juris- diction . Extra territorium See also:

• JUS

jus dicenti impune non paretur . No state will enforce the penal laws of another nor permit the officer of another state to execute its laws outside its own territory . But See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

international law recognizes the competence of a state to make its criminal law binding on its own subjects wherever they are, and perhaps even to punish foreigners who outside its territory do acts which menace its internal or external security, e.g. by See also:

• DYNAMITE (Gr. S6eaµis, power)

dynamite plots or falsification of See also:

• COIN
• COIN (older forms of the word are coyne, quoin and coign, all derived through the O. Fr. coing, and cuigne from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

coin . Apart from extradition arrangements the national law cannot reach such persons, be they citizens or aliens, until they come within the territory of the state whose law has been broken . The codes of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, Germany and See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy make the penal law national or personal and not territorial . In some See also:

• BRITISH

British colonies whose legislatures have a derived and limited legislative authority, indirect methods have been taken to deal within the See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony with persons who commit offences outside its territory . Throughout the development of the English criminal law it showed and retains one particular characteristic that crime was treated as See also:

• LOCAL

local, which means not merely that the common law of England was limited to English See also:

• SOIL

soil, but that an offence on English soil could be " inquired of, dealt with, tried, deter-See also:

• MINED

mined and punished " only in the particular territorial division of England in which it was committed, which was and is known as the See also:

• VENUE (derived through the French, from Lat. venire, to come)

venue (q.v.) . Each township was responsible for crimes within its boundaries, a responsibility made effective by the " view of See also:

• FRANKPLEDGE (Lat. francum plegium)

frankpledge," now obsolete, and the guilt or innocence of every man had to be determined by his neighbours . This rule excluded from trial by the courts of common law, treasons, &c. committed by Englishmen abroad and piracy; and it was not till Henry VIII.'s reign (1536, 1544) that the common-law mode of trial was extended to these offences . The legislature has altered the common law as to numerous offences, but on no settled See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan, and except for a bill introduced about 1888, at the instance of the 3rd See also:

• MARQUESS (1760-1842)
• MARQUESS, or MARQUIS (Fr. marquis, Ital. marchese; from med. Lat. marchio, marchisus, i.e. comes marchiae, " count of the March ")

marquess of See also:

• SALISBURY
• SALISBURY, EARLS OF
• SALISBURY, ROBERT ARTHUR TALBOT GASCOYNECECIL, 3RD MARQUESS OF (1830-1903)
• SALISBURY, ROBERT CECIL, 1ST EAR