See also:

• DIPHTHERIA (from 8c4BEpa, a skin or membrane)

DIPHTHERIA (from 8c4BEpa, a skin or membrane)  , the See also:

• TERM

term applied to an acute infectious disease, which is accompanied by 17th and 18th centuries epidemics of See also:

• DIPHTHERIA (from 8c4BEpa, a skin or membrane)

diphtheria appear to have frequently prevailed in many parts of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, particularly in See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland; See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain, See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, as well as in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, and were described by physicians belonging to those countries under various titles; but it is probable that other diseases of a similar nature were included in their descriptions, and no accurate See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of this See also:

• AFFECTION (Lat. ad, and facere, to do something to, sc. a person)

affection had been published till M . Bretonneau of See also:

• TOURS

Tours in 182, laid his celebrated See also:

• TREATISE

treatise on the subject before the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy of See also:

• MEDICINE

Medicine . By him the term La Diphtherite was first given to the disease . See also:

• GREAT

Great See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention has been paid to diphtheria in See also:

• RECENT

recent years, with some striking results . Its cause and nature have been definitely ascertained, the conditions which See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence its pre-See also:

• VALENCE

valence have been elucidated, and a specific '' cure " has been found . In the last respect it occupies a unique position at the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . In the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of several other zymotic diseases much has been done by way of prevention, little or nothing for treatment; in the case of diphtheria prevention has failed, but treatment, has been revolutionized by the introduction of antitoxin, which constitutes the most important contribution to See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical medicine as yet made by See also:

• BACTERIOLOGY

bacteriology . The exciting cause of diphtheria is a micro-organism, identified by Klebs and Loffier in 1883 (see PARASITIC DISEASES) . It See also:

• CAUSATION

causation. has been shown by experiment that the symptoms of diphtheria, including the after-effects, are produced by a toxin derived from the micro-organisms which See also:

• LODGE
• LODGE, EDMUND (1756-1839)
• LODGE, H
• LODGE, HENRY CABOT (1850– )
• LODGE, SIR OLIVER JOSEPH (1851– )
• LODGE, THOMAS (c. 1558–1625)

lodge in the See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air-passages and multiply in a susceptible subject . The natural See also:

• HISTORY

history of the organism outside the See also:

• BODY

body is not well understood, . but there is some See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to believe that it lives in a dormant See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition in suitable soils .. Recent See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research does not favour the theory that it is derived from defective drains or " See also:

• SEWER

sewer See also:

• GAS

gas,", but these things, like See also:

• DAMP

damp and want of sunlight, probably promote its spread, by lowering the See also:

• HEALTH

health of persons exposed to them, and particularly by causing an unhealthy condition of the See also:

• THROAT (O. Eng. protu, prote or }Prota, possibly from preotan, to press, whence threat, or, with loss of initial s, connected with strut, to swell)

throat, rendering it susceptible to the contagion . Defective drainage, or want. of drainage, may also See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act, by polluting the ground, and so providing a favourable See also:

• SOIL

soil for the germ, though it is to be noted that " the, steady increase in the diphtheria mortality has coincided, in point of time, with steady improvement in regard of such sanitary circumstances as See also:

• WATER

water See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply, See also:

• SEWERAGE

sewerage, and drainage " (See also:

• THORNE

Thorne Thorne) .

See also:

• CATS, JACOB (1577-1660)

Cats and cows are susceptible to the diphtheritic bacillus, and fowls, turkeys and other birds have been known to suffer from a disease like diphtheria, but other domestic animals appear to be more or less resistant or immune . In human beings the See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere presence of the germ is not sufficient to cause disease; there must also be susceptibility, but it is not known in what that consists . Individuals exhibit all degrees of resistance up to See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• IMMUNITY (from Lat. immunis, not subject to a munus or public service)

immunity . See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

Children are far more susceptible than adults, but. even children may have the Klebs-Loffler bacillus in their throats without showing any symptoms of illness .. Altogether there are many obscure points about this micro-organism, which is See also:

• APT

apt to assume a puzzling variety of forms . Nevertheless its See also:

• IDENTIFICATION (Lat. idem, the same)

identification has greatly facilitated the diagnosis of the disease, which was previously a very difficult See also:

• MATTER

matter, often determined in an arbitrary See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion on no particular principles . Diphtheria, as at present understood, may be defined as sore throat in which the bacillus is found; if it cannot be found,. the illness is regarded as something else, unless the clinical symptoms are quite unmistakable . One result of this is a large transference of registered mortality from other throat affections, and particdlarly from See also:

• CROUP

croup, to diphtheria . Croup, which never had,a well-defined application, and is not recognized by the See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

College of Physicians as a synonym for diphtheria, appears to be dying out from the medical vocabulary in Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain . In France the distinction has never been recognized . Diphtheria is endemic in all See also:

• EUROPEAN

European and See also:

• AMERICAN

American countries, and is apparently increasing, but the incidence varies greatly . It is far more prevalent on the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent than;in 7°Peeve-England, and still more so in the See also:

• UNITED

United States and See also:

• KNEE (O. E. cneow, a word common to Indo-European languages, cf. Ger. Knie, Fr. genou, Span. hinojo, Lat. genu, Gr. ybvv, Sansk. janu)

knee .

See also:

• CANADA

Canada . The following table, compiled from figures collected by Dr Newsholme, shows show See also:

• LONDON

London compares with some See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign cities . The figures give the mean See also:

• DEATH

death-See also:

• RATE

rate fromdiphtheria and croup for the term of years during which records have been kept . The See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period varies in different cases, and there-fore the comparison is only a rough one . Mean Death-Rates from Diphtheria and Croup per Million living . New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York 1610 See also:

• MUNICH (Ger. Munchen)

Munich . . 990 See also:

• CHICAGO
• CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF

Chicago 1400 See also:

• MILAN
• MILAN (Ital. Milano, Ger. Mailand, anc. Mediolanum, q.v.)

Milan . . 499 Buenos Aires , . . 136o See also:

• FLORENCE
• FLORENCE (Ital. Firenze, Lat. Florentia)

Florence . . 830 See also:

• TRIESTE (Ger. Triest; Slay. Trst; the Roman Tergeste, q.v.)

Trieste 1300 See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna . . 770 See also:

• DRESDEN

Dresden . 1290 See also:

• STOCKHOLM

Stockholm .

720 See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin I190 St See also:

• PETERSBURG

Petersburg . . 650 See also:

• BOSTON
• BOSTON, THOMAS (1676-1732)

Boston 1160 See also:

• MOSCOW (Russian Moskva)
• MOSCOW, (Russian Moskva)

Moscow . 640 See also:

• MARSEILLES

Marseilles . 1130 See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris 630 See also:

• CHRISTIANIA (officially KRISTIANIA)

Christiania 1090 See also:

• HAMBURG

Hamburg 490 See also:

• BUDAPEST

Budapest . 188o London . . 386 There is comparatively little diphtheria in See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India and See also:

• JAPAN

Japan, but in See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt, the Cape and See also:

• AUSTRALASIA

Australasia it prevails very extensively among the See also:

• URBAN
• URBAN (Urbanus)

urban populations . The mortality varies greatly from See also:

• YEAR

year to year in all countries and cities . In Berlin, for instance, it has oscillated between a maximum of 2420 in 1883 and a minimum of 340 in 1896; in New York between 2760 in 1877 and 68o in 1868; in Christiania between 3290 in 1887 and 170 in 1871 . In some American cities still higher See also:

• MAXIMA

maxima have been recorded . In other words, diphtheria, though always endemic, exhibits at times a great increase of activity, and becomes epidemic or even pandemic . The following table for 1859-99 shows fairly well the periodical rise and fall in England and See also:

• WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria)

Wales . Diphtheria and croup are given both separately and together, showing the increasing transference from one to the other of See also:

• LATE

late years .

Diphtheria was first entered separately in the year 1859 . Deaths from Diphtheria and Croup per Million living in England and Wales . Years . Diphtheria . Croup . Diphth euia p' and Croup . 1859 517 286 803 1860 261 220 481 1861-7o 185 246 431 1871—80 12I 168 289 1881-90 . 163 144 307 1891—95 254 70 3 2 1896 . 269 9 -9 43 31 1898 . 244 27 271 1899 293 32 325 The combined figures for diphtheria and croup in later years are: (1900) 316; (1901) 296; (1902) 255; (1903) 195; (1904) 184; (1905) 174; (1906) 190; (1907) 175; (1908) 166 . Several facts are roughly indicated by the table . It begins with an extremely severe epidemic, which has not been approached since .

Then follows a fall extending over twenty years . On the whole this diminution was progressive, though not in reality so steady as the decennial grouping makes it appear, being interrupted by smaller oscillations in single years and See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups of years . Still the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main fact holds See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good . After 188o an opposite See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement began, likewise interrupted by See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor oscillations, but on. the whole progressive, and culminating in the year 1893 with a death-rate of 389, the highest recorded since 1865 . After 1896 a marked fall again took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place . This is partly accounted for by the use of antitoxin, which only began on a considerable See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale in 1895, and did not become See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general until a year or two later at least . Its effects were only then fully See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt . The registrar-general's returns See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record mortality, not prevalence—that is to say, the number of. deaths, not of cases . On the whole, we get clear See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of an epidemic rise and fall, which may serve to dispose of some erroneous conceptions . The belief, held until recently, that diphtheria is steadily increasing in Great Britain was obviously premature; it did rise over a sexies of years, but has now ebbed again . Moreover, the general prevalence during the last See also:

• THIRTY

thirty years has been notably less than in the previous twelve years . Yet it is during years since 187o that compulsory See also:

• EDUCATION

education has been in existence and main drainage chiefly carried out .

It follows that neither school attendance nor sewer gas exercises such an important influence over the epidemicity of diphtheria as some other conditions . 292 What are those conditions ? -Dr Newsholme has advanced the theory, based on an elaborate examination of See also:

• STATISTICS

statistics in various countries, that the activity of diphtheria is connected with the rainfall, and he See also:

• LAYS

lays down the following general See also:

• INDUCTION (from Lat. inducere, to lead into; cf. Gr. ilrayu yli)

induction from the facts: " Diphtheria only becomes epidemic in years in which the rainfall is deficient, and the epidemics are on the largest scale when three or more years of deficient rainfall See also:

• FELLOW

fellow each other." He points out that the See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative rarity of diphtheria in tropical climates, which are characterized by excessive rainfall, and its greater prevalence in See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental than in insular countries, confirm his theory . His observations seem quite contrary to the view laid down by various authorities, and hitherto accepted, that wet See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather favours diphtheria . The two, however, are not irreconcilable . The See also:

• KEY
• KEY (in O. Eng. tang; the ultimate origin of the word is unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation was kay, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in aeg; cf. daeg, day; clang
• KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens)
• KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888)
• KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875)

key to the problem—and possibly to many other epidemiological problems—may perhaps be found in the movements of the subsoil water . It has been suggested by different observers, and particularly by Mr M . A . See also:

• ADAMS
• ADAMS, ANDREW LEITH (1827-1882)
• ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS (1807-1886)
• ADAMS, HENRY (1838— )
• ADAMS, HENRY CARTER (1852— )
• ADAMS, HERBERT (i858— )
• ADAMS, HERBERT BAXTER (1850—1901)
• ADAMS, JOHN (1735–1826)
• ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY (1767-1848)
• ADAMS, SAMUEL (1722-1803)
• ADAMS, THOMAS (d. c. 1655)
• ADAMS, WILLIAM (d. 162o)

Adams, who has for some years made a study of the subsoil water at See also:

• MAIDSTONE

Maidstone, that there is a definite connexion between it and diphtheria . In England the underground water normally reaches its lowest level at the end of the summer; then it gradually rises, fed by percolation from the See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter rains, reaching a maximum level about the end of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March, after which it gradually sinks . This maximum level Mr Adams calls the See also:

• ANNUAL

annual See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring cleaning of the soil, and his observations go to show that when the normal movement is arrested or disturbed, diphtheria becomes active . Now that is what happens in periods of drought .

The underground water does not rise to its usual level, and there is no spring cleaning . The See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis, then, is this: The diphtheria bacillus lives in the soil, but is " drowned out " in wet periods by the subsoil water . In droughty ones it lives and flourishes in the warm, dry soil; then when See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain comes, it is driven out with the ground air into the houses . This See also:

• PROCESS

process will continue for some time, so that epidemic outbreaks may well seem to be associated with wet . But they begin in drought, and are stopped by See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long-continued periods of copious rainfall . This is quite in keeping with the observed fact that diphtheria is a seasonal disease, always most prevalent in the last See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of the year . The summer develops the See also:

• POISON

poison in the soil, the autumnal rains bring it out . The fact that the same cause does not produce the same effect in tropical countries may perhaps be explained by the extreme violence of the alternations, which are too great to suit this particular micro-organism, or possibly the regularity of the rainfall prevents its development . The foregoing hypothesis is supported by a good See also:

• DEAL

deal of evidence, and notably by the concurrence of the great epidemic or pandemic prevalence in Great Britain, culminating in 1859, with a prolonged period of exceptionally deficient rainfall . Again, the highest death-rate registered since 1865 was in 1893, a year of similarly exceptional drought . But it is no more than an hypothesis, and the See also:

• FATE

fate of former theories is a warning against See also:

• DRAWING

drawing conclusions from statistics and records extending over too See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short a period of time . The warning is particularly necessary in connexion with meteorological conditions, which are apt to upset all calculations .

As it happens, a period of deficient rain-fall even greater than that of 1854–1858 has recently been experienced . It began in 1893 and culminated in the extra-See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season of 1899 . The dry years were 1893, 1895, 1896, 1898 and 1899, and the deficiency of rainfall was not made good by any considerable excess in 1894 and 1897 . It surpassed all records at See also:

• GREENWICH

Greenwich; streams and See also:

• WELLS
• WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (1798?–1879)
• WELLS, DAVID AMES (1828—1898)
• WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866— )
• WELLS, SIR THOMAS SPENCER, 1ST BART

wells ran dry all over the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country, and the flow of the See also:

• THAMES

Thames and See also:

• LEA, HENRY CHARLES (1825–1909)

Lea was reduced to the lowest point ever recorded . There should be, according to the theory, at least a very large increase in the prevalence of diphtheria . To a certain extent it has held good . There was a marked rise in 1893–1896 over the preceding period, though not so large as might have been expected, but it was followed by a decided fall in 1897–1898 . The experience of 1898 contradicts, that of 1899 supports, the theory . Further See also:

• LIGHT

light is therefore required; but perhaps the failure of the recent drought to produce results at all comparable with the epidemic of the 'fifties may be due to See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations in the resistance of the disease, which differs widely in different years . It may also be due in See also:

• PART

part to improvedsanitation, to the notification of infectious diseases, the use of See also:

• ISOLATION

isolation hospitals, which have greatly See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed in quite recent years, and, lastly, to the beneficial effects of antitoxin . If these be the real explanations, then scientific and administrative See also:

• WORK

work has not been thrown away after all in combating this very painful and fatal enemy of the See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young . The conditions governing the general prevalence of diphtheria, and its epidemic rise and fall, which have just been discussed, do not See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch the question of actual dissemination .

The contagion is spread by means which are in See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant Ulsse laatloa . operation, whether the general amount of disease is great or small . Water, so important in some epidemic diseases, is believed not to be one of them, though a negative See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof based on See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of evidence cannot be accepted as conclusive . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

milk is undoubtedly a means of dissemination . Several outbreaks of an almost explosive See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, besides minor extensions of disease from one place to another, have been traced to this cause . Milk may be contaminated in various ways—at the See also:

• DAIRY

dairy, for instance, or on the way to customers,—but several cases, investigated by the See also:

• OFFICERS

officers of the See also:

• LOCAL

Local See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

Government See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

Board and others, have been thought to point to infection from cows suffering from a diphtheritic affection of the udder . The part played by aerial convection is undetermined, but there is no reason to suppose that the infecting material is conveyed any distance by See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind or air currents . Instances which seem to point to the contrary may be explained in other ways, and particularly by the fact, now fully demonstrated, that persons suffering from minor sore throats, not recognized as diphtheria, may carry the disease about and introduce it into other localities . Human intercourse is the most important means of dissemination, the contagion passing from See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person to person either by actual contact, as in kissing, or by the use of the same utensils and articles, or by mere proximity . In the last case the germs must be supposed to be air-See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne for short distances, and to enter with the breath . Rooms appear liable to become infected by the presence of diphtheritic cases, and so spread the disease among other persons using them . At a small outbreak which occurred at Darenth See also:

• ASYLUM (from Gr. b.-, privative, arid earl, right'of seizure)
• ASYLUM, RIGHT OF (Fr. droit d'asile; Ger. Asylrecht)

Asylum in 1898 the infection clung obstinately to a particular See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

ward, in spite of the prompt removal of all cases, and fresh ones continued to occur until it had been thoroughly disinfected, after which there were no more .

The part played by human inter-course in fostering the spread of the disease suggests that it would naturally be more prevalent in urban communities, where See also:

• PEOPLE

people congregate together more, than in rural ones . This is at variance with the conclusion laid down by some authorities, that in this country diphtheria used to affect chiefly the sparsely populated districts, and though tending to become more urban, is still rather a rural disease . That view is based upon an See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis of the See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution by counties in England and Wales from 1855 to 188o, and it has been generally accepted and repeated until it has become a sort of See also:

• AXIOM (Gr. &iwµa)

axiom . Of course the facts of distribution are facts, but the general inference See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from them, that diphtheria peculiarly affects the country and is changing its See also:

• HABITAT (a French word derived from habiter, Lat. habitare, to dwell)

habitat, may be erroneous . Dr Newsholme, by taking a wider basis of experience, has arrived at the opposite conclusion, and finds that diphtheria does not, in fact, flourish more in sparsely-peopled districts . " When a sufficiently long See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of years is taken," he says, " it appears clear that there is more diphtheria in urban than in rural communities." The rate for London has always been in excess of that for the whole of England and Wales . Its distribution at any given time is determined by a number of circumstances, and by their incidental co-operation, not by any See also:

• PROPERTY

property or predilection for See also:

• TOWN

town or country inherent in the disease . There are the epidemic conditions of soil and rainfall, previously discussed, which vary widely in different localities at different times; there is the steady influence of See also:

• REGULAR

regular intercourse, and the accidental See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element of See also:

• SPECIAL

special distribution by various means . These things may combine to alter the incidence . In short, See also:

• ACCIDENT
• ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen)

accident plays too great a part to permit any general conclusion to be drawn from distribution, except from a very wide basis of experience . The variations are very great and sometimes very sudden . For instance, the See also:

• COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. comae, cf. O. Fr. cunte, conk', Mod. Fr. comae, from Lat. comitatus, cf. Ital. comitato, Prov. comtat; see COUNT)

county of London for some years headed the See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list, having a far higher death-rate than any other .

In 1898 it dropped to the fifth place, and was surpassed by See also:

• RUTLAND
• RUTLAND, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• RUTLAND, JOHN JAMES ROBERT MANNERS, 7TH DUKE OF (1818-1906)

Rutland, a purely rural county, which had the lowest mortality of all in the previous year and very nearly the lowest for the previous ten years . Again, See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South Wales, which had had a See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low mortality for some years, suddenly came into prominence as a diphtheria See also:

• DISTRICT

district, and in 1898 had the highest death-rate in the country . See also:

• STAFFORDSHIRE

Staffordshire and See also:

• BEDFORDSHIRE [abbreviated Beds]

Bedfordshire show a similar rise, the one an urban, the other a rural, county . All the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern counties, both rural and urban, —namely, See also:

• NORTHUMBERLAND
• NORTHUMBERLAND, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• NORTHUMBERLAND, JOHN DUDLEY, VISCOUNT LISLE, EARL OF WARWICK
• NORTHUMBERLAND, JOHN NEVILLE, EARL OF (c. 1430-1471)

Northumberland, See also:

• DURHAM
• DURHAM, JOHN GEORGE LAMBTON, 1ST EARL OF (1792–1840)

Durham, See also:

• CUMBERLAND
• CUMBERLAND, DUKES AND EARLS OF
• CUMBERLAND, RICHARD (1632-1718)
• CUMBERLAND, RICHARD (1732-1811)
• CUMBERLAND, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS

Cumberland, See also:

• WESTMORLAND
• WESTMORLAND, EARLS OF

Westmorland, See also:

• LANCASHIRE

Lancashire, See also:

• YORKSHIRE

Yorkshire, See also:

• CHESHIRE

Cheshire and See also:

• LINCOLNSHIRE

Lincolnshire, had a very high rate in 1861-1870, and a low one in r896–1898 . It is obviously unsafe to draw general conclusions from distribution data on a small scale . Diphtheria appears to creep about very slowly, as a See also:

• RULE

rule, from place to place, and from one part of a large town to another; it forsakes one district and appears in another; occasionally it attacks a fresh locality with great See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy, presumably because the local conditions are exceptionally favourable, which may be due to the soil or, possibly, to the susceptibility of the inhabitants, who are, so to speak, virgin ground . But through it all See also:

• PERSONAL

personal infection is the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief means of spread . The See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance of this See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine has directed great attention to the practical question of school influence . There is no doubt whatever that it plays a very considerable part in spreading diphtheria . The incidence of the disease is chiefly on children, and nothing so often and regularly brings large See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers together in See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close contact under the same roof as school attendance . Nothing, in fact, furnishes such constant and extensive opportunities for personal infection . Many outbreaks have definitely been traced to See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools .

In London the subject has been very fully investigated by See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• SHIRLEY (or SHERLEY), JAMES (1596-1666)
• SHIRLEY (or SHERLEY), SIR ANTHONY (1565-c. 1635)
• SHIRLEY, WILLIAM (1694-1771)

Shirley See also:

• MURPHY, ARTHUR (1727–1805)
• MURPHY, JOHN FRANCIS (1853– )
• MURPHY, ROBERT (1806-1843)

Murphy, the medical officer of health to the London County See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

Council, and by Dr W . R . See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith, formerly medical officer of health to the London School Board . Sir Shirley Murphy has shown that a special incidence on children of school See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age began to See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

manifest itself after the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of compulsory education, and that the summer holidays are marked by a distinct diminution of cases, which is succeeded by an increase on the return to school . Dr W . R . Smith's observations are directed rather to minimizing the effect of school influence, and to showing that it is less important than other factors; which is doubtless true, as has been already remarked . It appears that the heaviest incidence falls upon infants under school age, and that liability diminishes progressively after school age is reached . But this by no means disposes of the importance of school influence, as the younger children at See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home may be infected by older ones, who have picked up the contagion at school, but, being less susceptible, are less severely affected and exhibit no worse symptoms than a sore throat . From a practical point of view the problem is a difficult one to deal with, as it is virtually impossible to ensure the exclusion of all infection, on account of the deceptively mild forms it may assume; but considering how very often outbreaks of diphtheria necessitate the closing of schools, it would probably be to the See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of the authorities to discourage, rather than to compel, the attendance of children with sore throats . A fact of some See also:

• INTEREST

interest revealed by statistics is that in the earliest years of See also:

• LIFE

life the incidence of diphtheria is greater upon male than upon See also:

• FEMALE

female children, but from three years onwards the position is reversed, and with every succeeding year the relative female liability becomes greater . This is probably due to the See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit of kissing maintained among See also:

• FEMALES

females, but more and more abandoned by boys from babyhood onwards .

All these considerations suggest the importance of segregating the sick in isolation hospitals . Of late years this preventive measure has been carried out with increasing efficiency, owing to the better See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision of such hospitals and the greater willingness of the public to make use of them; and probably the improvement so effected has had some See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in keeping down the prevalence of the disease to comparatively moderate proportions . Unfortunately, the complete segregation of infected persons is hardly possible, because of the mild symptoms, and even absence of symptoms, exhibited by some individuals . A further difficulty arises with reference to the See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge of patients . It has beenproved that the bacillus may persist almost indefinitely in the air-passages in certain cases, and in a considerable proportion it does persist for several See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks after convalescence . On returning home such cases may, and often do, infect others . Since the antitoxin treatment was introduced in 1894 it has overshadowed all other methods . We owe this See also:

• DRUG
• DRUG (from Fr. drogue, a word common in Romance languages, cf. Span. and Ital. droga; the origin of the word is obscure, but may possibly be connected with Dutch droog, dry)

drug originally to the Berlin school of bacteriologists, and particularly Treatment. to Dr Behring . The See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of making use of serum arose about 1890, out of researches made in connexion with Mechnikov's theory of See also:

• PHAGOCYTOSIS (Gr. 0ayeiv, to eat, devour, and KtTOS, cell)

phagocytosis, by which is meant the See also:

• ACTION

action of the phagocytes or See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white corpuscles of the See also:

• BLOOD

blood in destroying the bacteria of disease . It was shown by the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German bacteriologists that the serum or liquid part of the blood plays an equally or more important part in resisting disease, and the idea of combating the toxins produced by pathogenic bacteria with resistant serum injected into the blood presented itself to several workers . The idea was followed up and worked out independently in France and See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, so successfully that by the year 1894. the serum treatment had been tried on a considerable scale with most encouraging results . Some of these were published in Germany in the earlier part of that year, and at the See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

International Hygienic See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

Congress, held in Budapest a little later, Dr Roux, of the Institut See also:

• PASTEUR, LOUIS (1822-1895)

Pasteur, whose experience was somewhat more extensive than that of his German colleagues, read a See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper giving the result of several See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred cases treated in Paris .

When all See also:

• ALLOWANCE (from "allow,' derived through 0. Fr. alouer from the two Lat. origins adlaudare, to praise, and allocare, to assign a place; so that the English word combined the general idea of "assigning with approval")

allowance for errors had been made, they showed a remarkable and even astonishing reduction of mortality, fully confirming the conclusions drawn from the German experiments . This consensus of See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion proved a great stimulus to further trial, and before long one clinigue after another told the same See also:

• TALE (O.Eng. talu, number, account, story; the word is common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Zahl, number, Erzahlung, narrative, Du. taal, speech, language)

tale . The evidence was so favourable that See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor See also:

• VIRCHOW, RUDOLF (1821-1902)

Virchow—the last See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man to be carried away by a novelty—declared it " the imperative See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty of medical men to use the new remedy " (The Times, loth See also:

• OCTOBER

October 1894) . Since then an enormous See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of facts has accumulated from all quarters of the globe, all testifying to the value of antitoxin in the treatment of diphtheria . The experience of the hospitals of the London See also:

• METROPOLITAN (Lat. metropolitanus, Gr. µnrpoiroXtrns)

Metropolitan Asylums Board for five years before and after antitoxin may be given as a particularly instructive See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration; but the subsequent reduction in the rate of mortality (12 in 1900, 11.3 in 1901, 10.8 in 1902, 9.3 in 1903, and an See also:

• AVERAGE

average of 9 in 1904–1908) added further See also:

• CONFIRMATION (Lat. confirmatio, from confirmare, to establish, make firm)

confirmation . Annual Case Mortality in Metropolitan Asylums Board's Hospitals . Before Antitoxin . After Antitoxin . Mortality ' Mortality Year. per cent . Year. per cent . 1890 . . 33.55 1895 .

22.85 1891 . . 30.61 1896 21.20 1892 . . 29.51 1897 17.79 1893 . . 30.42 1898 15.37 1894 . . 29.29 1899 . . 13.95 The number of cases dealt with in these five antitoxin years was 32,835, Or an average of 6567 a year, and the broad result is a reduction of mortality by more than one-See also:

• HALF

half . It is a See also:

• FAIR

fair inference that the treatment saves the lives of about moo children every year in London alone . This refers to all cases . Those which occur in the hospitals as a sequel to See also:

• SCARLET

scarlet See also:

• FEVER (Lat. febris, connected with fervere, to burn)

fever, and consequently come under treatment from the commencement, show very much more striking results . The case mortality, which was 46.8% in 1892 and 58.8% in 1893, has been reduced to 3.6% since the introduction of antitoxin . But the evidence is not from statistics alone . The beneficial effect of the treatment is equally attested by clinical observation .

Dr Roux's See also:

• ORIGINAL

original account has been confirmed by a See also:

• CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as " clod," a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the late 13th century; the Anglo-Saxon chid is only used in the sense of " a ma

cloud of witnesses year after year . " One may say," he wrote, " that the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of most of the patients is totally different from what it used to be . The See also:

• PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

pale and leaden faces are scarcely seen in the wards; the expression of the children is brighter and more lively." Adult patients have described the See also:

• RELIEF

relief afforded by inoculation; it acts like a See also:

• CHARM (through the Fr. from the Lat. carmen, a song)

charm, and lifts the deadly feeling of oppression off like a cloud in the course of a few See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours . Finally, the counteracting effect of antitoxin in preventing the disintegrating action of the diphtheritic toxin on the See also:

• NERVOUS

nervous tissues has been demonstrated pathologically . There are some who still affect • See also:

• SCEPTICISM (o-Kesrroµai, I consider, reflect, hesitate, doubt)

scepticism as to the value of this drug . They cannot be ac- • • quainted with the evi- • dence, for if the efficacy of antitoxin in the treat- • ment of diphtheria has not been proved, then • neither can the efficacy of any treatment for anything be said to be proved . Prophylactic properties are also • claimed for the serum; but See also:

• PROTECTION

protection is neces- sarily more difficult to demonstrate than cure, • ^ and though there is some evidence to sup- • See also:

• PORT

port the claim, it has • not been fully made • • out . Adams, Public Health, • ^ vol. vii . ; Thorne Thorne, • Milroy Lectures (1891) ; Newsholme, Epidemic • Diphtheria ;W . R . Smith, Harben Lectures (1899) ; • M urphy,See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

Report toLondon County Council (1894); • See also:

• SIMS, GEORGE ROBERT (1847– )

Sims Woodhead, Report • to Metropolitan Asylums Board (1901) . • DIPLODOCUS, a gigantic See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct See also:

• LAND

land reptile discovered in rocks of Upper See also:

• JURASSIC

Jurassic age in western See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North • See also:

• AMERICA

America, the best- • known example of a • Sauropodous Dinosaur .

• The first scattered re- • mains of a See also:

• SKELETON

skeleton were • found in 1877 by Prof . • S . W . Williston near ^ See also:

• CANON

Canon See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

City, See also:

• COLORADO

Colorado; ^ and the tail and See also:

• HIND

hind- See also:

• LIMB

limb of this specimen were described in the • following year by Prof . O . C . See also:

• MARSH (O. F. mersc, for merisc, a place full of "meres" or pools; cf. Ger. Meer, sea, Lat. mare)
• MARSH, ADAM (ADAM DE MARISCO) (d. c. 1258)
• MARSH, GEORGE PERKINS (1801-1882)
• MARSH, HERBERT (1757–1839)
• MARSH, NARCISSUS (1638-1713)
• MARSH, OTHNIEL CHARLES (1831-1899)

Marsh . He • noticed that in the part of the tail which dragged on the ground, each See also:

• CHEVRON (Fr. from chevre, a goat)

chevron See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

bone below the • vertebral See also:

• COLUMN (Lat. columna)

column See also:

• CON

con- sisted of a pair of bars; and as so See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar an arrangement for the protection of the artery and vein beneath the tail had not previously been observed in any • See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal, he proposed • the name Diplodocus • (" See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double See also:

• BEAM
• BEAM (from the O. Eng. beam, cf. Ger. Baum, a tree, to which sense may be referred the use of " beam " as meaning the rood or crucifix, and the survival in certain names of trees, as horn-beam)

beam " or • " double See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

bar ") for the • new reptile, adding thespecific name See also:

• LONGUS

longus in allusion to the elongated shape of 'the tail vertebrae . In 1884 Prof . Marsh described the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head,, vertebrae and See also:

• PELVIS (Lat. for " basin," cf. Gr. 7rEX?a )

pelvis of the same skeleton, which is now in the See also:

• NATIONAL

National Museum, See also:

• WASHINGTON
• WASHINGTON (or WASHINGTON COURT HOUSE)
• WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO (c. 1859– )
• WASHINGTON, BUSHROD (1762-1829)
• WASHINGTON, GEORGE (1732-1799)

Washington . In 1897 the next important specimen, a tail associated with other fragments, apparently of Diplodocus longus, was obtained by the American Museum of Natural History, New York, from See also:

• COMO (anc. Comum)
• COMO, LAKE OF (the Lacus Larius of the Romans, and so sometimes called LARIO to the present day, though in the 4th century it is already termed Lacus Comacinus)

Como Bluffs, See also:

• WYOMING

Wyoming . In 1.899-19o0 large parts of two skeletons of another See also:

• SPECIES

species, in a remarkable See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of preservation, were disinterred by Messrs J .

L . Wortman, O . A . Peterson and J . B . Hatcher in See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

Sheep See also:

• CREEK
• CREEK (Mid. Eng. crike or creke, common to many N. European languages)

Creek, See also:

• ALBANY
• ALBANY, DUKES OF
• ALBANY, LOUISE MAXIMILIENNE CAROLINE, COUNTESS OF (1752-1824)

Albany county, Wyo., and these are now exhibited with minor discoveries in the See also:

• CARNEGIE
• CARNEGIE, ANDREW (1837– )

Carnegie Museum, See also:

• PITTSBURG
• PITTSBURG, or PITTSBURGH

Pittsburg . There are also other specimens in New York, Chicago and the University of Wyoming . In 1901 Mr J . B . Hatcher studied the new species at . Pittsburg, named it Diplodocus carnegii, and published the first restored See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch of a complete skeleton . Shortly after-wards See also:

• PLASTER

plaster casts of the finest specimens were prepared under the direction of Mr J .

B . Hatcher and Dr W . J . Holland, and these were skilfully combined to See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast of a completely reconstructed skeleton, which was presented to. the See also:

• BRITISH

British . Museum by See also:

• ANDREW (Gr. 'AvBp4as, manly)
• ANDREW, JOHN ALBION (1818-1867)

Andrew Carnegie in 1905 . This reconstruction is 'based primarily on a well-preserved See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain of vertebrae, extending from the second cervical to the twelfth caudal, associated with the ribs, pelvis and several limb-bones . The tail is completed from two other specimens in the Carnegie Museum, having caudals 13 to 36 and 37 to 73 respectively in apparently unbroken series . Prof . Marsh's specimen in Washington supplied the greater part of the See also:

• SKULL

skull; and the fore-See also:

• FOOT

foot is copied from a specimen in New York . The cast of the reconstructed skeleton of Diplodocus carnegii See also:

• MEASURES

measures 84 ft. in length and 12 ft . 9 in. in maximum height at the hind-limbs . It displays the elongated See also:

• NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch ride, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word was heals; cf. Ger. Hals)

neck and tail and the relatively small head so characteristic of the Sauropodous Dinosaurs .

The skull is inclined to. the See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis of the neck, denoting a browsing animal; while the feeble See also:

• BLUNT, JOHN HENRY (1823–1884)
• BLUNT, JOHN JAMES (1794–1855)
• BLUNT, WILFRID SCAWEN (184o— )

blunt See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth and See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat . See also:

• EXPANDED

expanded snout suggest. feeding among succulent water-weeds . The large narial opening at the highest point of the head probably indicates an aquatic mode of life, and there seems to have been a soft See also:

• VALVE (Lat. valva, a leaf of a double or folding door, allied to volvere, to roll, as of a door on its hinges)

valve to close the nostrils when under water .. The diminutive See also:

• BRAIN (A.S. braegen)

brain-cavity, scarcely large enough to contain a See also:

• WALNUT (Juglans)

walnut, is noteworthy . There are 104 vertebrae, namely, 15 in the neck, 11 in the back, 5 in the sacrum and 73 in the tail . The presacral vertebrae are of remarkably light construction, the plates and struts of bone being arranged to give the greatest strength with the least See also:

• WEIGHT

weight . The end of the tail is a flexible lash, which would probably be used as a weapon, like the tail of some existing lizards . The feet, notwithstanding the weight they had to support, are as unsymmetrical as those of a See also:

• CROCODILE

crocodile, with claws only on the three inner toes . There is no See also:

• EXTERNAL

external See also:

• ARMOUR, PHILIP DANFORTH (1832-1901)

armour . See O . C . Marsh, Amer . Journ .

Sci. See also:

• SER

ser . 3, vol. xvi . (1878)„.p . 414, pl. viii., and loc. cit. vol. See also:

• XXVII

xxvii . (1884), p . 161, pls . 11i., iv.; H . F . See also:

• OSBORN, SHERARD (1822—1875)

Osborn, Mem . Amer . See also:

• MUS

Mus . Nat .

Mist. vol. i. pt. v . (1899); J . B . Hatcher, Mem . Carnegie Mus. vol. i . No . I (1901), and vol. ii . No . 1 (1903); W . J . Holland, Mem . Carnegie Mus. vol. ii .

No . 6 . (1906) . (A . S .