See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion)  , the See also:

• ART

art of judging the qualities and values of an aesthetic See also:

• OBJECT

object, whether in literature or the See also:

• FINE

fine arts.' It involves, in the first instance, the formation and expression of a See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment on the qualities of anything, and See also:

• MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF ST
• MATTHEW, ST (MaOOaior or MarOaIos, probably a shortened form of the Hebrew equivalent to Theodorus)
• MATTHEW, TOBIAS

Matthew See also:

• ARNOLD
• ARNOLD, BENEDICT (1741-1801)
• ARNOLD, GOTTFRIED (1666-1714)
• ARNOLD, MATTHEW (1822-1888)
• ARNOLD, SAMUEL (1740--18o2)
• ARNOLD, SIR EDWIN (1832-1904)
• ARNOLD, THOMAS (1745-1842)

Arnold defined it in this See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general sense as " a disinterested endeavour to learn and propagate the best that is known and thought in the See also:

• WORLD

world." It has come, however, to possess a secondary and specialized meaning as a published See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis of the qualities and characteristics of a See also:

• WORK

work in literature or fine art, itself taking the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent literature . The sense in which See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism is taken as implying censure, the " picking holes " in any statement or See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production, is frequent, but it is entirely unjustifiable . There is nothing in the proper See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope of criticism which presupposes blame . On the contrary, a work of perfect beauty and fitness, in which no See also:

• FAULT (Mid. Eng. faute, through the French, from the popular Latin use of fallere, to fail; the originallof the Latin being replaced in English in the 15th century)

fault could possibly be found with See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice, is as proper a subject for criticism to See also:

• DEAL

deal with as a work of the greatest imperfection . It may be perfectly just to See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state that a See also:

• BOOK

book or a picture is " beneath criticism," i.e. is so wanting in all qualities of originality and technical excellence that See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time would merely be wasted in analysing it . But it can never be properly said that a work is " above criticism," although it may be " above censure," for the very complexity of its merits and the fulness of its beauties tempt the skill of the analyser and See also:

• REWARD

reward it . It is necessary at the See also:

• THRESHOLD

threshold of an examination of the See also:

• HISTORY

history of criticism to expose this laxity of speech, since nothing is more confusing to a clear conception of this art than to suppose that it consists in an effort to detect what is blameworthy . Candid criticism should be neither benevolent nor adverse; its See also:

• FUNCTION

function is to give a just judgment, without partiality or See also:

• BIAS
• BIAS (from the Fr. biais, of unknown origin; the derivation from Lat. bifax, two-faced, is wrong)

bias . A critic (KptTnKOS) is one who exercises the art of criticism, who sets himself up, or is set up, as a See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge of See also:

• LITERARY

literary and See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic merit . The irritability of mankind, which easily forgets and neglects praise, but cannot forgive the rankling See also:

• POISON

poison of blame, has set upon the word critic a See also:

• SEAL
• SEAL, FUR
• SEAL, HAIR

seal which is even more unamiable than that of criticism . It takes its most See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage form in See also:

• BENJAMIN
• BENJAMIN, JUDAHPHILIP (1811-1884)

Benjamin Disraeli's celebrated and deplorable dictum, " the critics are the men who have failed in literature and art." It is See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain that such names as those of See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle, See also:

• DANTE

Dante, See also:

• DRYDEN, JOHN (1631-1700)

Dryden, See also:

• JOSHUA, BOOK OF

Joshua See also:

• REYNOLDS, JOHN FULTON (182o-1863)
• REYNOLDS, SIR JOSHUA (1723-1792)
• REYNOLDS, WALTER (d. 1327)

Reynolds, Sainte-Beuve and Matthew Arnold are not to be thus swept by a reckless fulmination . There have been ' It is in this general sense that the subject is considered in this See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article .

The See also:

• TERM

term is, however, used in more restricted senses, generally with some word of qualification, e.g . " textual criticism " or " higher criticism "; see the article TEXTUAL CRITICISM and the article See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

BIBLE for an outstanding example of both " textual " and " higher." many critics who brought from failure in imaginative See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition a cavilling, jealous and ignoble See also:

• TEMPER (from Lat. temperare, to mingle or compound in due proportion, to qualify, rule, regulate, to be moderate, formed from tempos, time, fit or due season)

temper, who have mainly exercised their function in indulging the evil See also:

• PASSION (post-classical Lat. passio, formed from pati, passus, to suffer, endure)

passion of envy . But, so far as they have done this, they have proved themselves See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad critics, and neither See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute care, nor a basis of learning, nor wide experience of literature, salutary as all these must be, can avail to make that criticism valuable which is founded on the See also:

• DESIRE

desire to exaggerate fault-finding and to emphasize censure unfairly . The examination of what has been produced by other ages of human thought is much less liable to this dangerous See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error than the See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to estimate contemporary See also:

• WORKS

works of art and literature . There are few indeed whom See also:

• PERSONAL

personal passion can See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind to the merits of a picture of the 15th or a poem of the 17th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century . In the higher branches of See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical criticism, See also:

• PREJUDICE (Lat. praejudicium)

prejudice of this ignoble sort is hardly possible, and therefore, in considering criticism in its ideal forms, it is best to leave out of See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration that invidious and fugitive See also:

• SPECIES

species which bears the general name of " reviewing." This pedestrian criticism, indeed, is useful and even indispensable, but it is, by its very nature, ephemeral, and it is liable to a multitude of drawbacks . Even when the reviewer is, or desires to be, strictly just, it is almost impossible for him to stand far enough back from the object under See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

review to see it in its proper See also:

• PERSPECTIVE (Lat. peespicere, to see through)

perspective . He is dazzled, or scandalized, by its novelty; he has formed a pre-conceived notion of the degree to which its author should be encouraged or depressed; he is himself, in all cases, an See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element in the See also:

• MENTAL

mental See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition which he attempts to judge, and if not positively a See also:

• DEFENDANT

defendant is at least a juryman in the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court over which he ought to preside with remote impartiality . It may be laid down as the See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition of criticism in its pure sense, that it should consist in the application, in the most competent form, of the principles of literary composition . Those principles are the general See also:

• AESTHETICS

aesthetics upon which See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste is founded; they take the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of rules of See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing . From the days of Aristotle the existence of such rules has not been doubted, but different orders of mind in various ages have given them diverse application, and upon this diversity the fluctuations of taste are founded . It is now generally admitted that in past ages critics have too often succumbed to the temptation to regulate taste rigidly, and to See also:

• LAY

lay down rules that shall match every See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case with a See also:

• FORMULA
• FORMULA (Lat. diminutive of forma, shape, pattern, &c., especially used of rules of judicial procedure)

formula .

Over-legislation has been the bane of See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official criticism, and originality, especially in works of creative See also:

• IMAGINATION

imagination, has been condemned because it did not conform to existing rules . Such instances of want of contemporary appreciation as the reception given to See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William See also:

• BLAKE, EDWARD (1833– )
• BLAKE, ROBERT (1599-1657)
• BLAKE, WILLIAM (1757-1827)

Blake or See also:

• KEATS, JOHN (1795-1821)

Keats, or even See also:

• MILTON
• MILTON, JOHN (1608–1674)

Milton, are quoted to prove the futility of criticism . As a See also:

• MATTER

matter of fact they do nothing of the See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind . They merely prove the immutable principles which underlie all judgment of artistic products to have been misunderstood or imperfectly obeyed during the See also:

• LIFE

life-times of those illustrious men . False critics have built domes of See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass, as See also:

• VOLTAIRE, FRANCOIS MARIE AROUET DE (1694–1778)

Voltaire put it, between the heavens and themselves, domes which See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius has to shatter in pieces before it can make itself comprehended . In See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical application formulas are often useful, but they should be held lightly; when the formula becomes the See also:

• TYRANT (Gr. r6pavvos, master, ruler)

tyrant where it should be the servant of thought, fatal error is imminent . What is required above all else by a critic is knowledge, tempered with See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good sense, and combined with an exquisite delicacy of taste . He who possesses these qualities may go wrong in certain instances, but his error cannot become See also:

• RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root)

radical, and he is always open to correction . It is not his business crudely to pronounce a composition "good " or " bad "; he must be able to show why it is " good " and wherein it is " bad "; he must admire with See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence and blame with careful candour . He must above all be assiduous to See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape from pompous generalizations, which conceal lack of thought under a flow of words . The finest criticism should take every circumstance of the case into consideration, and hold it necessary, if possible, to know the author as well as the book . A large See also:

• PART

part of the See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason why the criticism of productions of the past is so much more fruitful than See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere contemporary reviewing, is that by remoteness from the See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene of See also:

• ACTION

action the critic is able to make himself See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar with all the elements ofage, See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place and See also:

• MEDIUM

medium which affected the writer at the moment of his composition .

In See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short, knowledge and even taste are not sufficient for perfect criticism without the infusion of a still rarer quality, breadth of sympathy . Criticism has been one of the latest branches of literature to reach maturity, but from very See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early times the See also:

• INSTINCT

instinct which induces mankind to review what it has produced led to the composition of imperfect but often extremely valuable bodies of See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion . What makes these early criticisms tantalizing is that the moral or See also:

• POLITICAL

political aspects of literature had not disengaged themselves from the purely intellectual or aesthetic . To pass to an historical examination of the subject, we find that in antiquity Aristotle was regarded as the See also:

• FATHER

father and almost as the founder of literary criticism . Yet before his See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, three See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek writers of See also:

• EMINENCE (Lat. eminentia)

eminence had examined, in more or less fulness, the principles of composition; these were See also:

• PLATO

Plato, Isocrates and See also:

• ARISTOPHANES
• ARISTOPHANES (c. 448–385 B.e.1)

Aristophanes . The See also:

• COMEDY

comedy of The Frogs, by the latter, is the earliest specimen we possess of hostile literary criticism, being devoted to ridicule of the plays of See also:

• EURIPIDES (48o–4o6 B.C.)

Euripides . In the cases of Plato and Isocrates, criticism takes the form mainly of an examination of the rules of See also:

• RHETORIC (Gr. psroperctj TEXvq, the art of the orator)

rhetoric . We reach, however, much firmer ground when we arrive at Aristotle, whose Poetics and Rhetoric are among the most valuable See also:

• TREATISES

treatises which antiquity has handed down to us . Of what existed in the literature of his See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, extremely See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in some branches, entirely empty in others, Aristotle speaks with extraordinary authority; but Mr G . See also:

• SAINTSBURY, GEORGE EDWARD BATEMAN (1845- )

Saintsbury has justly remarked that as his criticism of See also:

• POETRY

poetry was injuriously affected by the non-existence of the novelist, so his criticism of See also:

• PROSE

prose was injuriously affected by the omnipresence of the orator . This continues true of all See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient criticism . A work by Aristotle on the problems raised by a study of See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

Homer is lost, and there may have been others of a similar nature; in the two famous treatises which remain we have nothing less important than the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation on which all subsequent See also:

• EUROPEAN

European criticism has been raised .

It does not appear that any of the numerous disciples of Aristotle understood his attitude to literature, nor do the later philosophical See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools offer much of See also:

• INTEREST

interest . The Neoplatonists, however, were occupied with analysis of the Beautiful, on which both See also:

• PROCLUS, or PROCULUS (A.D. 410-485)

Proclus and See also:

• PLOTINUS (A.D. 204-270)

Plotinus expatiated; still more purely literary were some of the treatises of See also:

• PORPHYRY (IlopcPisptos) (A.D. 233-c. 304)

Porphyry . There seems to be no doubt that See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria possessed, in the third century, a vivid school of critic-grammarians; the names of See also:

• ZENODOTUS

Zenodotus, of See also:

• CRATES

Crates and of See also:

• ARISTARCHUS

Aristarchus were eminent in this connexion, but of their writings nothing substantial has survived . They were followed by the scholiasts, and they by the mere rhetoricians of the last Greek schools, such as See also:

• HERMOGENES

Hermogenes and See also:

• APHTHONIUS
• APHTHONIUS, AELIUS

Aphthonius . In the 2nd century of our era, Dio See also:

• CHRYSOSTOM

Chrysostom, See also:

• ARISTIDES
• ARISTIDES ['Apuvrei817s] (c. 530—468 B.C.)
• ARISTIDES, AELIUS
• ARISTIDES, APOLOGY OF
• ARISTIDES, QUINTILIANUS

Aristides of See also:

• SMYRNA (Ismir)

Smyrna, and See also:

• MAXIMUS
• MAXIMUS, ST (c. 58o-662)

Maximus of See also:

• TYRE (Phoen. and Hebr. =" rock," Assyr. S'urru, Egypt. Dara, Early Lat. Sarra)

Tyre were the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main representatives of criticism, and they were succeeded by See also:

• PHILOSTRATUS

Philostratus and See also:

• LIBANIUS (A.D. 314-393)

Libanius . The most See also:

• MODERN

modern of See also:

• POST

post-See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian Greek critics, however, is unquestionably See also:

• DIONYSIUS
• DIONYSIUS (c. 432–367 B.C.)

Dionysius of See also:

• HALICARNASSUS (mod. Budrum)

Halicarnassus, who leads up to See also:

• LUCIAN (d. 312)
• LUCIAN [Aowaavos] (c. A.D. 120-180)

Lucian and See also:

• CASSIUS
• CASSIUS, AVIDIUS (d. A.D. 175)
• CASSIUS, GAIUS

Cassius See also:

• LONGINUS, CASSIUS (c. A.D. 213-273)

Longinus . The last-mentioned name calls for See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• NOTICE

notice; in " the lovely and magnificent See also:

• PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's mask, from personare,1 to sound through)

personality of Longinus " we find the most intelligent judge of literature who wrote between Aristotle and the moderns . His book On the See also:

• SUBLIME (Lat. sublimis, exalted)

Sublime (Hepi iikvs), probably written about A.D . 260, and first printed in 1554, is of extreme importance, while his intuitions and the splendour of his See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style combine to lift Longinus to the highest See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank among the critics of the world . In See also:

• ROMAN

Roman literature criticism never took a very prominent position . In early days the rhetorical works of See also:

• CICERO

Cicero and the famous Art of Poetry of See also:

• HORACE [QuINTus HORATIUS FLACCUS] (65-8 B.C.)

Horace exhaust the See also:

• CATEGORY (Gr. Karrlyopia, " accusation ")

category . During the later Augustan See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period the only literary critic of importance was the See also:

• ELDER (0. Eng. ellarn; Ger. Holunder; Fr. sureau)
• ELDER (Gr. 1rpev(3iTepos)

elder See also:

• SENECA

Seneca .

Passing over the valuable allusions to the art of writing in the poets, especially in See also:

• JUVENAL (DECIMUS JUNIUS JUVENALIS) (c. 60-140)

Juvenal and See also:

• MARTIAL (MARCUS VALERIUS MARTIALIS)

Martial, we reach, in the See also:

• SILVER

Silver Age, See also:

• QUINTILIAN [MARCUS FABIUS QUINTILIANUS] (C. A.D. 35-95)

Quintilian, the most accomplished of all the Roman critics . His Institutes of See also:

• ORATORY (Lat. oratorio, sc. ors; from orare, to speak or pray)

Oratory has been described as the fullest and most intelligent application of criticism to literature which the Latin world produced, and one which places the name of Quintilian not far below those of Aristotle and Longinus . He was followed by Aulus See also:

• GELLIUS, AULUS (c. A.D. 13o-I8o)

Gellius . by See also:

• MACROBIUS, AMBROSIUS THEODOSIUS

Macrobius (whose reputation was See also:

• GREAT

great in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages), by Servius (the great'commentator on See also:

• VIRGIL (PUBLIUS VERGILIUS MARC)
• VIRGIL, POLYDORE (c. 1470-1555)

Virgil), and, after a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long See also:

• INTERVAL

interval, by Martianus See also:

• CAPELLA, MARTIANUS MINNEUS FELIX

Capella . Latin criticism sank into mere pedantry about rhetoric and See also:

• GRAMMAR (from Lat. grammatica, sc. ars; Gr. ypaµ)

grammar . This continued throughout the Dark Ages, until the 13th century, when rhythmical treatises, of which the Labyrinthus of See also:

• EBERHARD
• EBERHARD, CHRISTIAN AUGUST GOTTLOB (1769-1845)
• EBERHARD, JOHANN AUGUSTUS (1739-1809)

Eberhard (1212?) and the Ars rhythmica of See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John of Garlandia (John See also:

• GARLAND, JOHN (fl. 1202—1252)

Garland) are the most famous, came into See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion . These writings testified to a growing revival of a taste for poetry . It is, however, in the masterly technical See also:

• TREATISE

treatise De vulgari eloquio, generally attributed to Dante, the first printed (in See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian) in 1529, that modern poetical criticism takes its first step . The example of this admirable book was not adequately followed; throughout the 14th and 15th centuries, criticism is mainly indirect and accidental . See also:

• BOCCACCIO, GIOVANNI (1313-1375)

Boccaccio, indeed, is the only figure worthy of mention, between Dante and See also:

• ERASMUS, DESIDERIUS (1466–1536)

Erasmus . With the See also:

• RENAISSANCE, THE

Renaissance came a blossoming of Humanist criticism in See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, producing such excellent specimens as the Sylvae of Poliziano, the Poetics (1527) of See also:

• VIDA, MARCO GIROLAMO (c. 1489-1566)

Vida, and the Poetica of Trissino, the best of a whole See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

crop of critical works produced, often by famous names, between 1525 and 156o . These were followed by sounder scholars and acuter theorists: by See also:

• SCALIGER

Scaliger with his See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch-making Poetices (1561) ; by L .

Castelvetro, whose Poetica (1570) started the modern cultivation of the Unities and asserted the value of the Epic; by See also:

• TASSO, TORQUATO (1544-1595)

Tasso with his Discorsi (1587); and by See also:

• FRANCESCO
• FRANCESCO, 210

Francesco See also:

• PATRIZZI, FRANCESCO (FRANCISCUS PATRITIUS) (1529-1597)

Patrizzi in his Poetica (1586) . In See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, the earliest and for a long time the most important specimen of literary criticism was the Defense et See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration de la langue franfaise, published in 1549 by See also:

• JOACHIM, JOSEPH (1831—1907)

Joachim du Bellay . See also:

• RONSARD, PIERRE DE (1524-1585)

Ronsard, also, wrote frequently and ably on the art of poetry . The theories of the Pleiade were summed up in the Art poetique of See also:

• VAUQUELIN, LOUIS NICOLAS (1763-1829)

Vauquelin de la Fresnaye, which belongs to 1574 (though not printed until 16o5) . In See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, the earliest literary critic of importance was See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas See also:

• WILSON, ALEXANDER (1766-1813)
• WILSON, HENRY (1812–1875)
• WILSON, HORACE HAYMAN (1786–1860)
• WILSON, JAMES (1742—1798)
• WILSON, JAMES (1835— )
• WILSON, JAMES HARRISON (1837– )
• WILSON, JOHN (1627-1696)
• WILSON, JOHN (178 1854)
• WILSON, ROBERT (d. 1600)
• WILSON, SIR DANIEL (1816–1892)
• WILSON, SIR ROBERT THOMAS (1777—1849)
• WILSON, SIR WILLIAM JAMES ERASMUS
• WILSON, THOMAS (1663-1755)
• WILSON, THOMAS (c. 1525-1581)
• WILSON, WOODROW (1856— )

Wilson, whose Art of Rhetoric was printed in 1553, and the earliest student of poetry, See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George See also:

• GASCOIGNE, GEORGE (c. 1535—1577)

Gascoigne, whose Instruction appeared in 1575 . Gascoigne is the first writer who deals intelligently with the subject of See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• PROSODY (Gr. rpovwSta)

prosody . He was followed by Thomas Drant, See also:

• HARVEY
• HARVEY, GABRIEL (c. 1545-1630)
• HARVEY, SIR GEORGE (1806-1876)
• HARVEY, WILLIAM (1578—1657)

Harvey, See also:

• GOSSON, STEPHEN (1554-1624)

Gosson, See also:

• LODGE
• LODGE, EDMUND (1756-1839)
• LODGE, H
• LODGE, HENRY CABOT (1850– )
• LODGE, SIR OLIVER JOSEPH (1851– )
• LODGE, THOMAS (c. 1558–1625)

Lodge and See also:

• SIDNEY
• SIDNEY (or SYDNEY), ALGERNON (1622-1683)
• SIDNEY, SIR HENRY (1529-1586)
• SIDNEY, SIR PHILIP (1554-1586)

Sidney, whose controversial See also:

• PAMPHLETS

pamphlets belong to the period between 1575 and 1580 . Among Elizabethan " arts " or " de-fences " of English poetry are to be mentioned those of William See also:

• WEBBE, WILLIAM (fl. 1586)

Webbe (1586), George See also:

• PUTTENHAM, GEORGE (d. 1590)

Puttenham (1589), Thomas See also:

• CAMPION, EDMUND (154o-I581)
• CAMPION, THOMAS (1567-1620)

Campion (1602), and See also:

• SAMUEL

Samuel See also:

• DANIEL
• DANIEL (DANIL)
• DANIEL, BOOK
• DANIEL, GABRIEL (1649-1728)

Daniel (1603) . With the tractates of See also:

• BEN (from Old Eng. bennan, within)

Ben See also:

• JONSON

Jonson, several of them lost, the criticism of the Renaissance may be said to See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close . A new era began throughout See also:

• EUROPE

Europe when See also:

• MALHERBE, FRANCOIS DE (1555-1628)

Malherbe started, about 1600, a taste for the neo-classic or See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-romantic school of poetry, taking up the See also:

• LINE

line which had been foreshadowed by Castelvetro . Enfin Malherbe See also:

• VINT

vint, and he was supported in his revolution by See also:

• REGNIER, HENRI FRANCOIS JOSEPH DE (1864– )
• REGNIER, MATHURIN (1573–1613)

Regnier, See also:

• VAUGELAS, CLAUDE FAVRE

Vaugelas, See also:

• BALZAC, HONORS DE (1790-1850)
• BALZAC, JEAN LOUIS GUEZ DE (1594-1654)

Balzac, and finally by See also:

• CORNEILLE, PIERRE (1606–1684)
• CORNEILLE, THOMAS (1625-1709)

Corneille himself, in his famous prefatory discourses . It was Boileau, however, who more than any other See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man stood out at the close of the 17th century as the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law-giver of See also:

• PARNASSUS (mod. Likkoura or Likeri)

Parnassus .

The rules of the neo-See also:

• CLASSICS

classics were See also:

• DRAWN

drawn together and arranged in a See also:

• SYSTEM

system by Rene See also:

• RAPIN, PAUL DE (1661-1725)

Rapin, whose authoritative treatises mainly appeared between 1668 and 1674 . It is in writings of this man, and of the See also:

• JESUITS

Jesuits, Le See also:

• BOSSU, RENE LE (1631-1680)

Bossu and See also:

• BOUHOURS, DOMINIQUE (1628-1702)

Bouhours, that the preposterous rigidity of the formal classic criticism is most plainly seen . The See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of these three critics was, however, very great through-out Europe, and we trace it in the writings of Dryden, See also:

• ADDISON, JOSEPH (1672-1719)

Addison and See also:

• RYMER, THOMAS (1641—1713)

Rymer . In the course of the 18th century, when the neo-classic creed was universally accepted, See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

Pope, See also:

• BLAIR, FRANCIS PRESTON (1791–1876)
• BLAIR, HUGH (1718-1800)
• BLAIR, JAMES (1656`1743)
• BLAIR, ROBERT (1699—1746)

Blair, Karnes, See also:

• HARRIS, GEORGE, 1ST BARON (1746–1829)
• HARRIS, JAMES (1709-1780)
• HARRIS, JOEL CHANDLER (1848-1908)
• HARRIS, JOHN (c. 1666-1719)
• HARRIS, SIR WILLIAM SNOW
• HARRIS, THOMAS LAKE (1823-1906)
• HARRIS, WILLIAM TORREY (1835-1909)

Harris, See also:

• GOLDSMITH
• GOLDSMITH, LEWIS (c. 1763–1846)
• GOLDSMITH, OLIVER (1728–1774)

Goldsmith and Samuel See also:

• JOHNSON, ANDREW
• JOHNSON, ANDREW (1808–1875)
• JOHNSON, BENJAMIN (c. 1665-1742)
• JOHNSON, EASTMAN (1824–1906)
• JOHNSON, REVERDY (1796–1876)
• JOHNSON, RICHARD (1573–1659 ?)
• JOHNSON, RICHARD MENTOR (1781–1850)
• JOHNSON, SAMUEL (1709-1784)
• JOHNSON, SIR THOMAS (1664-1729)
• JOHNSON, SIR WILLIAM (1715–1774)
• JOHNSON, THOMAS

Johnson were its most distinguished exponents in England, while Voltaire, See also:

• BUFFON, GEORGE LOUIS LECLERC, COMTE DE (1707-1788)

Buffon (to whom we owe the phrase " the style is the man "), See also:

• MARMONTEL, JEAN FRANCOIS (1723-1799)

Marmontel, La Harpe and Suard were the types of See also:

• ACADEMIC

academic opinion in France . Modern, or more properly Romantic, criticism came in when the neo-classic tradition became bankrupt throughout Europe at the very close of the 18th century . It has been heralded in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany by the writings of See also:

• LESSING, GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM (1729–1781)

Lessing, and in France by those of See also:

• DIDEROT, DENIS (1713-1784)

Diderot . Of the reconstruction of critical opinion in the 19th century it is impossible to speak here with any fulness, it is contained in the See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of the See also:

• RECENT

recent literature of each European See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language . It is noticeable, in England, that the predominant place in it was occupied, in violent contrast with Disraeli's dictum, by those who had obviously not failed in imaginative composition, by See also:

• WORDSWORTH, CHARLES (1806–1892)
• WORDSWORTH, CHRISTOPHER (1774–1846)
• WORDSWORTH, CHRISTOPHER (1807–1885)
• WORDSWORTH, DOROTHY (1771-1855)
• WORDSWORTH, WILLIAM (1770-185o)

Wordsworth, by See also:

• SHELLEY, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT (1797-1851)
• SHELLEY, PERCY BYSSHE (1792-1822)

Shelley, by Keats, by See also:

• LANDOR, WALTER SAVAGE (1775-1864)

Landor, and pre-eminently by S . T . See also:

• COLERIDGE, HARTLEY (1796-1849)
• COLERIDGE, JOHN DUKE COLERIDGE, 1ST BARON
• COLERIDGE, SAMUEL TAYLOR (1772-1834)
• COLERIDGE, SARA (1802–1852)
• COLERIDGE, SIR JOHN TAYLOR (1790-1876)

Coleridge, who was one of the most penetrative, See also:

• ORIGINAL

original and imaginative critics who have ever lived . In France, the importance of Sainte-Beuve is not to be ignored or even qualified; after manifold changes of taste, he remains as much a See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master as he was a precursor . He was followed by See also:

• THEOPHILE

Theophile See also:

• GAUTIER
• GAUTIER, EMILE THEODORE LEON (1832-1897)
• GAUTIER, THEOPHILE (1811-1872)

Gautier, See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

Saint-Marc, See also:

• GIRARDIN, DELPHINE DE (1804–1855)
• GIRARDIN, EMILE DE (1802–1881)

Girardin, See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul de Saint See also:

• VICTOR
• VICTOR, GAIUS JULIUS (4th cent. A.D.)
• VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS

Victor, and a See also:

• CROWD, CROUTH, CROWTH

crowd of others, down to See also:

• TAINE, HIPPOLYTE ADOLPHE (1828-1893)

Taine and the latest school of individualistic critics, comparable with Matthew Arnold, See also:

• PATER, WALTER HORATIO (1839-1894)

Pater, and their followers in England .

See G . Saintsbury, A History of Criticism (3 vols., 1902—1904) ; J . E . Spingarn, A History of Literary Criticism in the Renaissance (2nd ed . 1908) ; Thery, Histoire See also:

• DES

des opinions litteraires (1849) ; J . A . See also:

• SYMONDS, JOHN ADDINGTON (184o-180, English critic and poet, was born at Bristol, on the 5th of October 184o. He was the only son of John Addington Symonds, M.D. (1807—1871)
• SYMONDS, WILLIAM SAMUEL (1818-1887)

Symonds, The Revival of Learning (1877) ; Matthew Arnold, Essays in Criticism, i . (1865), ii . (1868) ; Bourgoin, See also:

• LES

Les Maritres de la critique au X VII° siecle (1889) ; Paul Hamelius, See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die Kritik in der englischen Literatur (1897) ; S . H . See also:

• BUTCHER

Butcher, The Poetics of Artistotle (1898) ; H . L .

Havell and See also:

• ANDREW (Gr. 'AvBp4as, manly)
• ANDREW, JOHN ALBION (1818-1867)

Andrew See also:

• LANG, ANDREW (1844— )
• LANG, KARL HEINRICH, RITTER VON (1764-1835)

Lang, Longinus on the Sublime (189o) . See also the writings of Sainte-Beuve, Matthew Arnold, F . Brunetiere, Anatole France, See also:

• WALTER, HUBERT (d. 1205)
• WALTER, JOHN (1738/9-1812)

Walter Pater, passim . (E .