See also:

• DENTISTRY (from Lat. dens, a tooth)

DENTISTRY (from See also:

• LAT

Lat. See also:

• DENS, PETER (1690-1775)

dens, a tooth)  , a See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of medical See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science, embracing the structure, See also:

• FUNCTION

function and See also:

• HISTORICAL

Historical See also:

• THERAPEUTICS (Gr. BepaaeuTLKIi, Sc. TEXVrt, from Beparebsty, to serve)

therapeutics of the mouth and its contained See also:

• ORGANS

organs, See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch. specifically the See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth, together with their surgical and prosthetic treatment . (For the See also:

• ANATOMY
• ANATOMY (Gr. avaroyil, from ava-silo c', to cut up)

anatomy of the teeth see TEETH.) As a distinct vocation it is first alluded to by See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus (500 B.C.) . There are evidences that at an earlier date the Egyptians and See also:

• HINDUS

Hindus attempted to replace lost teeth by attaching See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood or See also:

• IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur)
• IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842)

ivory substitutes to adjacent See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound teeth by means of threads or wires, but the See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold fillings reputed to have been found in the teeth of See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian mummies have upon investigation been shown to be superficial applications of gold See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf for ornamental purposes . The impetus given to medical study in the Grecian See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools by the followers of See also:

• AESCULAPIUS (Gr. 'AoKXiprtos)

Aesculapius and especially See also:

• HIPPOCRATES

Hippocrates (500 to 400 B.C.) See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed among the practitioners of See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine and See also:

• SURGERY
• SURGERY (Fr. chirurgie, from Gr. Xetpoupyfa, i.e. hand-work)

surgery considerable knowledge of See also:

• DENTISTRY (from Lat. dens, a tooth)

dentistry . See also:

• GALEN (or GALENUS), CLAUDIUS
• GALEN, CHRISTOPH BERNHARD, FREIHERR VON (16o6-1678)

Galen (A.D . 131) taught that the teeth were true bones existing before See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth, and to him is credited the belief that the upper canine teeth receive branches from the See also:

• NERVE (Lat. nervus, Gr. vevpov, a bowstring)

nerve which supplies the See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye, and hence should be called " eye-teeth." Abulcasis (loth cent . A.D.) describes the operation by which artificial crowns are attached to adjacent sound teeth . Vesalius (1514), Ambroise See also:

• PARE, AMBROISE (1510-1590)

Pare, J . J . See also:

• SCALIGER

Scaliger, T . Kerckring, M . See also:

• MALPIGHI, MARCELLO (1628-1694)

Malpighi, and lesser anatomists of the same See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period contributed See also:

• DISSERTATIONS

dissertations which threw some small amount of See also:

• LIGHT

light upon the structure and functions of the teeth .

The operation of transplanting teeth is usually attributed to See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• HUNTER, JOHN (1728-1793)
• HUNTER, ROBERT MERCER TALIAFERRO (r8o9-1887)
• HUNTER, SIR WILLIAM WILSON (1840-19oo)
• HUNTER, WILLIAM (1718–1783)
• HUNTER, WILLIAM ALEXANDER (1844-1898)

Hunter (1728-1793), who practised it extensively, and gave to it additional prominence by transplantinga human tooth to the See also:

• COMB (a word common in various forms to Teut. languages, cf. Ger. Kamm, the Indo-Europ. origin of which is seen in yoµros, a peg or pin, and Sanskrit, gambhas, a tooth)

comb of a See also:

• COCK, EDWARD (1805-1892)

cock, but the operation was alluded to by Ambroise Pare (1509-1590), and there is See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence to show that it was practised even earlier . A. von See also:

• LEEUWENHOEK, or LEUWENHOEK, ANTHONY VAN (1632–1723)

Leeuwenhoek in 1678 described with much accuracy the tubular structure of the dentine, thus making the most important contribution to the subject which had appeared up to that See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . Until the latter See also:

• PART

part of the 18th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century extraction was practically the only operation for the cure of toothache . The See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early contributions of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France exerted a controlling See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence upon the development of dental practice . Urbain Hemard, surgeon to the See also:

• CARDINAL (Lat. cardinalis)

cardinal Georges of See also:

• ARMAGNAC

Armagnac, whom Dr See also:

• BLAKE, EDWARD (1833– )
• BLAKE, ROBERT (1599-1657)
• BLAKE, WILLIAM (1757-1827)

Blake (1801) calls an ingenious surgeon and a See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man, published in 1582 his Researches upon the Anatomy of the Teeth, their Nature and Properties . Of Hemard, M . Fauchard says: " This surgeon had read See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek and Latin authors, whose writings he has judiciously incorporated in his own See also:

• WORKS

works." In 1728 Fauchard, who has been called the See also:

• FATHER

father of See also:

• MODERN

modern dentistry, published his celebrated See also:

• WORK

work, entitled Le Chirurgien Dentiste ou traite See also:

• DES

des dents . The See also:

• PREFACE (Med. Lat. prefatia, for classical praefatio, praefari, to speak beforehand)

preface contains the following statement as to the existing status of dental See also:

• ART

art and science in France, which might have been applied with equal truth to any other See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country:—" The most celebrated surgeons having abandoned this See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of surgery, or having but little cultivated it, their See also:

• NEGLIGENCE (Lat. negligentia, from negligere, to neglect, literally " not to pick up ")

negligence gave rise to a class of persons who, without theoretic knowledge or experience, and without being qualified, practised it at See also:

• HAZARD (0. Fr. hazard, from Span. czar, unlucky throw at dice, misfortune, from Arab. al, and zar, dice)

hazard, having neither principles nor See also:

• SYSTEM

system . It was only since the See also:

• YEAR

year 1700 that the intelligent in See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris opened their eyes to these abuses, when it was provided that those who intended practising dental surgery should submit to an examination by men learned in all the branches of medical science, who should decide upon their merits." After the publication of Fauchard's work the practice of dentistry became more specialized and distinctly separated from medical practice, the best exponents of the art being trained as apprentices by practitioners of ability, who had acquired their training in the same way from their predecessors . Fauchard suggested See also:

• PORCELAIN

porcelain as an improvement upon See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

bone and ivory for the manufacture of artificial teeth, a See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion which he obtained from R . A . F. de See also:

• REAUMUR, RENE ANTOINE FERCHAULT DE (1683-1757)

Reaumur, the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French savant and physicist, who was a contributor to the royal porcelain manufactory at Sevres .

Later, Duchateau, an See also:

• APOTHECARY (from the Lat. apothecarius, a keeper of an apotheca, Gr. aroth is , a store)

apothecary of St Germain, made porcelain teeth, and communicated his See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery to the See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy of Surgery in 1776, but kept the See also:

• PROCESS

process See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret . Du Bois Chemant carried the art to See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, and the process was finally made public by M . Du Bois Foucou . M . Fonzi improved the art to such an extent that the See also:

• ATHENAEUM

Athenaeum of Arts in Paris awarded him a See also:

• MEDAL (Fr. medaille, from Lat. metallum)

medal and See also:

• CROWN

crown (See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 14, 1808) . In Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain the 19th century brought the dawning of dental science . The work of Dr Blake in 18or on the anatomy of the teeth was distinctly in advance of anything previously written on the subject . See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph See also:

• FOX
• FOX, C
• FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806)
• FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538)
• FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691)
• FOX, RICHARD (c. 1448-1528)
• FOX, ROBERT WERE (1789—1877)
• FOX, SIR STEPHEN (1627–1716)
• FOX, SIR WILLIAM (1812-1893)

Fox was one of the first members of the medical profession to devote himself exclusively to dentistry, and his work is a repository of the best practice of his time . The processes described, though comparatively crude, involve principles in use at the See also:

• PRESENT

present time . See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas See also:

• BELL
• BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE (1819—1905)
• BELL, ANDREW (1753—1832)
• BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH (1770-1843)
• BELL, HENRY (1767-1830)
• BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD (1803-1874)
• BELL, JACOB (1810-1859)
• BELL, JOHN (1691-178o)
• BELL, JOHN (1763-1820)
• BELL, JOHN (1797-1869)
• BELL, ROBERT (1800-1867)
• BELL, SIR CHARLES (1774—1842)

Bell, the successor of Fox as lecturer on the structure and disease of the teeth at See also:

• GUY, THOMAS (1644–1724)

Guy's See also:

• HOSPITAL (Lat. haspitalis, the adjective of hospes, host or guest)

Hospital, published his well-known work in 1829 . About this period numerous publications on dentistry made their See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance, notably those of Koecker, See also:

• JOHNSON, ANDREW
• JOHNSON, ANDREW (1808–1875)
• JOHNSON, BENJAMIN (c. 1665-1742)
• JOHNSON, EASTMAN (1824–1906)
• JOHNSON, REVERDY (1796–1876)
• JOHNSON, RICHARD (1573–1659 ?)
• JOHNSON, RICHARD MENTOR (1781–1850)
• JOHNSON, SAMUEL (1709-1784)
• JOHNSON, SIR THOMAS (1664-1729)
• JOHNSON, SIR WILLIAM (1715–1774)
• JOHNSON, THOMAS

Johnson and See also:

• WAITE, MORRISON REMICK (1816–1888)

Waite, followed somewhat later by the admirable work of See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander See also:

• NASMYTH, ALEXANDER (1758-1840)
• NASMYTH, JAMES (1808-1890)

Nasmyth (1839) . By this time See also:

• CUVIER, GEORGES LEOPOLD CHRETIEN FREDERIC DAGOBERT, BARON (1769-1832)

Cuvier, See also:

• SERRES, OLIVIA (1772-1834)

Serres, See also:

• ROUSSEAU, JACQUES (1633-1693)
• ROUSSEAU, JEAN BAPTISTE (1671-1741)
• ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES (1712-1778)
• ROUSSEAU, PIERRE ETIENNE THEODORE (1812–1867); French painter of the Barbizon school, was born in Paris on the 15th of April 1812, of a bourgeois family which included one or two artists. At first he received a business training, but soon displayed aptitu

Rousseau, See also:

• BERTIN

Bertin, Herissant and others in France had added to the knowledge of human and See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative dental anatomy, while M .

G . Retzius, of See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Sweden, and E . H . See also:

• WEBER, CARL MARIA FRIEDRICH ERNEST VON (1786–1826)
• WEBER, WILHELM EDUARD (1804-1891)

Weber, J . C . Rosenmuller, Schreger, J . E. von Purkinje, B . Fraenkel and J . See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany were carrying forward the same lines of See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research . The sympathetic See also:

• NERVOUS

nervous relationships of the teeth with other parts of the See also:

• BODY

body, and the interaction of diseases of the teeth with See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general pathological conditions, were clearly established . Thus a scientific See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation was laid, and dentistry came to be practised as a specialty of medicine . Certain See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor operations, however, such as the extraction of teeth and the stopping of See also:

• CARIES

caries in an imperfect way, were still practised by barbers, and, the empirical practice of dentistry, especially of those operations which were almost wholly See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical, had developed a considerable body of dental artisans who, though without medical See also:

• EDUCATION

education in many cases, possessed a high degree of manipulative skill .

Thus there came to be two classes of practitioners, the first regarding dentistry as a specialty of medicine, the latter as a distinct and See also:

• SEPARATE

separate calling . In See also:

• AMERICA

America representatives of both classes of dentists began to arrive from England and France about the time of the Revolution . Among these were John Wooffendale (1766), a student of See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

Robert Berdmore of See also:

• LIVERPOOL
• LIVERPOOL, EARLS
• LIVERPOOL, EARLS OF

Liverpool, surgeon-dentist to See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George III.; See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James Gardette (1778), a French physician and surgeon; and Joseph Lemaire (1781), a French dentist who went out with the See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army of See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

Count See also:

• ROCHAMBEAU, JEAN BAPTISTE DONATIEN DE VIMEUR, COMTE DE (1725-1807)

Rochambeau . During the See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter of 1781–1782, while the See also:

• CONTINENTAL

Continental army was in winter quarters at See also:

• PROVIDENCE

Providence, Rhode See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

Island, Lemaire found time and opportunity to practise his calling, and also to instruct one or two persons, notably See also:

• JOSIAH (Heb. yo' shiyydhu, perhaps " Yah [weh] supports ")

Josiah Flagg, probably the first See also:

• AMERICAN

American dentist . Dental practice was thus established upon American See also:

• SOIL

soil, where it has produced such fertile results . Until well into the 19th century See also:

• APPRENTICESHIP (from Fr. apprendre, to learn)

apprenticeship afforded the only means of acquiring a knowledge of dentistry . The profits derived from the, apprenticeship system fostered secrecy and quackery among many of the early practitioners; but the more liberal minded and better educated of the See also:

• CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf. Ger. Kraft)

craft developed an increasing opposition to these narrow methods . In 1837 a See also:

• LOCAL

local association of dentists was formed in New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York, and in Course of 184o a See also:

• NATIONAL

national association, The American Society of training . Dental Surgeons, the See also:

• OBJECT

object of which was " to advance the science by See also:

• FREE

free communication and interchange of senti- ments." The first dental periodical in the See also:

• WORLD

world, The American See also:

• JOURNAL
• JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily)

Journal of Dental Science, was issued in See also:

• JUNE

June 1839, and in See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 1840 was established the See also:

• BALTIMORE
• BALTIMORE, GEORGE CALVERT, 1ST BARON (C. 1580—1632)

Baltimore See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

College of Dental Surgery, the first college in the world for the systematic education of dentists . Thus the year 1839–1840 marks the birth of the three factors essential to professional growth in dentistry . All this, combined with the refusal of the medical schools to furnish the desired facilities for dental instruction, placed dentistry for the time being upon a footing entirely separate from general medicine . Since then the curriculum of study preparatory to dental practice has been systematically increased both as to its content and length, until in all fundamental principles it is practically equal to that required for the training of medical specialists, and in addition includes the technical subjects See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar to dentistry .

In England, and to some extent upon the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent, the old apprenticeship system is retained as an See also:

• ADJUNCT (from Lat. ad, to, and jungere, to join)

adjunct to the college course, but it is rapidly dying out, as it has already done in America . Owing to the regulation by See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law of the educational requirements, the increase of institutions devoted to the professional training of dentists has been rapid in all civilized countries, and during the past twenty years especially so in the See also:

• UNITED

United States . Great Britain possesses upwards of twelve institutions for dental instruction, France two, Germany and See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland six, all being based upon the conception that dentistry is a department of general medicine . In the United States there were in 1878 twelve dental schools, with about 70o students; in 1907 there were fifty-seven schools, with 6919 students . Of these fifty-seven schools, See also:

• THIRTY

thirty-seven are depart- ments of See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

universities or of medical institutions, and there is a growing tendency to regard dentistry from its educational aspect as a special department of the general medical and surgical practice . See also:

• RECENT

Recent studies have shown that besides being an important part of the See also:

• DIGESTIVE

digestive system, the mouth sustains intimate re- lationship with the general nervous system, and is important as the portal of entrance for the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the bacteria that cause specific diseases . This fact has rendered more intimate the relations between dentistry and the general practice of medicine, and has given a powerful impetus to scientific studies in dentistry . Through the researches of See also:

• SIR

Sir J . Tomes, Mummery, Research . Hopewell See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith, See also:

• WILLIAMS
• WILLIAMS, JOHN (1582-1650)
• WILLIAMS, JOHN (1796-1839)
• WILLIAMS, ROGER (c. 1604–1684)
• WILLIAMS, ROWLAND (1817-1870)
• WILLIAMS, SIR WILLIAM FENWICK

Williams and others in England, O . Hertwig, Weil and See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

Rose in Germany, See also:

• ANDREWS, JAMES PETTIT (c. 1737–1797)
• ANDREWS, THOMAS (1813–1885)

Andrews, Sudduth and See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black in America, the See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute anatomy and See also:

• EMBRYOLOGY

embryology of the dental tissues have been worked out with great fulness and precision . In particular, it has been demonstrated that certain general systemic diseases have a distinct oral expression .

Through their extensive nervous connexions with the largest of the See also:

• CRANIAL

cranial nerves and with the sympathetic nervous system, the teeth frequently cause irritation resulting in profound reflex nervous phenomena, which are curable only by removal of the local tooth disorder . See also:

• GOUT

Gout, lithaemia, See also:

• SCURVY (Scorbutus)

scurvy, See also:

• RICKETS

rickets, See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead and See also:

• MERCURIAL

mercurial poisoning, and certain forms of chronic nephritis, produce dental and oral lesions which are either pathognomonic or strongly indicative of their several constitutional causes, and are thus of great importance in diagnosis . The most important dental re-See also:

• SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH

search of modern times is that which was carried out by See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor W . D . See also:

• MILLER, HUGH (1802–1856)
• MILLER, JOAQUIN (CINCINNATUS HEINE) (1841- )
• MILLER, JOE (JosEPH or JosIAS( (1684-1738)
• MILLER, SAMUEL FREEMAN (1816-1890)
• MILLER, WILLIAM (1782-1849)
• MILLER, WILLIAM (1795-1861)
• MILLER, WILLIAM (1796–1882)
• MILLER, WILLIAM HALLOWES (18o1–188o)

Miller of See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin (1884) upon the cause of caries of the teeth, a disease said to affect the human See also:

• RACE

race more extensively than any other . Miller demonstrated that, as previous observers had suspected, caries is of bacterial origin, and that acids See also:

• PLAY

play an important role in the process . The disease is brought about by a See also:

• GROUP

group of bacteria which develop in the mouth, growing naturally upon the debris of starchy or See also:

• CARBOHYDRATE

carbohydrate See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food, producing See also:

• FERMENTATION

fermentation of the See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass, with lactic See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid as the end product . The lactic acid dissolves the See also:

• MINERAL

mineral constituent of the tooth structure, See also:

• CALCIUM [symbol Ca, atomic weight 40.0 (o= x6)]

calcium phosphate, leaving the organic See also:

• MATRIX

matrix of the tooth exposed . Another class of germs, the peptonising and putrefactive bacteria, then convert the organic See also:

• MATTER

matter into liquid or gaseous end products . The accuracy of the conclusions obtained from his See also:

• ANALYTIC (the adjective of " analysis," q.v.)

analytic research was synthetically proved, after the manner of See also:

• KOCH
• KOCH, ROBERT (1843–1910)

Koch, by producing the disease artificially . Caries of the teeth has been shown to See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear highly important relation to more remote or systemic diseases . Exposure and See also:

• DEATH

death of the dental pulp furnishes an See also:

• AVENUE (the past participle feminine of Fr. avenir, to come to)

avenue of entrance for disease-producing bacteria, by which invasion of the deeper tissues may readily take See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, causing See also:

• NECROSIS (Gr. vEKpos, corpse)

necrosis, See also:

• TUBERCULOSIS

tuberculosis, See also:

• ACTINOMYCOSIS (STREPTOTRICHOSIS)

actinomycosis, phlegmon and other destructive inflammations, certain of which, affecting the various sinuses of the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head, have been found to cause See also:

• MENINGITIS (from Gr. z veyE, a membrane)

meningitis, chronic See also:

• EMPYEMA (from Gr. iv, within, and srvov, pus)

empyema, metastatic abscesses in remote parts of the body, See also:

• PARALYSIS, or PALSY (from Gr. aapal,6a , to relax; Wycliffe has palesy, and another old form of the word is parlesy)

paralysis, See also:

• EPILEPSY (Gr. &L, upon, and kaµ)3avew, to seize), or FALLING

epilepsy and See also:

• INSANITY (from Lat. in, not, and sanus, sound)

insanity .

Operative Dentistry.—The art of dentistry is usually divided arbitrarily into operative dentistry, the purpose of which is to preserve as far as possible the teeth and associated tissues, and prosthetic dentistry, the purpose of which is to See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply the loss of teeth by artificial substitutes . The filling of carious cavities was probably first performed with lead, sug- Fttltng or stopping . gested apparently by an operation recorded by See also:

• CELSUS (c. A.D. 178)

Celsus (100 B.C.), who recommended that frail or decayed teeth be stuffed with lead previous to extraction, in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order that they might not break under the forceps . The use of lead as a filling was sufficiently prevalent in France during the 17th century to bring into use the word plombage, which is still occasionally applied in that country to the operation of filling . Gold as a filling material came into general use about the beginning of the 19th century.' The earlier preparations of gold were so impure as to be virtually without cohesion, so that they were of use only in cavities which had sound walls for its retention . In the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of rolls or tape it was forced into the previously cleaned and prepared cavity, condensed with See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments under heavy See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand pressure, smoothed with files, and finally burnished . See also:

• TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

Tin See also:

• FOIL

foil was also used to a limited extent and by the same method . Improvements in the refining of gold for dental use brought the product to a See also:

• FAIR

fair degree of purity, and, about 1855, led to the invention by Dr Robert See also:

• ARTHUR (Fr. Arius)
• ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN (1830 – 1886)

Arthur of Baltimore of a method by which it could be welded firmly within the cavity . The cohesive properties of the foil were developed by passing it through an See also:

• ALCOHOL

alcohol See also:

• FLAME (Lat. flamma; the root flag- appears in flagrare, to burn, blaze, and Gr. d, XEryew)

flame, which dispelled its See also:

• SURFACE

surface contaminations . The gold was then welded piece by piece into a homogeneous mass by plugging instruments with serrated points . In this process of See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold-See also:

• WELDING (i.e. the action of the verb " to weld," the same word as " to well," to boil or spring up, the history of the word being to boil, to heat to a high degree, to beat heated iron; according to Skeat, who points out that in Swedish the compound verb

welding, the See also:

• MALLET (or MALLOCH), DAVID (?17o5–1765)
• MALLET, PAUL HENRI (173o–18o7)

mallet, hitherto in only limited use, was found more efficient than hand pressure, and was rapidly developed . The See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive mallet of wood, ivory, lead or See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel, was supplanted by a mallet in which ' The filling of teeth with gold foil is recorded in the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest known See also:

• BOOK

book on dentistry, Artzney Buchlein, published anonymously in 153o, in which the operation is quoted from Mesue (A.D .

857), physician to the See also:

• CALIPH, CALIF

caliph Haroun al-Raschid . a See also:

• HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS (1810-1862)

hammer was released automatically by a See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring condensed by pressure of the operator's hand . Then followed mallets operated by pneumatic pressure, by the dental See also:

• ENGINE
• ENGINE (Lat. ingenium)

engine, and finally by the electro-magnet, as utilized in 1867 by Bonwill . These devices greatly facilitated the operation, and made possible a partial or entire restoration of the tooth-crown in conformity with anatomical lines . The dental engine in its several forms is the outgrowth of the See also:

• SIMPLE

simple See also:

• DRILL

drill worked by the hand of the operator . It is used in removing decayed structure and for shaping the cavity for inserting the filling . From time to time its usefulness has been extended, so that it is now used for See also:

• FINISHING

finishing fillings and polishing them, for polishing the teeth, removing deposits from them and changing their shapes . Its latest development, the dento-surgical engine, is of heavier construction and is adapted to operations upon all of the bones, a recent addition to its equipment being the See also:

• SPIRAL

spiral osteotome of Cryer, by which, with a minimum See also:

• SHOCK, or COLLAPSE

shock to the patient, fenestrae of any See also:

• SIZE

size or shape in the See also:

• BRAIN (A.S. braegen)

brain-See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case may be made, from a simple trepanning operation to the more extensive openings required in See also:

• INTRA

intra-cranial operations . The rotary See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power may be supplied by the See also:

• FOOT

foot of the operator, or by See also:

• HYDRAULIC

hydraulic or electric See also:

• MOTORS, ELECTRIC

motors . The See also:

• RUBBER, INDIARUBBER

rubber See also:

• DAM

dam invented by S . C . See also:

• BARNUM, PHINEAS TAYLOR (1810-1891)

Barnum of New York (1864) provided a means for protecting the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field of operations from the oral fluids, and extended the See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope of operations even to the entire restoration of tooth-crowns with cohesive gold foil .

Its value has been found to be even greater than was at first anticipated . In all operations involving the exposed dental pulp or the pulp-chamber and See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root-canals, it is the only efficient method of mechanically protecting the field of operation from invasion by disease-producing bacteria . The difficulty and annoyance attending the insertion of gold, its high thermal conductivity, and its objectionable See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour have led to an increasing use of See also:

• AMALGAM

amalgam, guttapercha, and cements of See also:

• ZINC

zinc See also:

• OXIDE

oxide mixed with zinc chloride or phosphoric acid . Recently much See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention has been devoted to restorations with porcelain . A piece of See also:

• PLATINUM [symbol Pt, atomic weight 145.0 (0=16)]

platinum foil of •oo1 See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch thickness is burnished and pressed into the cavity, so that a matrix is produced exactly fitting the cavity . Into this matrix is placed a mixture of powdered porcelain and See also:

• WATER

water or alcohol, of the colour to match the tooth . The mass is carefully dried and then fused until homogeneous . Shrinkage is counteracted by additions of porcelain See also:

• POWDER (through O. Fr. puldre, modern poudre, from Lat. pulvis, pulveris, dust)

powder, which are repeatedly fused until the whole exactly fills the matrix . After cooling, the matrix is stripped away and the porcelain is cemented into the cavity . When the See also:

• CEMENT (from Lat. caementum, rough pieces of stone, a shortened form of caedimentum, from caedere, to cut)

cement has hardened, the surface of the porcelain is ground and polished to proper See also:

• CONTOUR

contour . If successfully made, porcelain fillings are scarcely noticeable . Their durability remains to be tested .

Until recent times the exposure of the dental pulp inevitably led to its death and disintegration, and, by invasion of bacteria via the pulp See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal, set up an inflammatory process which eventually caused the loss of the entire tooth . A rational system of therapeutics, in See also:

• CONJUNCTION (from Lat. conjungere, to join together)

conjunction with proper antiseptic See also:

• MEASURES

measures, has made possible both the conservative treatment of the dental pulp when exposed, and the successful treatment of pulp-canals when the pulp has been devitalized either by See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design or disease . The conservation of the exposed pulp is affected by the operation of capping . In capping a pulp, irritation is allayed by antiseptic and sedative treatment, and a metallic cap, lined with a non-irritant sedative See also:

• PASTE (O. Fr. paste, modern pate, Late Lat. pasta, whence also in Span., Port. and Ital., from Gr. 1r&vrrl or 1raara, barley porridge, or salted pottage, ir&ao'ety, to sprinkle with salt)

paste, is applied under aseptic conditions immediately over the point of pulp exposure . A filling of cement is superimposed, and this, after it has hardened, is covered with a metallic or other suitable filling . The utility of arsenious acid for devitalizing the dental pulp was discovered by J . R . Spooner of See also:

• MONTREAL

Montreal, and first published in 1836 by his See also:

• BROTHER

brother Shearjashub in his See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

Guide to Sound Teeth . The painful See also:

• ACTION

action of See also:

• ARSENIC (symbol As, atomic weight 75.0)

arsenic upon the pulp was avoided by the addition of various sedative drugs,—morphia, atropia, See also:

• IODOFORM, CHI3

iodoform, &c.,—and its use soon became universal . Of See also:

• LATE

late years it is being gradually supplanted by immediate surgical extirpation under the benumbing effect of See also:

• COCAINE, C17H21NO4

cocaine salts . By the use of cocaine also the See also:

• PAIN (from Lat. poena, Gr. robin, penalty, that which must be paid: O. Fr. peine)
• PAIN, BARRY (1867– )

pain incident to excavating and shaping of cavities in tooth structure may be controlled, especially when the cocaine is driven into the dentine by means of an electric current . To fill the pulp-chamber and canals of teeth after loss of the pulp, all organic remains of pulp See also:

• TISSUE (Fr. tissu, tissue, participle of tisser, Lat. texere, to weave)

tissue should be removed by sterilization, and then, in order to prevent the entrance of bacteria, and consequent infection, the canals should be perfectly filled .

Upon the exclusion of infection depends the- future integrity and comfort of the tooth . Numberless methods have been invented for the operation . Pulpless teeth are thus pre-served through See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long periods of usefulness, and even those remains of teeth in which the crowns have been lost are rendered comfortable and useful as supports for artificial crowns, and as abutments for assemblages of crowns, known as See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge-work . The discoloration of the pulpless tooth through putrefactive changes in its organic matter were first overcome by See also:

• BLEACHING

bleaching it with See also:

• CHLORINE (symbol Cl, atomic weight 35`46 (0=16)

chlorine . Small quantities of calcium hypochlorite are packed into the pulp-chamber and moistened with dilute acetic acid; the decomposition of the calcium See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt liberates chlorine in situ, which restores the tooth to normal colour in a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short time . The cavity is afterwards washed out, carefully dried, lined with a light-coloured cement and filled . More efficient bleaching agents of recent introduction are See also:

• HYDROGEN [symbol H, atomic weight x-oo8 (0=16)]

hydrogen dioxide in a 25% See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution or a saturated solution of See also:

• SODIUM [symbol Na, from Lat. natrium; atomic weight 23.00 (0=16)]

sodium peroxide; they are less irritating and much more convenient in application . Unlike chlorine, these do not form soluble metallic salts which may subsequently discolour the tooth . Hydrogen dioxide may be carried into the tooth structure by the electric current . In which case a current of not less than See also:

• FORTY

forty volts controlled by a suitable graduated resistance is applied with the patient in See also:

• CIRCUIT (Lat. circuitus, from circum, round, and ire, to go)

circuit, the anode being a platinum-pointed electrode in contact with the dioxide solution in the tooth cavity, and the See also:

• CATHODE

cathode a sponge or See also:

• PLATE

plate electrode in contact with the hand or See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm of the patient . The current is gradually turned on until two or three milliamperes are indicated by a suitable ammeter . The operation requires usually twenty to thirty minutes .

Mal.posed teeth are not only unsightly but prone to disease, and may be the cause of disease in other teeth, or of the associated tissues . The impairment of function which their abnormal position causes has been found to be the See also:

• PRIMARY

primary cause of disturbances of the general bodily See also:

• HEALTH

health; for example, enlarged tonsils, chronic See also:

• PHARYNGITIS

pharyngitis and nasal See also:

• CATARRH (from the Gr. Karappeiv, to flow down)

catarrh, indigestion and malnutrition . By the use of springs, screws, vulcanized caoutchouc bands, elastic ligatures, &c., as the case may require, practically all forms of dental irregularity maybe corrected, even such protrusions and retrusions of the front teeth as cause great disfigurement of the facial contour . The extraction of teeth, an operation which until quite recent times was one of the crudest procedures in minor surgery, has been reduced to exactitude by improved instruments, designed with reference to the anatomical relations of 6xtrac . See also:

• FLOE (of uncertain derivation; cf. Norse flo, layer, level plain)

floe . the teeth and their alveoli, and therefore adapted to the several classes of teeth . The operation has been rendered painless by the use of anaesthetics . The anaesthetic generally employed is nitrous oxide, or laughing-See also:

• GAS

gas, the use of which was discovered in 1844 by See also:

• HORACE [QuINTus HORATIUS FLACCUS] (65-8 B.C.)

Horace See also:

• WELLS
• WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (1798?–1879)
• WELLS, DAVID AMES (1828—1898)
• WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866— )
• WELLS, SIR THOMAS SPENCER, 1ST BART

Wells, a dentist of See also:

• HARTFORD

Hartford, See also:

• CONN
• CONN, LOUGH

Conn., U.S.A . See also:

• CHLOROFORM (trichlor-methane), CHC13

Chloroform and See also:

• ETHER, (C2H5)2O

ether, as well as other general anaesthetics, have been employed in extensive operations because of their more See also:

• PRO

pro-longed effect; but chloroform, especially, is dangerous, owing to its effect upon the See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart, which in many instances has suddenly failed during the operation . Ether, while less manageable than nitrous oxide, has been found to be practically devoid of danger . The local injection of solutions of cocaine and allied anaesthetics into the See also:

• GUM (Fr. gomme, Lat. gommi, Gr. Kµµ1, possibly a Coptic word; distinguish " gum," the fleshy covering of the base of a tooth, in O. Eng. gbma, palate, cf. Ger. Gaumen, roof of the mouth; the ultimate origin is probably the root gha, to open wide, seen in

gum-tissue is extensively practised; but is attended with danger, from the toxic effects of an overdose upon the heart, and the local poisono