Russian soldier of Scottish descent, born in Luhda-Grosshof, Livonia (modern Estonia and Latvia). He entered a Russian regiment in 1786 and gained rapid promotion. In the war against Finland he defeated the Swedes, and forced a surrender by crossing the frozen Gulf of Bothnia in strength (1808). Tsar Alexander I appointed him minister of war in 1810. Forced to give battle to Napoleon at Smolensk (1812), he was defeated and was superseded by Kutuzov. He fought at Borodino (1812), was again promoted commander-in-chief after the Battle of Bautzen (1813), served at Dresden and Leipzig (1813), and took part in the capture of Paris (1814). In 1815 he was made a prince.