See also:

• DICTATOR (from the Lat. dictare, frequentative of dicere, to speak)

DICTATOR (from the See also:

• LAT

Lat. dictare, frequentative of dicere, to speak)  . In See also:

• MODERN

modern usage this See also:

• TERM

term is loosely used for a See also:

• PERSONAL

personal ruler enjoying extraordinary and extra-constitutional See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power . The etymological sense of one who " dictates "—i.e. one whose word (dictum) is See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law (from which that of one who " dictates," i.e. speaks for some writer to See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record, is to be distinguished)—has been assisted by the See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical use of the term, in See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient times, for an extraordinary See also:

• MAGISTRATE (Lat. magistratus, from magister, master, properly a public office, hence the person holding such an office)

magistrate in the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• COMMONWEALTH

commonwealth . It is unknown precisely how the Roman word came into use, though an explanation of the earlier See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title, magister populi, throws some See also:

• LIGHT

light on the subject . That designation may mean "See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the (See also:

• INFANTRY

infantry) See also:

• HOST

host" as opposed to his subordinate, the magister equitum, who was " head of the See also:

• CAVALRY (Fr. cavalerie, Ger. Kavallerie or Reiterei, derived ultimately from late Lat. caballus, horse)

cavalry." If this explanation be accepted, emphasis was thus laid in See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early times on the military aspect of the dictatorship, and in fact the See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office seems tohave been instituted for the purpose of See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting a military crisis such as might have proved too serious for the See also:

• ANNUAL

annual consuls with their divided command . Later constitutional theory held that the repression of See also:

• CIVIL

civil discord was also one of the motives for the institution of a dictatorship . Such is the view expressed by See also:

• CICERO

Cicero in the De legibus (iii . 3, 9) and by the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

• CLAUDIUS
• CLAUDIUS [TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS DRUSUS NERO GERMANICUS]
• CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS
• CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS (174o-1815)

Claudius in his extant Oratio (i . 28) . This See also:

• FUNCTION

function of the office, although it may not have been contemplated at first, is attested by the See also:

• INTERNAL

internal See also:

• HISTORY

history of See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome . In the crisis of the agitation that gathered See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the Licinian See also:

• LAWS

laws (367 B.C.) a See also:

• DICTATOR (from the Lat. dictare, frequentative of dicere, to speak)

dictator was appointed, and in 314 B.C. we have the See also:

• NOTICE

notice of a dictator created for purposes of criminal See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction (quaestionibus exercendis) . The dictator appointed to meet the dangers of See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war, See also:

• SEDITION (Lat. se or sed, apart, and ire, to go, a going apart, dissension)

sedition or See also:

• CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime was technically described as " the administrative dictator " (rei gerundae causa) .

See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor, or merely formal, needs of the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state might See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead to the creation of other types of this office . Thus we find dictators destined to hold the elections, to make out the See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of the See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate, to celebrate See also:

• GAMES, CLASSICAL

games, to establish festivals, and to drive the See also:

• NAIL (O. Eng. naegal, cf. Dutch, Ger., Swed. nagel; the word is also related to Lat. unguis, Gr. ovu, Sans. nakhas)

nail into the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple of See also:

• JUPITER

Jupiter—an See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of natural magic which was believed to avert pestilence . These dictators appointed for minor purposes were expected to retire from office as soon as their function was completed . The " administrative dictator " held office for at least six months . The See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of a dictator were a temporary revival of those of the See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings; but there were some limitations to his authority . He was never concerned with civil jurisdiction, and was dependent on the senate for supplies of See also:

• MONEY

money . His military authority was confined to See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy; and his power of See also:

• LIFE

life and See also:

• DEATH

death over the citizens was at an early See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period limited by law . It was probably the lex See also:

• VALERIA, VIA

Valeria of 300 B.C. that made him subject to the right of criminal See also:

• APPEAL

appeal (provocatio) within the limits of the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city . But during his See also:

• TENURE (Fr. tenure, from Lat. tenere, to hold)

tenure of power all the magistrates of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people were regarded as his subordinates; and it was even held that the right of assistance (auxilium), furnished by the tribunes of the See also:

• PLEBS (from the root seen in Lat. plenus, full; cf. Gr. 7rXit9os)

plebs to members of the See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen See also:

• BODY

body, should not be effectively exercised when the state was under this type of See also:

• MARTIAL (MARCUS VALERIUS MARTIALIS)

martial law . The dictator was nominated by one of the consuls . But here as else-where the senate asserted its authority over the magistrates, and the view was finally held that the senate should not only suggest the need of nomination but also the name of the nominee . After the nomination, the imperium of the dictator was confirmed by a lex curiata (see See also:

• COMITIA

COMITIA) .

To emphasize the superiority of this imperium over that of the consuls, the dictator might be preceded by twenty-four See also:

• LICTORS (lictores)

lictors, not by the usual twelve; and, at least in the earlier period of the office, these lictors See also:

• BORE

bore the axes, the symbols of life and death, within the city walls . Tradition represents the dictatorship as having a life of three centuries in the history of the Roman state . The first dictator is said to have been created in 501 B.c.; the last of the " administrative " dictators belongs to the See also:

• YEAR

year 216 B.C . It was an office that was incompatible both with the growing spirit of constitutionalism and with the greater See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security of the city; and the See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch of the Second Punic War was marked by experiments with the office, such as the See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election of Q . See also:

• FABIUS

Fabius See also:

• MAXIMUS
• MAXIMUS, ST (c. 58o-662)

Maximus by the people, and the co-dictatorship of M . Minucius with Fabius, which heralded its disuse (see PUNIC See also:

• WARS

WARS) . The emergency office of the early and See also:

• MIDDLE

middle See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

Republic has few points of contact, except those of the extraordinary position and almost unfettered authority of its holder, with the dictatorship as revised by See also:

• SULLA, LUCIUS CORNELIUS (138–78 B.C.)

Sulla and by See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar . Sulla's dictatorship was the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form taken by a provisional See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government . He was created " for the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of the Republic." It is less certain whether the dictatorships held by Caesar were of a consciously provisional See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character . Since the office represented the only supreme Imperium in Rome, it was the natural resort of the founder of a See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy (see SULLA and CAESAR) . Ostensibly to prevent its further use for such a purpose, M . See also:

• ANTONIUS

Antonius in 44 B.C. carried a law abolishing the dictatorship as a See also:

• PART

part of the constitution .

See also:

• LANGE, ANNE FRANCOISE ELIZABETH (1772—1816)
• LANGE, ERNST PHILIPP KARL (1813—1899)
• LANGE, FRIEDRICH ALBERT (1828—1875)
• LANGE, JOHANN PETER (1802-1884)

Lange, Romische Alterthumer, i . 542 See also:

• FOIL

foil . (See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, 1856, &c.) ; Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire See also:

• DES

des antiquites grecques et romaines, ii . 161 foil . (1875, &c.) ; Haverfield, " The Abolition of the Dictatorshi ,' in Classical See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review, iii . 77 . (A . H . J . G .