See also:

• CUNEIFORM (from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

CUNEIFORM (from See also:

• LAT

Lat. See also:

• CUNEUS (Latin for " wedge "; plural, cunei)

cuneus, a See also:

• WEDGE (O. Eng. wecg, a mass of metal, cognate with Dutch wig, wigge, Dan. vaegge, &c.; in Lith. the cognate form outside Teut. is found in wagis, a peg, spigot; there is no connexion with " weigh," " weight," which must be referred to the root wegh, to li

wedge)  , a See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing, ex ensively used in the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• WORLD

world, especially by the Babylonians and Assyrians . The word " See also:

• CUNEIFORM (from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

cuneiform " was first applied in 1700 by See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas See also:

• HYDE
• HYDE, THOMAS (1636-1703)

Hyde, See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

professor of See also:

• HEBREW

Hebrew in the university of See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford, in the expression " dactuli pyramidales seu cuneifo:See also:

• MES

mes," and it has found See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance, though efforts have been made to introduce the expression " arrow-headed " writing . The name " cuneiform " is fitting, for each See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character or sign is composed of a See also:

• WEDGE (O. Eng. wecg, a mass of metal, cognate with Dutch wig, wigge, Dan. vaegge, &c.; in Lith. the cognate form outside Teut. is found in wagis, a peg, spigot; there is no connexion with " weigh," " weight," which must be referred to the root wegh, to li

wedge (T or -–), or a See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of wedges (-E; ), written from See also:

• LEFT

left to right . The wedge is always pointed towards the right (-–) or downwards (T) or aslant( ), or two may be so combined as to form an See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle (<) called by See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German Assyriologists a Winkelhaken, a word now sometimes adopted by See also:

• ENGLISH

English writers on the subject . The word cuneiform has passed into most See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages, but the Germans use Keilschrift (i.e. wedge-script) and the See also:

• ARABS

Arabs mismari (j)t•w•) or See also:

• NAIL (O. Eng. naegal, cf. Dutch, Ger., Swed. nagel; the word is also related to Lat. unguis, Gr. ovu, Sans. nakhas)

nail-writing . In See also:

• PERSIA

Persia, 40 M . N.E. of See also:

• SHIRAZ

Shiraz, is a range of hills, See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount Rachmet, in front of which, in a semicircular form, rises a vast See also:

• TERRACE (Fr. terrace, terrasse, from It. terraccia, terrazzo, Lat. terra, earth)

terrace-like See also:

• PLATFORM (Fr. plateforme, i.e. ground plan)

platform . It is partly natural, but was See also:

• DISCOVERY

Discovery walled up in front, levelled off and used as the See also:

• BASE

base and of See also:

• GREAT

great temples and palaces . The earliest See also:

• EUROPEAN

European, decipher. at See also:

• PRESENT

present known to us, who visited the site was a See also:

• MEAT

meat. wandering See also:

• FRIAR (from the Lat. (rater, through the Fr. frere)

friar Odoricus (about A.D . 1320), who does not seem to have noticed the See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions cut in the See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone . These were first observed by Josaphat See also:

• BARBARO, ERMOLAO (HE1 Mor.AUS BARBARUS) (1454-1493)

Barbaro, a Venetian traveller, about 1472 . In 1621 the ruins were visited by Pietro della See also:

• VALLE, PIETRO DELLA (1586–1652)

Valle, who was the first to copy a few of the signs, which he sent in a See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter to a friend in See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF

Naples .

His copy was not well made, but it served <YiYf\KKTT the useful purpose of directing See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to an unknown script which was certain to attract scholars to the problem of its decipherment . To this end it was necessary that See also:

• COMPLETE

complete inscriptions and not merely See also:

• SEPARATE

separate signs should be made accessible to European scholars . The first See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man to See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to satisfy this need was See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• CHARDIN, JEAN SIMEON (1699-1779)
• CHARDIN, SIR JOHN (1643-1713)

Chardin, in whose volumes of travels published at See also:

• AMSTERDAM
• AMSTERDAM (NEw AMSTERDAM)

Amsterdam in 1711 one of the small inscriptions found at the ruins of See also:

• PERSEPOLIS

Persepolis was carefully and accurately reproduced . It was now plainly to be seen, as indeed others had surmised, that these inscriptions at Persepolis had beep written in three languages, distinguished each from other by an increasing complexity in the signs with which they were written . The three languages have since been determined as See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian, Susian and Babylonian . But before the decipherment could begin it was necessary that all the available material should be copied and published . The See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour of performing this great task See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell to Carsten See also:

• NIEBUHR, BARTHOLD GEORG (1776–1831)
• NIEBUHR, KARSTEN (1733-1815)

Niebuhr, who visited Persepolis in See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 1765, and in three See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks and a See also:

• HALF

half copied all the texts, so well that little improvement has been made in them since . When Niebuhr returned to See also:

• DENMARK
• DENMARK (Danmark)

Denmark he studied carefully the little inscriptions and convinced himself that the guesses of some of his predecessors were correct, and that the inscriptions were to be read from left to right . He observed that three systems of writing were discernible, and that these were always kept distinct in the inscriptions . He did not, however, draw the natural conclusion that they represented three languages, but supposed that the proud builders of Persepolis had written their inscriptions in threefold form . He divided the little inscriptions into three classes, according to the manner of their writing, calling them classes I., II. and III . He then arranged all those he had copied that belonged to class I., and by careful comparison decided that in them there were employed altogether but See also:

• FORTY

forty-two signs .

These he copied out and set in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order in one of his plates . This See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of signs was so nearly complete and accurate that later study has made but slight changes in it . When Niebuhr had made his list of signs he naturally enough decided that this See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, whatever it might be, was written in alphabetic characters, a conclusion which later investigation has not overthrown . Beyond this Niebuhr was not able to go, and not even one sign revealed its See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret to his inquiry . When, however, he had published his copies (in 1777) there were other scholars ready to take up the difficult task . Two scholars independently, Olav Tychsen of See also:

• ROSTOCK

Rostock and See also:

• FRIEDRICH, JOHANN (1836— )

Friedrich Munter of See also:

• COPENHAGEN (Danish Kjobenhavn)

Copenhagen, began See also:

• WORK

work upon the problem . Tychsen first observed that there occurred at irregular intervals in the inscriptions of the first class a wedge that pointed neither directly to the right nor downward, but inclined diagonally . This he suggested was the dividing sign used to separate words . This very See also:

• SIMPLE

simple discovery later became of great importance in the hands of Munter . Tychsen also correctly identified the alphabetic signs for " a," " d," " u" and " s," but he failed to decipher an entire inscription, chiefly perhaps because, through an See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error in See also:

• HISTORY

history; he supposed that they were written during the See also:

• PARTHIAN

Parthian See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

dynasty (246 B.C.—A.D . 227) . Munter was more fortunate than Tychsen in his See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical researches, and this made him also more successful in linguistic attempts .

He rightly identified the builders of Persepolis with the Achaemenian dynasty, and so located in See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time the authors of the inscriptions (538–465 B.C.) . Independently of Tychsen he identified the oblique wedge as a divider between words, and found the meaning of the sign for " b." These may appear to be small matters, but it must be remembered that they were made without the assistance of any bilingual See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text, and were indeed taken bodily out of the gloom which had settled upon these languages centuries before . They did not, however, bring us much nearer to the desired See also:

• GOAL

goal of a See also:

• READING

reading of any portion of the inscriptions . The whole See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case indeed seemed now perilously near a stalemate . New methods must be found, and a new worker, with See also:

• PATIENCE

patience, persistence, See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of combination, insight, the historical sense and the feeling for archaeological indications . In 1802 Georg Friedrich See also:

• GROTEFEND, GEORG FRIEDRICH (1775-1853)

Grotefend (q.v.) was persuaded by the librarian of See also:

• GOTTINGEN

Gottingen University to See also:

• ESSAY, ESSAYIST (Fr. essai, Late Lat. exagium, a weighing or balance; exigere, to examine; the term in general meaning any trial or effort)

essay the task . He began with the See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption that there were three languages, and that of these the first was ancient Persian, the language of the Achaemenians, who had erected these palaces and caused these inscriptions to be written . For his first attempts at decipherment he See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose two of these old Persian inscriptions and laid them See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side by side . They were of moderate length, and the frequent recurrence of the same signs in them seemed to indicate that their contents were similar . The method which he now pursued was so simple, yet so sure, as he advanced step by step, that there seemed scarcely a See also:

• CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

chance of error . Munter had observed in all the Persian texts a word which occurred in two forms, a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short and a longer form . This word appeared in Grotefend's two texts in both See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long and short forms .

Munter had suggested that it meant " See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king " in the short form and " See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings " in the longer, and that when the two words occurred together the expression meant " king of kings." But further, this word occurred in both inscriptions in the first See also:

• LINE

line, and in both cases was followed by the same word . This second word Grotefend supposed to mean " great," the combined expression being " king great," that is, " great king."' All this found support in the phraseology of the lately deciphered See also:

• SASSANIAN

Sassanian inscriptions, and it was plausible in itself . It must, however, be supported by definite facts, and furthermore each word must be separated into its alphabetic parts, 'every one of them identified, and the words themselves be shown to be philologically possible by the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of similar words in related languages . In other words, the archaeological method must find support in a philological method., To this Grotefend now devoted himself with equal See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy . His method was as simple as before . He had made out to his own See also:

• SATISFACTION (Lat. salisfacerc, to satisfy)

satisfaction the titles " great king, king of kings." Now, in the Sassanian inscriptions, the first word was always the king's name, followed immediately by " great king, king of kings," and Grotefend reasoned that this was probably true in his texts . But if true, then these two texts were set up by two different kings, for the names were not the same at thebeginning . Furthermore the name with which his text No . I. began appears in the third line of text No . II., but in a somewhat longer form, which Grotefend thought was a genitive and meant " of N." It followed the word previously supposed to be " king " and another which might mean son (N king son), so that the whole expression would be son of N king." From these facts Grotefend surmised that in these two inscriptions he had the names of three rulers, grandfather, See also:

• FATHER

father and son . It was now easy to See also:

• SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH

search the list of the Achaemenian dynasty and to find three names which would suit the conditions, and the three which he ventured to select were See also:

• HYSTASPES (the Greek form of the Persian Vishtaspa)

Hystaspes, See also:

• DARIUS (Pers. Darayavaush; Old Test. Daryavesh)

Darius, See also:

• XERXES (the Greek form of the Pers. Khshayarsha; Old Testament Ahasverus, Akhashverosh—i.e. Ahasuerus (q.v.)—with wrong vocalization and substitution of y for v, instead of Akhshavarsh; in Aramaic inscriptions and papyri from Egypt the name is written Khs

Xerxes . According to his See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis the name at the beginning of inscription I. was Darius, and he was ready to translate his texts in See also:

• PART

part as follows: I .

Darius, great king, king of kings . . . son of Hystaspes . . . . II . Xerxes, great king, king of kings . . . son of Darius king . The form which he provisionally adopted for Darius was Darheush; later investigation has shown that it ought really to be read as Daryavush, but the error was not serious, and he had safely secured at least the letters D, A, R, SH . It was a most wonderful achievement, the importance of which he did not realize, for in it was the See also:

• KEY
• KEY (in O. Eng. tang; the ultimate origin of the word is unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation was kay, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in aeg; cf. daeg, day; clang
• KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens)
• KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888)
• KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875)

key to the decipherment of three ancient languages . To very few men has it been given to make discoveries so important both for history and for See also:

• PHILOLOGY

philology . To Grotefend it was, however, not given to translate a whole text, or even to work out all the words whose meaning he had surmised . Rasmus See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian See also:

• RASK, RASMUS CHRISTIAN (1787-1832)

Rask (1787–1832), who followed him, found the plural ending in Persian, which had baffled him; and See also:

• EUGENE

Eugene See also:

• BURNOUF, EUGENE (1801—1852)

Burnouf (1801–1852), by the study of a list of Persian See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical names found at Naksh-i-Rustam, discovered at a single stroke almost all the characters of the Persian See also:

• ALPHABET (see also WRITING)

alphabet, and incidentally confirmed the values already deter-See also:

• MINED

mined by his predecessors . At the same time as Burnouf, the eminent See also:

• SANSKRIT

Sanskrit See also:

• SCHOLAR, SCHOLARSHIP

scholar Professor Christian See also:

• LASSEN, CHRISTIAN (1800-1876)
• LASSEN, EDUARD (1830-19o4)

Lassen (1800-1876), of See also:

• BONN

Bonn, was studying the same list of names; and his results were published at the same time .

The controversy which resulted as to priority of discovery may be here passed over while we sum up the results in general conclusions . Lassen may certainly claim in the final See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of history that he discovered independently of Burnouf the values of at least six and possibly of eight signs . But in another respect he made very definite progress over Burnouf . He discovered that, if the See also:

• SYSTEM

system of Grotefend were rigidly followed, and to every sign were given the value Grotefend had assigned, some words would be left wholly or almost wholly without vowels; and therefore unpronounceable . As instances of such words he mentioned cPRD, THTGUS, KTPTUK, FRAISJM . This situation led Lassen to a very important discovery, towards which his knowledge of the Sanskrit alphabet did much to bring him . He came, in short, to the conclusion that the ancient Persian signs were not entirely alphabetic, but were at least partially syllabic, that is, that certain signs were used to represent not merely an alphabetic character like " b," but also a syllable such as " ba," " bi " or " bu." He claimed that he had successfully demonstrated that the sign for " a " was only used at the beginning of a word, or before a consonant, or before another vowel, and that in every other case it was included in the consonant sign . Thus in the inscription No I. in the second line the signs should be read VA-ZA-RA-KA . This was a most important discovery, and may be said to have revolutionized the study of these long puzzling texts . During the entire time of this slow See also:

• PROCESS

process of decipherment, from the first essays of Grotefend in 1802 until the publication of Lassen's See also:

• BOOK

book in 1836, there were more sceptics than believers in the results of the deciphering process . Indeed the history of all forms of decipherment of unknown languages shows that See also:

• SCEPTICISM (o-Kesrroµai, I consider, reflect, hesitate, doubt)

scepticism concerning them is far more prevalent than credulity or even a too ready acceptance . There was need for a man of another See also:

• PEOPLE

people, of different training and a fresh and unbiased mind, to put the capstone upon the decipherment, and he was already at work when Lassen's important researches appeared .

See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

Major (afterward Sir) See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry See also:

• RAWLINSON, GEORGE (1812-1902)
• RAWLINSON, RICHARD (169o-1755)
• RAWLINSON, SIR HENRY CRESWICKE (1810—1895)
• RAWLINSON, SIR ROBERT (1810—1898)

Rawlinson had gone out to See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India, in the service of the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East India See also:

• COMPANY

Company, while still a boy . There he had learned Persian and several of the See also:

• INDIAN

Indian vernaculars . That was not the sort of training that had prepared Grotefend, Burnouf or Lassen, but it was the See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind that the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early travellers and copyists had enjoyed . In 1833 See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young Rawlinson went to Persia, to work with other See also:

• BRITISH

British See also:

• OFFICERS

officers in the reorganization of the Persian See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army . While engaged in this service his attention was See also:

• DRAWN

drawn to the ancient Persian cuneiform inscriptions . In 1835 he copied with great care the texts at See also:

• HAMADAN

Hamadan, and began their decipherment . Of all the eager work which had been going on in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe he knew little . It is no longer possible to ascertain when he gained his first See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information of Grotefend's work, for See also:

• NORRIS
• NORRIS, FRANK (1870—1902)
• NORRIS, HENRY NORRIS
• NORRIS, JOHN (1657-1711)
• NORRIS, SIR JOHN (c. 1547-1597)
• NORRIS, WILLIAM EDWARD (1847– )

Norris, the secretary of the Royal See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic Society, has left us no See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of when he began to send notices of the German's work . Whenever it was, there seems to be no doubt that Rawlinson worked independently for a time . His method was strikingly like Grotefend's . He had copied two trilingual inscriptions, and recognized at once that he had three languages before him . In 1839 (See also:

• JOURNAL
• JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily)

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, x. pp .

5, 6) .he thus wrote of his method: " When I proceeded .. . to compare and interline the two inscriptions (or rather the Persian columns of the two inscriptions, for, as the compartments exhibiting the inscription in the Persian language occupied the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in the tablets, and were engraved in the least complicated of the three classes of cuneiform writing, they were naturally first submitted to examination) I found that the characters coincided throughout, except in certain particular See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups, and it was only reasonable to suppose that the grounds which were thus brought out and individualized must represent proper names . I further remarked that there were but three of these distinct groups in the two inscriptions; for the See also:

• GROUP

group which occupied the second place in one inscription, and which, from its position, suggested the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of its representing the name of the father of the king who was there commemorated, corresponded with the group which occupied the first place in the other inscription, and thus not only served determinately to connect the two inscriptions together, but, assuming the groups to represent proper names, appeared also to indicate a genealogical See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession . The natural inference was that in these three groups of characters I had obtained the proper names belonging to three consecutive generations of the Persian See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy; and it so happened that the first three names of Hystaspes, Darius and Xerxes, which I applied at See also:

• HAZARD (0. Fr. hazard, from Span. czar, unlucky throw at dice, misfortune, from Arab. al, and zar, dice)

hazard to the three groups, according to the succession, proved to See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer in all respects satisfactorily and were, in fact, the true See also:

• IDENTIFICATION (Lat. idem, the same)

identification." Rawlinson's next work was the copying of the great inscription of Darius on the rocks at See also:

• BEHISTUN

Behistun (q.v.) . He had first seen it in 1835, and as it was high up on the rocky See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face, and apparently inaccessible, he had studied it by means of a See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field-See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass . He was not able to copy the whole of the Persian text, but in 1837, when he was more skilled in the script, he secured more of it . In the next See also:

• YEAR

year he forwarded to the Royal Asiatic Society of See also:

• LONDON

London his See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation of the first two paragraphs of the Persian text, containing the name, titles and See also:

• GENEALOGY (from the Gr. yivos, family, and Vryos, theory)

genealogy of Darius . This was little less than a tour de force, for it must be remembered that this had been accomplished without the knowledge of other ancient languages which his European competitors had enjoyed . The translation, received in London on the 14th of March, made a sensation, and a transcript sent in See also:

• APRIL

April to the Asiatic Society of See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris secured him an honorary membership in that distinguished See also:

• BODY

body . He was now known, and many made haste to send him copies of everything important which had been published in Europe . The See also:

• WORKS

works of Burnouf, Niebuhr, le Brun and See also:

• PORTER
• PORTER, BENJAMIN CURTIS (1843– )
• PORTER, DAVID (1780-1843)
• PORTER, DAVID DIXON (1813-1891)
• PORTER, ENDYMION (1587–1649)
• PORTER, HENRY (ft. 1596-1599)
• PORTER, HORACE (1837– )
• PORTER, JANE (1776–1850)
• PORTER, MARY (d. 1765)
• PORTER, NOAH (1811–1892)

Porter came to his hands, and with such assistance he made rapid progress, and in the See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter of 1838—1839 his alphabet of ancient Persian was almost complete . In 1839 he was in See also:

• BAGDAD, or BAGHDAD

Bagdad, his work written out and almost ready for publication .

But he delayed, hoping for more See also:

• LIGHT

light, and revising sign by sign with exhaustless patience . He expected to publish his preliminary memoir in the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring of 184o, when he was suddenly sent to See also:

• AFGHANISTAN

Afghanistan as See also:

• POLITICAL

political See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent at See also:

• KANDAHAR

Kandahar . Here he was toobusily engaged in See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration to attend to his favourite studies, which were not renewed until 1843 when he returned to Bagdad . There he received fresh copies and corrections of the Persepolis inscriptions which had been made by Westergaard, and later made a See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey to Behistun to perfect his own copies of the texts which had formed the basis of his own first study . At last, after many delays and discouragements, he published, in 1846, in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, his memoir, or See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of See also:

• MEMOIRS

memoirs, on the ancient Persian inscriptions, in which for the first time he gave a nearly complete translation of the Persian text of Behistun . In this one publication Rawlinson attained imperishable fame in See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research . His work had been carried on under greater difficulties than those in the path of his European colleagues, but he had surpassed them all in the making of an intelligible and connected translation of a long inscription . He had indeed not done it without assistance from the work of Burnouf, Grotefend and Lassen, but when all See also:

• ALLOWANCE (from "allow,' derived through 0. Fr. alouer from the two Lat. origins adlaudare, to praise, and allocare, to assign a place; so that the English word combined the general idea of "assigning with approval")

allowance is made for these influences his fame is not diminished nor the extent of his services curtailed . His method was adopted before he knew of Lassen's work . That two men of such different training and of such opposite types of mind should have lighted upon the same method, and by it have attained the same results, confirmed in the eyes of many the truth of the decipherment . The work of the decipherment of the old Persian texts was now complete for all See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical purposes . But in 1846 there appeared a See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper read before the Royal Irish See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy by the Rev .

See also:

• EDWARD

Edward See also:

• HINCKS, EDWARD (1792-1866)
• HINCKS, SIR FRANCIS (1807-1885)

Hincks of See also:

• KILLYLEAGH

Killyleagh, See also:

• COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. comae, cf. O. Fr. cunte, conk', Mod. Fr. comae, from Lat. comitatus, cf. Ital. comitato, Prov. comtat; see COUNT)

County.Down, See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland, whose keen criticisms of Lassen's work, and See also:

• ORIGINAL

original contributions to the definite See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement of syllabic values, may be regarded as closing the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of decipherment of Persian cuneiform writing, The next problem in the study of cuneiform was the decipherment of the second language in each of the trilingual groups . The first essay in this difficult task was made in 1844 by Niels See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis Westergaard . His method was very similar to that used by Grotefend in the decipherment of Persian . He selected the names of Darius, Hystaspes, Persians and others, and compared them with their equivalents in the Persian texts . By this means he learned a number of signs, and sought by their use in other words to spell out syllables or words whose meanings were then ascertained by conjecture or by comparison . He estimated the number of characters at eighty-two or eighty-seven, and judged the writing to be partly alphabetic and partly syllabic . The language he called Median, and classified it in " the Scythian, rather than in the Japhetic See also:

• FAMILY

family." The results of Westergaard were subjected to incisive See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism by Hincks, who made a distinct gain in the problem . It next passed to the hands of de Saulcy, who was able to see further than either . But the See also:

• MATTER

matter moved with difficulty because the copied texts were not accurate . By the generosity of Sir Henry Rawlinson his superb copies of the Behistun text, second See also:

• COLUMN (Lat. columna)

column, were placed in the hands of Mr See also:

• EDWIN, AEDUINI
• EDWIN, JOHN (1749–1790)

Edwin Norris, who was able in 1852 to present a paper to the Royal Asiatic Society deciphering nearly all of it . Mordtmann followed him, naming the language Susian, which was met with general acceptance and was not displaced by the name Amardian, suggested by A . H .

See also:

• SAYCE, ARCHIBALD HENRY (1846- )

Sayce in two papers which other-See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise made important contributions to the subject . With his contributions the problem of decipherment of Susian may be considered as closed . The latter workers could only be builders on See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations already laid . The decipherment of the third of the three languages found at Persepolis and Behistun followed quickly on the success with Susian . The first worker was Isadore Lowenstern, who made out the words for " king " and " great " and the sign for the plural, but little more . The first really great advance was made by Hincks in 1846 and 1847 . In these he determined successfully the values of several signs, settled the numerals, and was apparently on the high-road toward the translation of an entire See also:

• ASSYRIAN

Assyrian text . He was, however, too cautious to proceed so far, and the See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit of first translating a short Assyrian text belongs to Longperier, who in 1847 published the following as the translation of an entire text: " Glorious is See also:

• SARGON

Sargon, the great king, the ( . . .) king, king of kings, king of the See also:

• LAND

land of See also:

• ASSYRIA

Assyria." It was nearly all correct, but it advanced our knowledge but slightly because it did not give the forms of the words—because (to put it in another way) he was not able to transliterate the Assyrian words . This was the great problem . In the Persian texts there were but forty-four signs, but in the third column of the Persepolis texts Grotefend had counted one See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred and See also:

• THIRTY

thirty different characters, and estimated that in all the Babylonian texts known to him there were about three hundred different signs, while See also:

• BOTTA, CARLO GIUSEPPE GUGLIELMO (1766–1837)

Botta discovered six hundred and forty-two in the texts found by him at See also:

• KHORSABAD

Khorsabad . That was enough to make the stoutest See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart See also:

• QUAIL (0. Fr. Quaille, Mod. Fr. Caille, Ital. Quaglia, Low Lat. Quaquila, Du. Kwakkel and Kwartel, Ger. Wachtel, Dan. Vagtel)

quail, for a meaning must be found for every one of these signs .

There could not be so many syllables, and it was, therefore, quite See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain that the Babylonian language must have been written in part at least in ideograms . But in 1851 Rawlinson published one hundred and twelve lines of the Babylonian column from Behistun, accompanied by an inter-linear transcription into See also:

• ROMAN

Roman characters, and a translation into Latin . That paper, added to Hinck's still more acute detail studies, brought to an end the preliminary decipherment of Babylonian . There were still enormous difficulties to be surmounted in the full appreciation of the complicated script, but these would be solved by the combined labours of many workers . The cuneiform script had its origin in Babylonia and its inventors were a people whom we See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call the Sumerians . Before Origin . the Semitic Babylonians conquered the land it was inhabited by a .people of unknown origin variously classified, by different scholars, with the Ural-altaic or. even with the Indo-European family, or as having See also:

• BLOOD

blood relationship with both . This people is known to us from thousands of cuneiform inscriptions written entirely in their language, though our See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief knowledge of them was for a long time derived from Sumerian inscriptions with interlinear See also:

• TRANSLATIONS

translations in Assyrian . Their language is called Sumerian (li-8a-an Su-me-ri) by the Assyrians (Br . See also:

• MUS

Mus . 81-7-27, 130), and its characteristics are being slowly See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed by the elaborate study of the immense literature which has come down to us . In 1884 See also:

• HALEVY, JACQUES FRANCOIS FROMENTAL ELIE (1799-. 1862)
• HALEVY, LUDOVIC (1834-1908)

Halevy denied the existence of the Sumerian language, and claimed that it was merely a cabalistic script invented by the priests of the Semites .

His early success has not been sustained, and the vast See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of scholars have ceased to doubt the existence of the language . The Sumerians developed their script from a See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude picture-writing, some early forms of which have come down to us . In course of time they used the pictures to represent sounds, apart from ideas . They wrote first on stone, and when See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay was adopted soon found that straight lines in soft clay when made by a single pressure of the stylus tend to become wedges, and the pictures therefore lost their character and came to be See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere conventional groups of wedges . Some of these wedge-shaped signs are of such character that we are still able to recognize or re-construct the original picture from which they came . The Assyrian sign ^-+, which means See also:

• HEAVEN (0. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel, Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the sugges

heaven, appears in early texts in the form - in which its See also:

• STAR

star-like form is quite evident (star= heaven) and from which the linear form . may be not improbably pre-supposed . A number of other cases were enumerated by the Assyrians themselves (see Cuneiform Texts from Bab . Tab. in Brit . Museum, vol. v., 1898), and there can be no reasonable doubt that this is the origin of the script . The number of the original picture-signs cannot have been great, but the development of new signs never ceased till the Develop- cuneiform script passed wholly from use . The simplest meat and form of development was doubling, to See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express See also:

• PLURALITY (0. Fr. pluralitd, Late Lat. pluralitas, plural number)

plurality character- or intensity . After this came the working of two tstics. signs into one; thus Tl " See also:

• WATER

water," when placed ins-:.-.D.1- " " mouth " gave the new sign .: ® " to drink," and many others .

Other signs were formed by the addition of four lines, either vertically or horizontally, to intensify the original meaning . Thus, for instance, the old linear sign means dwelling, but with four additional signs, thus , it means " great See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house.'.' This sign gradually changed in form until it came to be < e<T . This method of development was called by the Sumerians gums, and signs thus formed are now commonly called by us, gunu signs . They number hundreds and must be reckoned with in our study of the script development, though perhaps See also:

• RECENT

recent scholars have somewhat exaggerated their importance . The process of development is obscure and must always remain so . The script as finally developed and used by the Assyrians is cumbrous and complicated, and very See also:

• ILL

ill adapted to the sounds of the Semitic alphabet . It has (1) simple syllables, consisting of one vowel and a consonant, or a vowel by itself, thus jj " a," ab, ib, ub; -.-_j ba, bi, bu . In addition to these the Assyrian had also (2) See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound syllables, such as ~m See also:

• BIT (from the verb " to bite," either in the sense of a piece bitten off, or an act of biting, or a thing that bites or is bitten)

bit, -' bal, and (3) ideograms, or signs which express an entire word, such as t- 1 beltu, See also:

• LADY (0. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. ldfdi, lavedi; the first part of the word is hldf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development fr

lady, Cr See also:

• ABU

abu, father . The difficulty of reading this script is enormously increased by the fact that many signs are polyphonous, i.e. they may have more than one syllabic value and also be used as an ideogram . Thus the sign has the ideographic values of matu, land, shadu, See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain, kashadu, to conquer, napachu, to arise (of the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun), and also the syllabic values kur, mad, See also:

• MAT (O. Eng. meatt, from late Lat. mattes, whence Ital. mallet, Ger. and Dan. matte, Du. mat, &c.)

mat, See also:

• SHAD

shad, shat,' See also:

• LAT

lat, nad, nat, See also:

• KIN (0. E. cyn, a word represented in nearly all Teutonic languages, cf. Du. kunne, Dan. and Swed. kon, Goth kuni, tribe; the Teutonic base is kunya; the equivalent Aryan root gan- to beget, produce, is seen in Gr. 'yEvos, Lat. genus, cf. "kind")

kin and See also:

• GIN

gin . This method of writing must See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead to See also:

• AMBIGUITY (Fr. ambiguite, med. Lat. ambiguitas, from Lat. ambiguus, doubtful; ambi, both ways, agere, to drive)

ambiguity, and this difficulty is helped somewhat by (4) determinatives, which are signs intended to indicate the class to which the word belongs . Thus, the r is placed before names of persons, and (the ideogram for matu, See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country, and shadu, mountain) is placed before names of countries and mountains, and ..f- (ilu, See also:

• GOD

god) before the names of gods .

The cuneiform writing, begun by the Sumerians in a period so remote that it is idle to speculate concerning it, had a long and very extensive history . It was first adopted by History the Semitic Babylonians, and as we have seen was modified, developed, See also:

• NAY, or NEY

nay almost made over . Their inscriptions are written in it from circa 4500 B.C. to the 1st See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.C . From their hands it passed to the Assyrians, who simplified some characters and conventionalized many more, and used the script during the entire period of their See also:

• NATIONAL

national existence from 1500 B.C. to 607 B.C . From the Babylonian by a slow process of See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution the much simplified Persian script was developed, and with the Babylonian is also to be connected the Susian, less complicated than the Babylonian, but less simple than the Persian . The Chaldians (not Chaldaeans), who lived about See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake See also:

• VAN

Van, also adopted the cuneiform script with values of their own, and expressed a considerable literature in it . The discovery in 1887 of the Tell-el-Amarna tablets in upper See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt showed that the same script was in use in the 15th century B.C., from See also:

• ELAM

Elam to the Mediterranean and from See also:

• ARMENIA (old Persian Armina, Armenian Hayasdan, or Hayq)

Armenia to the Persian Gulf for purposes of See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence . There is See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to expect the discovery of its use by yet other peoples . It was one of the most widely used of all the forms of ancient writing .