DEFINITIONS  .—The following definitions may be useful, but have no See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in the See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution of the attack, to which this See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section is mainly devoted . Investment.—This most necessary, almost indispensable operation of every See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege consists in surrounding the fortress about to be besieged, so as to cut off its communications with the outside See also:

• WORLD

world . Preliminary investment which is carried out by See also:

• CAVALRY (Fr. cavalerie, Ger. Kavallerie or Reiterei, derived ultimately from late Lat. caballus, horse)

cavalry and See also:

• LIGHT

light troops before the arrival of the besieging force, consists in closing the roads so as to shut out supplies and reinforcements . See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

Close investment should be of such a See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character as to prevent any sortof communication, even by single messengers or spies . The See also:

• TERM

term " See also:

• BLOCKADE
• BLOCKADE (Fr. blocus, Ger. Blokade)

blockade " is sometimes loosely used instead of investment . Lines of See also:

• CIRCUMVALLATION, LINES OF (from Lat. circum, round, and vallum, a rampart)

Circumvallation and Contravallation.—These now obsolete terms were in See also:

• GREAT

great use until the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century . The circumvallation was a See also:

• LINE

line of See also:

• PARAPET (Ital. parapetto, Fr. parapet, from para, imperative of Ital. porare, to cover, defend, and petto, breast, Lat. pectus; the German word is Brustwehr)

parapet which the besieger made outside the investing position of his own force, to protect it when there was a See also:

• CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

chance of attack by a relieving See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army . The line of contravallation was the line of parapet and See also:

• TRENCH, RICHARD CHENEVIX (1807-1886)

trench sometimes made by the besieger all See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the See also:

• TOWN

town he was attacking, to check the sorties of the See also:

• GARRISON
• GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879)

garrison . Observing Force.—When circumstances make the reduction of a particular fortress in the See also:

• THEATRE (BEarpov, " a place for seeing," from OeacOae)

theatre of operations unnecessary a force is often detached to " observe " it . The See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty of this force will be to See also:

• WATCH (in O. Eng. wcecce, a keeping guard or watching, from wacian, to guard, watch, wacan, to wake)

watch the garrison and prevent any hostile See also:

• ACTION

action such as raids on the lines of communications . See also:

• BOMBARDMENT

Bombardment.—This operation, See also:

• COMMON

common to all ages, consists in a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general (sometimes an indiscriminate) See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire against either the whole See also:

• TARGET
• TARGET, GUI JEAN BAPTISTE (1733-1807)

target offered by the fortress or a particular section of that target . In See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient and See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval times the effect of a bombardment—whether of See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary missiles, of incendiary projectiles, or of poisonous matters tending to breed pestilence—upon a See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population closely crowded within its walls was very powerful .

In the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day little military importance is attached to bombardment, since under See also:

• MODERN

modern conditions it cannot do much real harm . IV . MILITARY See also:

• MINING

MINING It has been noted already that mining is one of the most ancient resources of siege warfare . The use of See also:

• GUNPOWDER

gunpowder in mining operations See also:

• DATES

dates from the end of the 15th century . When See also:

• SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM (1564-1616)

Shakespeare makes Fluellen say, at See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry V.'s siege of See also:

• HARFLEUR

Harfleur, " th'athversary is digt himself four yards under the countermines; I think 'a will plow up all, if there is not better directions," he is anticipating the development of siegecraft by nearly See also:

• ROD (O.E. rodd, probably related to Norw. rudda, stick, rodda, stake)
• ROD, EDOUARD (1857-1910)

rod years . Pedro di See also:

• NAVARRO, PEDRO (c. 1460-1528)

Navarro, a See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish officer, is credited with the first See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical use of explosive mines . He employed them with great success at the siege of See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF

Naples in 1503; and afterwards, when rebuilding the See also:

• CASTELLO, BERNARDO (1557—1629)
• CASTELLO, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1500 ?–1569 ?)
• CASTELLO, VALERIO (1625-1659)

Castello Nuovo after the siege, was probably the first to make permanent See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision for their use in See also:

• COUNTER

counter-mines . Countermining had been a measure of See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence against the earlier methods of attack-mining; the See also:

• OBJECT

object being to break into the besiegers' galleries and fight See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand to hand for the See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of them . When the explosive mine was introduced, it became the object of the defenders to establish their counter-mines near the besiegers' galleries and destroy them by the effect of the See also:

• EXPLOSION

explosion . In the 400 years or so that have passed this See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of warfare has changed less than any other . Methods of mining have not advanced much, and the increased See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of high See also:

• EXPLOSIVES

explosives as compared with gunpowder has its least See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage in moving masses of See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth . When a besieger has arrived by means of trenches within a certain distance of the enemy's See also:

• WORKS

works without having subdued their fire, he may find that the advance by See also:

• SAP

sap becomes too slow and too dangerous .

He can then advance underground by means of mine galleries, and by exploding large charges at the heads of these galleries can make a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of craters . These craters are then occupied by See also:

• INFANTRY

infantry, and are connected with each other and with the parallel in See also:

• REAR

rear .by trenches, thus forming a new parallel . If not interfered with by the defenders the besieger can advance in this way until he reaches the See also:

• COUNTERSCARP (_" opposite scarp," Fr. contrescarpe)

counterscarp . His mines will now be turned to a new purpose, viz. to See also:

• BREACH (Mid. Eng. breche, derived from the common Teutonic root brec, which appears in " break," Ger. brechen, &c.)

breach the counterscarp and afterwards the escarp . This is done by placing suitable charges at intervals behind the scarps at such a height above the See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations that the pressure of the earth above the mine will more than counterbalance the resistance of the See also:

• MASONRY

masonry . But if the defenders are active, they will countermine . There is as a general See also:

• RULE

rule this broad difference between the mines of the defence and those of the attack, that the defenders Mines and do not wish the See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the ground broken, lest increased opportunities of getting See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover should be offered to the besiegers . The object of the defence, therefore, is to destroy the besiegers' galleries without forming craters, and for this purpose they generally endeavour to get underneath the attack galleries . The defenders may, however, wish, if the opportunity is allowed them, to explode mines under the attack See also:

• PARALLELS

parallels, in which See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case there is of course no objection to disturbing the surface . " At the commencement of the subterranean See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main object of the defence is to force the besieger to take to mining operations as See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early as possible, as it is a tedious operation and will prolong the siege . Every endeavour must be made to push forward counter-mines so as to meet and check the attack . On the approach of the opponents to each other careful listening for the enemy must be resorted to .

To this end it is necessary at irregular intervals to suspend all See also:

• WORK

work for some minutes at a See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, closing doors of communication and employing experienced listeners at the heads of the countermines . This See also:

• MATTER

matter is a most important one, as a premature explosion of the defender's mines is a See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double loss to the defender, a loss of a mine and an advantage to the enemy in more than one way . As soon as the overcharged mines of the besieger have been fired, a heavy fire should be brought to See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear on the craters, and if possible sorties should be made to prevent the enemy occupying them . At the same time every effort should be made underground to surround with galleries, and as it were isolate, the craters so as to prevent the besieger making a new advance from them . The efforts of the attack at this See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage will probably be directed to the formation of what are called " See also:

• BOULE (Gr. 0ovXi ,, literally " will," " advice "; hence a " council ")

Boule shafts " (i.e. shafts partially lined in which charges are hastily fired with little or no tamping), and to meet these in time the defender may resort to the use of See also:

• BORING

boring tools, and so place charges somewhere in advance of the heads of the eounter- counter- mines . His great object must be to prevent as See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long as possible the besieger from getting underground again; and these occasions, when the power of resistance is temporarily equal to, if not greater than, that of the attack, should be made the most of by the defence." (See also:

• LEWIS, HENRY CARVILL
• LEWIS, JOHN FREDERICK (180 1876)
• LEWIS, MATTHEW GREGORY (1775-1818)
• LEWIS, MERIWETHER (1774-1809)
• LEWIS, SIR GEORGE CORNEWALL, BART

Lewis, See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

Text-See also:

• BOOK

book on Fortification, &c., 1893.) The defence has the advantage, in the case of fortresses, of being able to establish beforehand a See also:

• SYSTEM

system of countermine galleries in masonry . Many systems have been worked out for this purpose . A See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good typical arrangement is that of General Marescot, published in I799, shown in fig . 72 a From Textbook of Fortification, by permission of the Controller H.M . See also:

• STATIONERY

Stationery See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

Office . The main galleries (those See also:

• RUNNING

running out in a straight line from the counterscarp See also:

• GALLERY (through Ital. galleria, from Med. Lat. galeria, of which the origin is unknown)

gallery e to three of the points a) fall gently to the front to a See also:

• DEPTH

depth of 30 or 40 ft. below the surface—the deeper they are the less they will suffer from the enemy's mines . Branch galleries (marked c b+d c) run obliquely upward from them to right and to See also:

• LEFT

left, leading to the mines, which are placed at various depths, according to circumstances .

Two main points must be observed in any system of counter-mines: the branch galleries must run obliquely forward, so as not to present their sides to the action of the enemy's mines; and the distance between the ends of the branches from adjacent main galleries should be such that the enemy cannot pass between them unheard . This distance will vary with the nature of the See also:

• SOIL

soil, but may be taken roughly as 20 yds . A convenient See also:

• SIZE

size for main galleries is 6 ft. high by 3 ft. wide: branch galleries may be 5 ft. by 3 ft . When the enemy is approaching, other branch galleries, called listeners, will be pushed out from main See also:

• DUFOUR, WILHELM HEINRICH [GUILLAUME HENRI] (1787–1875)

Dufour 's System . for defence of a breach ''ZT77;q'Thro,!7-7.,03,14ty,-, Marescot's n.• a . mines . and branch galleries . The section to fig. i of fig . 72 shows openings left for the purpose . Another use of mines in defence is in connexion with breaches . A permanent arrangement for this purpose, by General Dufour, is shown in fig . 72 . Yet another use, on which much ingenuity was expended in the 18th century, is to extemporize retrenchments .

The charges of mines depend of course upon the effect which is desired . When the See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge is strong enough to produce a See also:

• CRATER

crater, the See also:

• RADIUS

radius of the circular opening on the surface of the ground is called the radius of the crater . The line See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from the centre of the charge to the nearest surface, which is expressed in feet, is called the line of least resistance (L.L.R.) . When a mine produces a crater the See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter of which is equal to the line of least resistance, it is called a one-lined crater; when the diameter is double the L.L.R., a two-lined crater and so on . Common mines are those which produce a two-lined crater . Over-charged mines produce craters greater than two-lined, and undercharged mines less . A camou- flet does not produce a crater; it is used when the object is to destroy an enemy's gallery without breaking the surface . Fig . 73 shows sections of the different kinds of mines, with their Action of a Common Mine S.:c ) Crater Charge 3/feed 10271bs . (3.050) H.R.R.37 6„(2.51.) _ _~, 41ined2312 ,, (6.86C) ; 505(3.361.) ,.__ See also:

• STILTED

Stilted (12.980) 61'6„(4.11.) _~, 6tined 7397,, (21.95 C) , 72' 6,/ 4.91.) 7lined11569„ (34.33C) t 85'8(5.71.) From Instructions in Military See also:

• ENGINEERING

Engineering, by permission of the Controller of H.M . Stationery Office . craters and the effect they will produce downwards and See also:

• HORIZON (Gr. 6pfTwv, dividing)

horizon-See also:

• TALLY

tally in ordinary earth .

See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

Consideration of this figure will show that it is possible to place a long charge at such a depth below the surface that it will destroy all galleries of the enemy within a considerable radius, without much disturbing the surface of the ground . Bored mines, which have been alluded to above, are a comparatively See also:

• RECENT

recent innovation . When the enemy is heard at work in one of his galleries and his position approximately determined by the .ound, it is necessary to drive a branch gallery with all See also:

• SPEED, JOHN (1552–1629)

speed in that direction, and when it has advanced as far as appears necessary, to load, tamp and See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge a mine before the enemy can fire his own mine . This is one of the most delicate and dangerous operations of war, and success will fall to those who are at the same time most skilful and most determined . The work can be hastened and madeless dangerous as follows: Instead of See also:

• DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages)

driving a branch gallery, a hole several inches in diameter is bored in the required direction . With suitable tools there is no difficulty in driving a straight See also:

• BORE

bore hole 20 or 30 ft. long . A small charge of high explosives is then pushed up to the end of the borehole and fired . This forms a small camouflet chamber by compressing the earth around it . Into this chamber the charge for the mine is passed up the bore-hole . No tamping of course is required . Mine warfare is slow, dangerous and uncertain in its results . It will certainly delay the besiegers' advance very much and may do so indefinitely .

One point is distinctly in favour of the defence, namely that when ground has been much See also:

• MINED

mined it becomes charged with poisonous gases . Some explosives are less noxious than others in this way, and it will be advantageous for the attack, but not necessarily for the defence, to make use of these . Calculation of Charges.—The quantity of See also:

• POWDER (through O. Fr. puldre, modern poudre, from Lat. pulvis, pulveris, dust)

powder required for a charge is expressed in lbs. in terms of L.L.R.3, and the following formulae are used: l=L.L.R. in feet, r=radius of crater in feet, c=powder charge in pounds, s=a variable dependent on the nature of the soil . s For a common mine c es- lo la For an overcharged mine c= s rl+ (r—l.)}3 To . 9 For an undercharged mine c= r'o{l—.9(l—r)}3 . The values•to be given to s are: Nature of Soil . Value of s . Very light earth . . o•8o Common earth . i•oo Hard See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand . . 1.25 Earth mixed with stones . . 1.40 See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

Clay mixed with See also:

• LOAM (O.E. lam; the word appears in Dut. leem and Ger. Lehm; the ultimate origin is the root lai-, meaning " to be sticky," which is seen in the cognate " lime," Lat. limus, mud, clay)

loam . • 1.55 Inferior See also:

• BRICKWORK

brickwork .

. 1.66 See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

Rock or good new brickwork . . 2.25 Very good old brickwork . 2.5o Military mining is carried on by means of See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical shafts and See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal or inclined galleries . When the soil is very stiff, very little or even no lining is required for shafts and galleries; but usually they have to be lined either with cases or frames . Cases make a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete lining of 2 in. planking . Frames are used at intervals of 4 or 5 ft. to support a partial lining of planks . Cases are of course preferable in other respects; but in ordinary soil they take up more See also:

• TIMBER

timber . There are two kinds of gallery in ordinary use in the See also:

• BRITISH

British service, namely the common gallery whose interior dimensions with cases are 5 ft . 6 in . X2 ft., and the branch gallery which S6aftsand is 4 ft.X2 ft . The See also:

• SHAFT
• SHAFT (O. Eng., sceaft, from scafan, to shave; the word is common to Teutonic languages)

shaft has about the same dimensions as galleries . a branch gallery .

Formerly it was sometimes necessary in the systematic attack of a fortress to get guns down into the ditch . For this purpose a great gallery " was used, 6 ft . 6 in. in height and 6 ft . 8 in. wide, See also:

• INTERNAL

internal dimensions . Miners' Tools.—These are few and See also:

• SIMPLE

simple: The pick and See also:

• SHOVEL (O.E. scoff, from root of scufan, to shove, push, cf. Ger. Schaufel, also Schiippe, scoop)
• SHOVEL, SIR CLOUDESLEY [or CLOWDISLEY SHOVELL as he seems to have spelt the name himself] (c. 1650-1707)

shovel differ from the ordinary types in having rather shorter helves suitable for the confined space in which they are used . There is also a push-pick, an See also:

• IMPLEMENT (Lat. implementum, a filling up, from implere, to fill)

implement with a straight helve and a pointed shovel See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head 6 in. long and 32 in. wide . The miner's See also:

• TRUCK

truck, used for See also:

• DRAWING

drawing the earth from the end of the gallery to the bottom of the shaft, is a small wooden truck holding about 2 cub. ft. of earth . Formerly the See also:

• NOISE (a word of doubtful origin; O. Fr. nogse or nose; Prov. nausa, which points to Lat. nausea, sickness, as the origin; others take Lat. noxia, harm, as the source)

noise of the wheels of the truck passing over the uneven wooden See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor of the gallery was very liable to be heard by the enemy . To obviate this they now have See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather tyres and should run on battens nailed to the floor . The miner's bucket is a small See also:

• CANVAS

canvas bucket with a couple of See also:

• ROPES, JOHN CODMAN (1836–1899)

ropes attached, by which the earth can be drawn up the shaft . Nowadays, however, the truck itself has chains attached to it, by which it is drawn up, with the aid of a windlass, to the surface . By this method more earth can be taken up in one lift, and time and labour are not wasted in transferring the contents of the truck to the bucket .

See also:

• VENTILATION (Lat. ventilare, from ventus, wind)

Ventilation is an important point . The breath of the miners and the burning of their candles (when electric light is not available) vitiates the See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air in the galleries; so that even in clean ground a gallery should not be driven more than 6o ft. without providing some means of renewing the air . This is usually done by forcing fresh air, by means of a See also:

• PUMP

pump or See also:

• BELLOWS
• BELLOWS, ALBERT F
• BELLOWS, HENRY WHITNEY (1814-1882)

bellows, through a flexible See also:

• HOSE (a word common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch, hoes, stocking, Ger. Hose, breeches, tights; the ultimate origin is unknown)

hose to the head of the gallery . Where mines have been fired close by, there is great danger from poisonous gases filtering through the soil into the gallery . This difficulty is nowadays met by the use of See also:

• SPECIAL

special apparatus, such as helmets into which fresh air is pumped, so that the wearers need not breathe the air of the gallery at all . Ventilation can also be assisted by boring holes vertically to the surface of the ground . Where a point has been reached at which it is proposed to fire a mine, a chamber just large enough to hold the charge is cut in the Different kinds of mines . my- N ~•~ ..i~: null% wqi1111I~ N / B Probable spheroids of rapture for overcharged Mines 4 3 3 4 5 6 7 t ~• L" 4 •iH-_H.R.I.'--1- Ch /I } % \ /' /; / / / 1 / .st se_ L See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the gallery . The object of this is to keep the charge out of the See also:

• DIRECT

direct line of the gallery and thus increase the force of the explosion . The charge may be placed in canvas bags, barrels or boxes, precautions being taken against See also:

• DAMP

damp . The operation of loading is of the first importance, for if the mine is not exploded with success, not only is valuable time lost, which Charging may give the enemy his opportunity, but it will probably mines. be necessary to untamp the mine in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to renew the See also:

• FUZE

fuze; an operation attended by considerable danger . The loading of the mine should therefore be done by the officer in charge with his own hands .

He has to work in a very cramped position and practically in the dark (unless with electric light) as of course no naked See also:

• LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF

lights can be allowed near powder . Everything should therefore be prepared beforehand to facilitate the loading of the mine and placing of the fuze . At See also:

• CHATHAM
• CHATHAM, WILLIAM PITT

Chatham a woo lb mine, at the end of a gallery 136 ft. long, has been loaded in 30 minutes . The powder was passed up the gallery by hand in sandbags, and emptied into a See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

box of the required size . Whatever method of firing (see below) is employed, the officer who loads the mine must be careful to see that it is so arranged as to make firing certain, and that the leads passing out of the gallery are not liable to damage in the See also:

• PROCESS

process of tamping . Tamping.—This operation consists in filling up the head of the gallery solidly, for such a distance that there shall be no possibility of the charge wasting its force along the gallery . The distance depends on the charge and on the solidity of the tamping, For a common mine it should extend to about f L.L.R. from the charge, when the tamping is of earth in sandbags; for a 3-lined crater, to about 2 L.L.R . Tamping can be improved by jamming pieces of timber across the shaft or gallery among the other filling . Firing.—This may be done electrically, or by means of safety or instantaneous fuze or powder hose . Electric firing is the safest and best, and allows of the charge being exploded at any given moment . For this purpose electric fuzes (for powder) or electric detonators (for See also:

• GUNCOTTON

guncotton or other high explosive) are employed . The current that fires them is passed through See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper See also:

• WIRE (A.S. wir, a wire; cf. Swed. vire, to twist, M.H.G. wiere, a gold ornament, Lat. viriae, armlets, ultimately from the root wi, to twist, bind)

wire leads .

The safety fuze used in the British service See also:

• BURNS, JOHN (1858– )
• BURNS, ROBERT (1759-1796)
• BURNS, SIR GEORGE

burns at the See also:

• RATE

rate of about 3 ft. a See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute . Instantaneous fuze burns at the rate of a mile a minute . Both can be fired under See also:

• WATER

water . They are often used in See also:

• CONJUNCTION (from Lat. conjungere, to join together)

conjunction, a considerable length of instantaneous fuze, leading from the charge, being connected to a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short length of safety fuze . Powder hose, an old-time expedient, can be extemporized by making a See also:

• TUBE (Lat. tuba)

tube of strong See also:

• LINEN

linen, say i in. in diameter, and filling it with powder . It burns at the rate of TO to 20 ft. per second . Explosives.—The old-fashioned gunpowder of the grained See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black variety is still the best for most kinds of military mines . Pebble and See also:

• PRISM (Gr. rrpivµa, properly a thing sawn, Irpii"ety, to saw)

prism powders do not give as good results, presumably because their action is so slow that some of the gases of explosion can See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape through the pores of the earth . High explosives, with their See also:

• QUICK

quick shattering and rending effect, are little more effective than See also:

• GUN

gun-powder in actually moving large quantities of earth . Most of them give off much more poisonous fumes than gunpowder . Some recent high explosives, however, have been specially designed to be comparatively innocuous in this respect . Some formulae have been given above for the calculation of charges .

It will, however, simplify matters for thebeing See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to the above charge of powder and placed under the same conditions, made a crater of 14 ft. radius . The See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of tamping in both cases of course placed the gunpowder at a disadvantage . Perhaps the most interesting mine ever fired was that at the siege of See also:

• PETERSBURG

Petersburg in the See also:

• AMERICAN

American See also:

• CIVIL

Civil War, in See also:

• JUNE

June 1864 . The circumstances were all abnormal, and the untechnical See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of it in Battles and Leaders o f the Civil War (vol. p1' etersburg iv.) is well See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth perusal . No mining tools or materials mine, and no military miners were available; and no one had 1864. any confidence in the success of the See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt except its originator, Lieut.-See also:

• COLONEL (derived either from Lat. column, Fr. colonne, column, or Lat. corona, a crown)

Colonel Pleasants, a mining engineer by profession, his See also:

• REGIMENT (from Late Latin regimentum, rule, regere, to rule, govern, direct)

regiment which was recruited from a mining population, and General See also:

• BURNSIDE, AMBROSE EVERETT (1824-1881)

Burnside the See also:

• CORPS (pronounced as in French, from which it is taken, being a late spelling of tors, from Lat. corpus, a body; cf. " corpse ")

corps See also:

• COMMANDER

commander . The opposing entrenchments were 130 yds. apart . The mine gallery was started behind the Federal lines and driven a distance of 510 ft. till it came under a See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field See also:

• REDOUBT (Fr. redoute, from Med. Lat. reductus, a place of retreat, refuge, reducere, lead back, retire; the intrusive b is due to the O. Fr. redoubter, to fear, Lat. dubitare, to doubt)

redoubt in the Confederate lines . There two branches were made right and left, each about 38 ft. long, and in them eight mines aggregating 8000 lb of powder were placed . The first attempt to fire them failed, and an officer and a sergeant volunteered to enter the gallery to seek the cause of the failure . A defective splice in two lengths of fuze was thus discovered and repaired . At the second attempt all the mines were fired simultaneously with success, and made a gigantic crater 170 ft. long by 6o ft. wide and 30 ft. deep . The occupants of the redoubt, at least several See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred men (they have been stated at moo), were blown up and mostly killed .

The See also:

• ASSAULT (from Lat. ad, to or on, and saltare, to leap)

assault which followed, however, failed completely, for want of organization . The infantry was drawn up in readiness to advance, but no outlets had been provided from the parallel, and this and other causes delayed the occupation of the crater and gave the defending See also:

• ARTILLERY (the O. Fr. artiller, to equip with engines of war, probably comes from Late Lat. articulum, dim. of ars, art, cf. " engine " from ingenium, or of artus, joint)

artillery a moment's See also:

• RESPITE (O. Fr. respit, modern repit, Lat. respectus, regard, consideration, respicere, to look back at)

respite . Thus the assailants gained the crater but could not advance beyond it in See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face of the defenders' fire, nor could they establish themselves within it, on its steep clay sides, for want of entrenching tools . A good many troops were sent for-wards in support, but being in many cases of inferior quality, they could not be induced to go forward, and huddled in disorder in the already overcrowded crater . Over woo of these were captured when the Confederates retook the crater by a counter-attack and the See also:

• TOTAL

total loss of the Federals in the attack was nearly 4000 . The See also:

• WARS

wars of the last See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation have done little or nothing to advance the See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science of military mining, but a good See also:

• DEAL

deal has been done in See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace to improve the means . Electric See also:

• LIGHTING

lighting and electric firing of mines will be a great help; modern drilling See also:

• MACHINES

machines may be used to go through rock; ventilating arrange= ments are much improved; and the use of bored mines is sure to have great developments . The Russo-See also:

• JAPANESE

Japanese War taught nothing new in mine-warfare, or as to the effects of mines, but the siege of See also:

• PORT

Port See also:

• ARTHUR (Fr. Arius)
• ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN (1830 – 1886)

Arthur had this moral among others; just as in future, in the frontal attack of positions, trench must oppose trench, so in fortress warfare mines will be more necessary than ever . It appears that they will be essential to destroy both the ditch-flanking arrangements of forts and the escarp or other permanent obstacle beyond the ditch . V . FIELD FORTIFICATION Field Fortifications, now more often spoken of as field defences, are those which are constructed at short See also:

• NOTICE

notice, with the means locally available, usually when the enemy is near at hand . Subject to the question of time, a very high degree of strength can be given to them, if the military situation makes it worth while to expend sufficient labour .

A century or more ago, the dividing line between permanent and field fortification was very rigidly drawn, since in those days a high masonry escarp surmounted by a rampart was essential to a permanent fortress, and these could naturally not be extemporized . Works without masonry, in other ways made as strong as possible with deep ditches and heavy timbers,—such as would require about six See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks for their construction—were known as semi-permanent, and were used for the defence of places which acquired strategic importance in the course of a war, but were not immediately threatened . The term field fortification was reserved for works constructed of lighter materials, with parapets and ditches of only moderate development . Redoubts of this class required a fortnight at most for their construction . In modern fortification if cupolas and deep revetted ditches were essential to permanent defences, the dividing line would be equally clear . But as has been shown, this is not universally admitted, and where the resources exist, the use of our present Effects of reader to See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record some actual instances of charges mines . fired both in peace and war . In the matter of scientific experiment we find See also:

• VAUBAN

Vauban as usual leading the way, and the following results among others were obtained by him at Tournay in 1686 and 1689: A charge of 162 lb placed 13 ft. below the surface produced a crater of 13 ft. radius (a two-lined crater, or " common mine ") . Galleries were destroyed at distances equal to the L.L.R. in both horizontal and vertical directions . Double the charge, placed at double the depth, i.e . 324 lb with an L.L.R. of 27 ft. made no crater, but like the first destroyed galleries below it and on each side at distances equal to the L.L.R . A charge of 3828 lb with L.L.R. of 37 ft. made a two-lined crater and destroyed a gallery distant 61 ft. horizontally .

See also:

• BERNARD, CHARLES DE
• BERNARD, CLAUDE (1813-1878)
• BERNARD, JACQUES (1658--1718)
• BERNARD, MOUNTAGUE (1S2o—1882)
• BERNARD, SAINT
• BERNARD, SAINT (Iogo-1153)
• BERNARD, SIMON (1779—1839)
• BERNARD, SIR THOMAS, BART

Bernard See also:

• FOREST

Forest de Belidor, a See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French engineer, made many experiments at La Fere about 1732, and 20 years later, as a general officer and inspector of miners, continued them on a larger See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale . His experiments were directed towards destroying an enemy's galleries at greater distances than had hitherto been supposed possible, by means of very large charges (in proportion to the L.L.R.) which he called " globes of See also:

• COMPRESSION

compression." In one of them a charge of 4320 lb of powder placed only 15 ft . 9 in. below the surface damaged or " compressed " a gallery distant 65 ft. horizontally . The radius of the crater was 34 ft . 8 in . At See also:

• FREDERICK
• FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrich; Ital. Federigo; Fr. Frederic and Federic; M.H.G. Friderich; O.H.G. Fridurih, " king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, A.S. frith, " peace," and rfh " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY)

Frederick the Great's siege of See also:

• SCHWEIDNITZ

Schweidnitz in 1762 some very large charges were exploded . One of them, of 5400 lb with an L.L.R. of 16 ft . 3 in., made a crater of 42 ft . 3 in. radius . Readers of See also:

• CARLYLE, ALEXANDER (1722-1805)
• CARLYLE, JOSEPH DACRE (1759-18o4)
• CARLYLE, THOMAS (1795-1881)

Carlyle's Frederick the Great may recall his description of the contest of the See also:

• RIVAL

rival See also:

• ENGINEERS, MILITARY

engineers on this occasion . At See also:

• GRAUDENZ (Polish Grudziadz)

Graudenz in 1862 (experiments) a charge of 1031 lb of powder placed Io ft. deep, untamped, in a vertical shaft, made a crater of 15 ft . 6 in. radius .

A charge of 412 lb of guncotton, calculated as means of construction, such as See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel joists, railway rails, See also:

• REIN

rein-forced See also:

• CONCRETE
• CONCRETE (Lat. concretes, participle of concrescere, to grow together)

concrete and wire, in conjunction with the defensive power of modern fire-arms, makes it possible to extemporize in a very short time works having much of the resisting power of a permanent fortress . Further, such works can be See also:

• EXPANDED

expanded from the smallest beginnings; and, if the site is not too exposed, in the presence of the enemy . Field fortification offers, as regards the actual constructions, a very limited See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope to the engineer; and a little consideration will show that its defensive possibilities were not greatly affected by the See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change from See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

machine-thrown projectiles to those fired by See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude smooth-bore guns . There is therefore nothing in the See also:

• HISTORY

history of this branch of the subject that is worth tracing, from the earliest ages to about the end of the 18th century . One or two points may be noticed . The use of obstacles is probably one of the earliest See also:

• MEASURES

measures of defence . Long before missile weapons had acquired such an importance as to make it worth while to seek shelter from them, it would obviously have been found desirable to have some means of checking the onrush of an enemy physically or numerically See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior . Hence the use by See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage tribes, to this day, of pits, pointed stakes hidden in the grass, entanglements and similar obstacles . In this direction the ages have made no change, and the most highly civilized nations still use the same obstacles on occasion . ' Another use of field defences common to all ages is the See also:

• PROTECTION

protection of camps at See also:

• NIGHT

night, where small forces are operating against an enemy more numerous but inferior in arms and discipline . In daylight such an enemy is not feared, but at night his See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers might be dangerous . Hence the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman practice of making each See also:

• FOOT

foot-soldier carry a couple of stakes for palisades; and the simple defence of a See also:

• THORN (O. Eng. porn, cf. Du. doorn, Ger. Dorn, &c)
• THORN (Polish Torun)

thorn zariba used by the British for their camps in the See also:

• SUDAN (Arabic Bilad-es-Sudan, country of the blacks)

Sudan .

Palisades and trenches, See also:

• ABATIS, ABATTIS

abatis and sharpened stakes have always been used . Except wire, there is practically no new material . As to methods, the laagers of the Boers are preceded by the See also:

• WAGON, or WAGGON

wagon-forts of the See also:

• HUSSITES

Hussites, and those no doubt by similar arrangements of British or See also:

• ASSYRIAN

Assyrian war chariots; and so in almost every direction it will be found that the expedient of to-day has had its forerunners in those of the countless yesterdays . The only really marked change in the arrangements of field defences has been caused not by gunpowder but by quick-firing rifled weapons . For that See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason it is worth while to consider briefly what were the principles of field fortification at the end of the 18th century . That See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period has been chosen because it gives us the result of a couple of centuries of See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant fighting between disciplined troops with fairly effective fire-arms . The field defences of the 19th century are transitional in character . Based mainly on the old methods, they show only faint attempts at See also:

• ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

adaptation to new conditions, and it was not till quite the end of the century that the methods now accepted began to take shape . The essential elements of fieldworks up to the time of the See also:

• PENINSULAR

Peninsular War were command and obstacle; now they are protection and concealment . The command and obstacle were as necessary in the days of smooth-bore muskets and guns as in those of javelins and arrows . When the enemy could get close up to a See also:

• OKI

OkI of See also:

• FLY (formed on the root of the supposed original Tent. fleugan, to fly)

fly type work without serious loss, and attack in close order, defences. the defenders needed a really good obstacle in front of them . Moreover, since they could not rely on their fire alone to repulse the attack, they needed a two-deep line, with reserves close at hand, to meet it with the " arme See also:

• BLANCHE, JACQUES EMILE (1861– )

blanche." For this purpose a parapet 7 or 8 ft. high, with a steep slope, perhaps palisaded, up which the attackers must climb after passing the obstacle, was excellent .

The defenders after firing their last volley could use their bayonets from the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of the parapet with the advantage of position . The high parapet had also the advantage that the attackers could not tell what was going on inside the redoubt, and the defenders were sheltered from their fire as well from view until the last moment . The strength of a fortified line in the 18th century depended principally on its redoubts . Lines of shelter trenches had littlepower of defence at the time, unless they held practically as many men as would havesufficed to fight in the open . Obstacles on the other hand had a greater value, against the inelastic See also:

• TACTICS (Gr. TaeTOc*, sc. TEXvnI, from TavQecv, to arrange in order of battle)

tactics of the time, than they have now . A good position there-fore was one which offered good fire-positions for redoubts and plenty of facilities for creating obstacles . Strong redoubts which could resist determined assaults; good obstacles in the intervals, guns in the redoubts to sweep the intervals, and troops in formed bodies kept in reserve for counter-strokes—these were the essentials in the days of the smooth-bore . The redoubts were liable to a heavy cannonade by field-guns before the attack . To withstand this, the parapets had to be made of a suitable thickness—from 4 or 5 ft. upwards—according to the time available, the resisting nature of the soil, and the severity of the bombardment expected . The whole of the earth for the parapet was as a rule obtained from the ditch, in order to make as much as possible of this obstacle . The garrison in all parts of the interior of the redoubt were to be sheltered, if possible, from the enemy's fire, and with this object great pains were bestowed on the principle of " defilade." The object of defilade, which was a great fetish in theoretical works, was so to arrange the height of the parapet with reference to the terreplein of a work that a straight line (not, be it observed, the trajectory of the projectiles) passing from the muzzle of a See also:

• MUSKET (Fr. mousquet, Ger. Muskete, &c.)

musket or gun on the most commanding point of the enemy's position, over the See also:

• CREST
• CREST (Lat. crista, a plume or tuft)

crest of the parapet, should just clear the head of a defender See also:

• STANDING

standing in any See also:

• PART

part of the work . This problem of defilade became quite out of date after the development of time shrapnel, but was nevertheless taught with great rigour till within the last twenty years .

The sectional See also:

• AREA

area of the ditch was calculated so that with an addition of about 1o% for expansion it would equal that of the parapet . If a wider and deeper ditch was considered necessary, the surplus earth could be used to See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form a See also:

• GLACIS

glacis . The interior of the redoubt had to afford sufficient space to allow the garrison to See also:

• SLEEP (0. Eng. slcepan; Ger. schlafen; cf. Lat. labi, to glide, and " slip ")

sleep in it, which was sometimes a matter of some difficulty if a small irregularly shaped work had to contain a strong garrison . Consideration of the See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan and sections of these works will show that the banquette for infantry with its slopes, and the gun platforms, took off a good deal from the interior space within the crest-line . Guns were usually placed at the salients, where they could get the widest field of fire . They were sometimes placed on the ground level, firing through embrasures in the parapet, and sometimes on platforms so as to fire over the parapet (en See also:

• BARBETTE (Fr. diminutive of barbe, a beard)

barbette) . As in permanent fortification, immense pains were taken to elaborate theoretically the traces of works . A distinction was made between forts and redoubts, the former being those which were arranged to flank their own ditches, while the redoubts did not . Redoubts again were classed as " closed," those which had an equally strong defence all round; and " See also:

• HALF

half-closed," those which had only a slight parapet or timber stockade for the See also:

• GORGE

gorge or rear faces . Open works (those which had no gorge defence) were named according to their trace, as redans and lunettes . A See also:

• REDAN

redan is a work with two faces making a salient See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle . It was frequently used in connexion with straight lines of trench or breastwork .

A See also:

• LUNETTE (French diminutive of lune, moon)

lunette is a work with two faces, usually forming an obtuse angle, and two flanks . The forts described in the text-books, as might be expected, were designed with great ingenuity, with bastioned or demibastioned fronts, See also:

• STAR

star traces, and so forth, and in the same books intricate calculations were entered into to See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance the remblai and deblai, that is, the amount of earth in the parapets with that excavated from the ditches . In practice such niceties of course disappeared, though occasionally when the ground allowed of it star forts and bastioned fronts were employed . On irregular ground the first See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity was to See also:

• FIT

fit the redoubt to the ground on which it stood, so as to sweep the whole of the foreground, and this was generally a sufficiently difficult matter without adding the complications of flanking defences . See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• JONES
• JONES, ALFRED GILPIN (1824-1906)
• JONES, EBENEZER (182o-186o)
• JONES, ERNEST CHARLES (1819-1869)
• JONES, HENRY (1831-1899)
• JONES, HENRY ARTHUR (1851- )
• JONES, INIGO (1573-1651)
• JONES, JOHN (c. 1800-1882)
• JONES, MICHAEL (d. 1649)
• JONES, OWEN (1741-1814)
• JONES, OWEN (1809-1874)
• JONES, RICHARD (179o-1855)
• JONES, SIR ALFRED LEWIS (1845-1909)
• JONES, SIR WILLIAM (1746-1794)
• JONES, THOMAS RUPERT (1819– )
• JONES, WILLIAM (1726-1800)

Jones, speaking of the traces of the several works in the Torres Vedras lines, says:— " The redoubts were made of every capacity, from that of fig . 74 a, limited by want of space on the ground it occupied to 50 men and two pieces of artillery, to that of fig . 74 b, for 500 men and six pieces of artillery, the importance of the object to be attained being the only See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide in forming the dimensions . Many of the redoubts first thrown up, even some of the smallest, were shaped like stars, under the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of procuring a flank defence for the ditches; but this construction was latterly rejected, it being found to cut up the interior space, and to be almost fallacious with Scale of Feet 100 200 300 400 respect to flank defence, the breadth of the exterior slopes being in some cases equal to the whole length of the flanks so obtained . Even when, from the greater size of the work, some flanking fire was thus gained, the angle formed by the faces was generally so obtuse that it demanded more coolness in the defenders than ought reasonably to be expected to aim along the ditch of the opposite face: and further, this construction prevented the fire of the work being more powerful in front than in rear . In order to decide on the proper trace of a work, it is necessary to consider whether its object be to prevent an enemy establishing himself on the ground on which it is to be placed, or whether it be to insure a heavy fire of artillery on some other point in its vicinity . In the first case every consideration should be sacrificed to that of adding to its See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of self-defence by flanks or other expedients . In the second, its powers of resistance are secondary to the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of a powerful offensive fire and its trace cannot be too simple .

Latterly, the shape of the redoubts was invariably that most fitted to the ground, or such as best parried the See also:

• ENFILADE (a French word, from enfiler, to thread, and so to pass through from end to end)

enfilade fire or musketry plunge of neighbouring heights, care being taken to present the front of fire deemed necessary towards the pass, or other object to be guarded; and such will generally be found the best rule of proceeding . This recommendation, however, is not intended to apply to isolated works of large dimensions, and more particularly to those considered the See also:

• KEY
• KEY (in O. Eng. tang; the ultimate origin of the word is unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation was kay, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in aeg; cf. daeg, day; clang
• KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens)
• KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888)
• KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875)

key of any position . No labour or expense should be spared to render such works capable of resi