See also:

• DENDROCOMETES (so named by F. Stein)

DENDROCOMETES (so named by F. See also:

• STEIN, CHARLOTTE VON (1742-1827)
• STEIN, HEINRICH FRIEDRICH KARL, BARON VOM

Stein)  , a genus of suctorian See also:

• INFUSORIA

Infusoria, characterized by the repeatedly branched attached See also:

• BODY

body; each of the lobes of the body gives off a few retractile tentacles . It is parasitic on the gills of the so-called See also:

• FRESHWATER

freshwater See also:

• SHRIMP

shrimp Gammarus pulex . For its conjugation see See also:

• SYDNEY

Sydney H . Hickson, in Quarterly Journ. of Mlzcrosc . See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

Science, vol xlv . (1902), p . 325 . DENE-HOLES, the name given to certain caves or excavations in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, which have been popularly supposed to be due to the Danes or some other of the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• NORTHERN

northern invaders of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country . The See also:

• COMMON

common spelling " Dane hole " is adduced as See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of this, and individual names, such as See also:

• VORTIGERN (GUORTHIGIRNUS, WYRTGEORN)

Vortigern's Caves at See also:

• MARGATE

Margate, and Canute's See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

Gold Mine near See also:

• BEXLEY
• BEXLEY, NICHOLAS VANSITTART, BARON (1766-1851)

Bexley, naturally follow the same theory . The word, however, is probably derived from the Anglo-Saxon den, a hole or valley . There are many underground excavations in the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of the country, also found to some extent in the midlands and the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north, but true dene-holes are found chiefly in those parts of See also:

• KENT
• KENT, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• KENT, JAMES (1763-1847)
• KENT, WILLIAM (1685-1748)

Kent and See also:

• ESSEX
• ESSEX, ARTHUR CAPEL
• ESSEX, EARLS OF
• ESSEX, KINGDOM OF
• ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX
• ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX, 2ND2 EARL OF (1566-1601)
• ESSEX, WALTER DEVEREUX, IST2 EARL OF (1541–1576)

Essex along the See also:

• LOWER

lower See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks of the See also:

• THAMES

Thames . With one exception there are no recorded specimens farther See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east than those of the Grays Thurrock See also:

• DISTRICT

district, situated in Hangman's See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

Wood, on the north, and one near See also:

• ROCHESTER
• ROCHESTER, JOHN WILMOT, 2ND EARL
• ROCHESTER, LAWRENCE HYDE, EARL OF (1641-1711)

Rochester on the south See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the See also:

• RIVER

river .

The See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general outline of the formation of these caves is invariably the same . The entrance is a See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical See also:

• SHAFT
• SHAFT (O. Eng., sceaft, from scafan, to shave; the word is common to Teutonic languages)

shaft some 3 ft. in See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter falling, on an See also:

• AVERAGE

average, to a See also:

• DEPTH

depth of 6o ft . The depth is regulated, obviously, by the depth of the See also:

• CHALK

chalk from the See also:

• SURFACE

surface, but, although chalk could have been obtained See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close at See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand within a few feet, or even inches, from the surface, a depth of from 45 to 8o ft., or more, is a characteristic feature . It is believed that dene-holes were also excavated in See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand, but as these would be of a perishable nature there are no available data of any value . The shaft, when the chalk is reached, widens out into a domed chamber with a roof of chalk some 3 ft. thick . The walls frequently See also:

• CONTRACT
• CONTRACT (Lat. contract us, from contrahere, to draw together, to bind)

contract somewhat as they near the See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor . As a See also:

• RULE

rule there is only one chamber, from 16 to 18 ft. in height, beneath each shaft . From this excessive height it has been inferred that the caves were not primarily intended for habitations or even hiding-places . In some cases the chamber is extended, the roof being supported by pillars of chalk See also:

• LEFT

left See also:

• STANDING

standing . A rare specimen of a twin-chamber was discovered at See also:

• GRAVESEND

Gravesend . In this See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case the one entrance served for both caves, although a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate See also:

• APERTURE (from Lat. aperire, to open)

aperture connected them on the floor level . Where galleries are found connecting the See also:

• CHAMBERS (the Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera, a room)
• CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740)
• CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840)
• CHAMBERS, ROBERT (18oz-1871)
• CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796)

chambers, forming a bewildering See also:

• LABYRINTH (Gr. Xa(3vpcvOos, Lat. labyrinthus)

labyrinth, a careful See also:

• SCRUTINY (Fr. scrutin, Late Lat. scrulinium, from scrutari, to search or examine thoroughly)

scrutiny of the walls usually reveals evidence that they are the See also:

• WORK

work of a See also:

• PEOPLE

people of a much later See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period than that of the chambers, or, as they become in these cases, the halls of the galleries .

Isolated specimens have been discovered in various parts of Kent and Essex, but the most important See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups have been found at Grays Thurrock, in the districts of See also:

• WOOLWICH

Woolwich, See also:

• ABBEY (Lat. abbatia; from Syr. abba, father)
• ABBEY, EDWIN AUSTIN (1852– )

Abbey Wood and Bexley, and at Gravesend . Those at Bexley and Grays Thurrock are the most valuable still existing . It is generally found that the See also:

• TOOL (0. Eng. tdl, generally referred to a root seen in the Goth. taujan, to make, or in the English word " taw," to work or dress leather)

tool work on the roof or See also:

• CEILING (from a verb " to ceil," i.e. to line or cover; of disputed etymology, but apparently connected with Fr. ciel, Lat. caelum, sky)

ceiling is rougher than that on the walls, where an upright position could be maintained . Casts taken of some of the pick-holes near the roof show that, in all See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability, they were made by See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

bone or See also:

• HORN
• HORN (a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. cornu; cf. Gr. Kipas)
• HORN (Lat. cornu; corresponding terms being Fr. cor, trompe; Ger. Horn; Ital. corno)
• HORN, ARVID BERNHARD, COUNT (1664-1742)
• HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY, COUNT

horn picks . And numerous bone picks have been discovered in Essex and Kent . These pick-holes are amongst the most valuable data for the study of dene-holes, and have assisted in fixing the date of their formation to pre-See also:

• ROMAN

Roman times . Very few See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics of antiquarian value have been discovered in any of the known dene-holes which have assisted in fixing the date or determining the uses of these prehistoric excavations . See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny mentions pits sunk to a depth of a See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred feet, " where they branched out like the See also:

• VEINS

veins of mines." This has been used in support of the theory that dene-holes were See also:

• WELLS
• WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (1798?–1879)
• WELLS, DAVID AMES (1828—1898)
• WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866— )
• WELLS, SIR THOMAS SPENCER, 1ST BART

wells sunk for the extraction of chalk; but no known dene-hole branches out in this way . Chretien de See also:

• TROYES

Troyes has a passage on underground caves in See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain which may have reference to dene-holes, and tradition of the 14th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century treated the dene-holes of Grays as the fabled gold mines of Cunobeline (or Cymbeline) of the 1st century . Vortigern's Caves at Margate are possibly dene-holes which have been adapted by later peoples to other purposes; and excellent examples of various pick-holes may be seen on different parts of the walls . See also:

• LOCAL

Local tradition in some cases traces the use of these caves to the smugglers, and, when it is remembered that illicit See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic was common not only on the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast but in the Thames as far up the river as See also:

• BARKING

Barking See also:

• CREEK
• CREEK (Mid. Eng. crike or creke, common to many N. European languages)

Creek, the theory is at least tenable that these ready-made hiding-places, difficult of approach and dangerous to descend, were so utilized- There are three purposes for which dene-holes may have been originally excavated: (a) as hiding-places or dwellings, (b) draw-wells for the extraction of chalk for agricultural uses, and (c) See also:

• STORE (from O. Fr. estor or estoire, Late Lat. staurum or instaurum, stock, provisions, supply, from the late use of instaurare, to provide, properly to construct, renew, restore)

store-houses for See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain . For several reasons it is unlikely that they were used as habitations, although they may have been used occasion-ally as hiding-places .

Other evidence has shown that it is equally improbable that they were used for the extraction of chalk . The See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief reasons against this theory are that chalk could have been obtained outcropping close by, and that every trace of loose chalk has been removed from the vicinity of the holes, while known examples of chalk draw-wells do not descend to so See also:

• GREAT

great a depth . The See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery of a shallow dene-hole, about 14 ft. below the surface, at See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

Stone negatives this theory still further . The last of the three possible uses for which these prehistoric excavations were designed is usually accepted as the most probable . Silos, or underground storehouses, are well known in the south of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe and See also:

• MOROCCO

Morocco . It is supposed that the grain was stored in the See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

ear and carefully protected from See also:

• DAMP

damp by See also:

• STRAW

straw . A curious smoothness of the roof of one of the chambers of the Gravesend twin-chamber dene-hole has been put forward as additional evidence in support of this theory . One other theory has been advanced, viz. that the excavations were made in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to get flints for implements, but this is quite impossible, as a careful examination of a few examples will show . Further reference may be made to Essex Dene-holes by T.V . See also:

• HOLMES, OLIVER WENDELL (18o9-1894)

Holmes and W . See also:

• COLE, SIR HENRY (1808–1882)
• COLE, THOMAS (1801–1848)
• COLE, TIMOTHY (1852– )
• COLE, VICAT (1833–1893)

Cole; fo The Archaeological See also:

• JOURNAL
• JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily)

Journal (1882); the Transactions of the Essex See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

Field See also:

• CLUB (connected with " clump ")

Club; Archaeologia Cantiana . &c.; Deneholes by F .

W . Reader, in Old Essex, ed . A . C . Kelway (1908) . (A . J .