CULM  , in See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

geology, the name applied to a See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar See also:

• LOCAL

local phase of the Carboniferous See also:

• SYSTEM

system . In 1837 A . See also:

• SEDGWICK, ADAM (1785-1873)
• SEDGWICK, JOHN (1813–1864)

Sedgwick and R . I . See also:

• MURCHISON, SIR RODERICK IMPEY (1792-1871)

Murchison classified into two divisions the dark shales, grits and impure limestones which occupy a large See also:

• AREA

area in See also:

• DEVONSHIRE (DEvoN)
• DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND DUKES OF

Devonshire and extend into the neighbouring counties of See also:

• SOMERSET, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• SOMERSET, EDMUND BEAUFORT, DUKE OF (c. 1404–1455)
• SOMERSET, EDWARD SEYMOUR, DUKE OF (c. 1506–1552)
• SOMERSET, LORD ROBERT EDWARD HENRY (1776-1842)
• SOMERSET, ROBERT CARR (or KER), EARL OF (e. 1590-1645)

Somerset and See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

Corn-See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall . These two divisions were the Upper and See also:

• LOWER

Lower Culm See also:

• MEASURES

Measures, so named from certain impure coals, locally called " culm," I contained within the shales near See also:

• BIDEFORD

Bideford . Subsequently, these two geologists, when prosecuting their researches in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany and See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria, applied the same name to similar rocks which contained, amongst others, Posidonomya Becheri, See also:

• COMMON

common to the phase of sedimentation in both areas . The Culm measures of the Devonshire See also:

• DISTRICT

district are folded into a broad syncline with its See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis See also:

• RUNNING

running See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east and See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west; but within this See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

major See also:

• FOLD

fold the rocks have been subjected to much See also:

• COMPRESSION

compression accompanied by See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor folding . This circumstance, together with the apparent barrenness of the strata, has always made a correct See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation of their position and relationships a See also:

• MATTER

matter of difficulty; and for See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long they were regarded as an abnormal expression of the Lower Carboniferous, with the upper-most beds as doubtful equivalents of the Millstone Grit of other parts of See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain . The labours of W . A . E .

Ussher and of G . J . Hinde and H . See also:

• FOX
• FOX, C
• FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806)
• FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538)
• FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691)
• FOX, RICHARD (c. 1448-1528)
• FOX, ROBERT WERE (1789—1877)
• FOX, SIR STEPHEN (1627–1716)
• FOX, SIR WILLIAM (1812-1893)

Fox have resulted in the differentiation of the following subdivisions in the Devonshire Culm:—(1) Upper Culm Measures or Eggesford grits; (2) See also:

• MIDDLE

Middle Culm Measures, comprising the Morchard, See also:

• TIVERTON

Tiverton and Ugbrooke lithological types overlying the See also:

• EXETER
• EXETER, EARL, MARQUESS AND DUKE OF

Exeter type; (3) Lower Culm, the Posidonomya See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone and shale overlying the Coddon See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

Hill beds with See also:

• RADIOLARIA

radiolaria . Ussher's subdivisions were introduced to satisfy the exigencies of See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological mapping, but, as he pointed out, while they are necessary in some parts of the district and convenient in others, the lithological characters upon which they are founded are variable and inconstant . More recently E . A . N . See also:

• ARBER, EDWARD (1836– )

Arber (1904–1907) clearly demonstrated that no palaeontological subdivision of the Upper Culm (Middle and Upper) is possible, and that these strata, on the See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of the fossil See also:

• PLANTS

plants, represent the Middle See also:

• COAL

Coal Measures of other parts of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country . Wheelton See also:

• HIND

Hind has called See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to the See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability that the Pasidonomya limestone and shale may represent the Pendleside See also:

• GROUP

group of See also:

• LANCASHIRE

Lancashire, See also:

• DERBYSHIRE

Derbyshire, &c . The Coddon Hill beds may belong to this or to a lower See also:

• HORIZON (Gr. 6pfTwv, dividing)

horizon . Thus the See also:

• ENGLISH

English Culm measures comprise an Upper Carboniferous and a Lower Carboniferous group, while in Germany, Austria and elsewhere, as it is important to See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear in mind, the Culm, or " See also:

• KULM (Cu1,M)

Kulm," See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage is shown by its contained fossils to belong to the lower See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division alone .

The typical Carboniferous limestone of the Franco-Belgian area changes as it is traced towards the east and See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south into the sandy, shaly Culm phase, with the characteristic " Posidonia " (Posidonomya) See also:

• SCHISTS (Gr. vxq'ecv, to split)

schists . This aspect of the Culm is found in See also:

• SAXONY
• SAXONY (Ger. Provinz Sachsen)

Saxony, where there are workable coals, in Bohemia, Thuringia, the See also:

• FICHTELGEBIRGE

Fichtelgebirge, the Harz, where the beds are traversed by See also:

• MINERAL

mineral See also:

• VEINS

veins, and in See also:

• MORAVIA (Ger., Ma/wen; Czech, Morava)

Moravia and See also:

• SILESIA

Silesia . In the last-mentioned region the thickness of the Culm formation has been estimated 1 This word is possibly connected with See also:

• COL
• COL (Fr. for " neck," Lat. collum)

col, coal; distinguish " See also:

• CALM

calm," the See also:

• STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stain, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to " staff ")

stem of a plant, See also:

• LAT

Lat. culmus . by D . Stur at over 45,000 ft . In the east and south of the Schiefergebirge (a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• TERM

term for the slaty mountains of the Hundsriick and See also:

• TAUNUS

Taunus range, the Westerwald and See also:

• PART

part of the See also:

• EIFEL

Eifel district), the Culm shales pass upwards into a coarser See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit, the " Culm-grauwacke," which attains a considerable thickness and superficial extent . Culm fossils appear in the Carnic See also:

• ALPS

Alps, in the Balkans and parts of See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain, also in Spitzbergen and part of New See also:

• GUINEA

Guinea . The most characteristic fossil is of course Posidonomya Becheri; others are Glyphioceras sphaericum, Rhodea patentissima, Asterocalamites scrobiculatus (Schloth), Lepidodendron.veltheimianum, Gastrioceras carbonarium . See E . A . N . Arber, " On the Upper Carboniferous Rocks of West See also:

• DEVON, EARLS OF

Devon and See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North See also:

• CORNWALL

Cornwall," Q.J.G.S. lxiii .

(1907), which contains a bibliography of the English Culm; E . Holzapfel, Palaont . '4bhandl . Bd. v . Heft i . (1889) ; H . Potoni6, Abhandl. preuss. geol . Landesanst., Neue Folge, 36 (1901) ; D . Stur, " See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die Culm See also:

• FLORA

Flora," Abhandl. k.k. geol . Reichsanst. viii . (See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna, 1875) . (J .

A .