See also:

• DIPLOMACY (Fr. diplomatic)

DIPLOMACY (Fr. See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic)  , the See also:

• ART

art of conducting inter-See also:

• NATIONAL

national negotiations . The word, borrowed from the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French, has the same derivation as See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

Diplomatic (q.v.), and, according to the New See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• DICTIONARY

Dictionary, was first used in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England so See also:

• LATE

late as 1796 by See also:

• BURKE
• BURKE, ROBERT
• BURKE, SIR JOHN BERNARD (1814–1892)
• BURKE, WILLIAM (1792–1829)

Burke . Yet there is no other word in the English See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language that could See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply its exact sense . The need for such a See also:

• TERM

term was indeed not See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt; for what we know as See also:

• DIPLOMACY (Fr. diplomatic)

diplomacy was See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long regarded, partly as falling under the See also:

• JUS

Jus gentium or See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

international See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, partly as a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of activity morally somewhat suspect and incapable of being brought under any See also:

• SYSTEM

system . Moreover, though in a certain sense it is as old as See also:

• HISTORY

history, diplomacy as a See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform system, based upon generally recognized rules and directed by a diplomatic See also:

• HIERARCHY (Gr. iepos, holy, and apxe.v, to rule)

hierarchy having a fixed international status, is of quite See also:

• MODERN

modern growth even in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . It was finally established only at the congresses of See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna (1815) and See also:

• AIX

Aix-la-;Chapelle (1818), while its effective See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension to the See also:

• GREAT

great monarchies of the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East, beyond the See also:

• BOUNDS, BEATING THE

bounds of See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization, was comparatively an affair of yesterday . So late as 1876 it was possible for the writer on this subject in the 9th edition of the See also:

• ENCYCLOPAEDIA

Encyclopaedia Britannia; to say that " it would be an See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical absurdity to suppose diplomatic relations connecting together See also:

• CHINA

China, See also:

• BURMA

Burma and See also:

• JAPAN

Japan, as they connect the great European See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers." Principles.—Though diplomacy has been usually treated under the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of international law, it would perhaps be more consonant with the facts to See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place international law under diplomacy . The principles and rules governing the intercourse of states, defined by a long See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession of international lawyers, have no See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

sanction See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save the consensus of the powers, established and maintained by diplomacy (see See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

BALANCE OF See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

POWER); in so far as they have become, by international agreement, more than See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere pious opinions of theorists, they are working rules established for mutual convenience, which it is the See also:

• FUNCTION

function of diplomacy to safeguard or to use for its own ends . In any See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case they by no means See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover the whole See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field of diplomatic activity; and, were they swept away, the art of diplomacy, See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed through long ages of experience, would survive . This experience may perhaps be called the See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science, as distinct from the art, of diplomacy . It covers not only the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of international law, but the vast field of recorded experience which we know as history, of which indeed international law is but a See also:

• PART

part; for, as Bielfeld in his Institutions politiques (La Haye, 176o, t . I. ch. ii .

§ 13) points out, " public law is founded on facts . To know it we must know history, which is the soul of this science as of politics in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general." The broad outlook on human affairs implied in " historical sense " is more necessary to the diplomatist under modern conditions than in the 18th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, when inter-national policy was still wholly under the See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of princes and their immediate advisers . Diplomacy was then a See also:

• GAME

game of wits played in a narrow circle . Its See also:

• OBJECTS

objects too were narrower; for states were practically regarded as the See also:

• PROPERTY

property of their sovereigns, which it was the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main function of their " agents " to enlarge or to protect, while scarcely less important than the preservation or rearrangement of territorial boundaries was that of See also:

• PRECEDENCE (from Lat. praecedere, to go before, precede)

precedence and See also:

• ETIQUETTE

etiquette generally, over which an incredible amount of See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time was wasted . The haute diplomatic thus resolved itself into a See also:

• PROCESS

process of exalted haggling, conducted with an utter disregard of the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary See also:

• STANDARDS

standards of morality, but with the most exquisite politeness and in accordance with ever more and more elaborate rules . Much of the outcome of these dead debates has become stereotyped in the conventions of the diplomatic service; but the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of diplomacy itself has undergone a great See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change . This change is threefold: firstly, as. the result of the greater sense of the community of interests among nations, which was one of the outcomes of the French Revolution; secondly, owing to the rise of See also:

• DEMOCRACY (Gr. 3np.oKparia, from S)µos, the people, i.e. the commons, and Kparos, rule)

democracy, with its expression in See also:

• PARLIAMENTARY

parliamentary assemblies and in the See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press; thirdly, through the alteration in the position of the diplomatic See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent, due to modern means of communication . The first of these changes may be dated to the circular of See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

Count Kaunitz of the 17th of See also:

• JULY

July 1791, in which, in See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face of the Revolution, he impressed upon the powers the See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty of making See also:

• COMMON

common cause for the purpose of preserving " public See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace, the tranquillity of states, the inviolability of possessions, and the faith of See also:

• TREATIES

treaties." The duty of watching over the common interests of Europe, or of the See also:

• WORLD

world, was thus for the first time officially recognized as a function of diplomacy, since common See also:

• ACTION

action could only be taken as the result of diplomatic negotiations . It would be easy to exaggerate the effective results of this See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea, even when it had crystallized in the See also:

• GRAND

Grand See also:

• ALLIANCE

Alliance of 1814 and been See also:

• PRO

pro-claimed to the world in the See also:

• HOLY

Holy Alliance of the 26th of See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September 1815 and the See also:

• DECLARATION (from Lat. declarare, to make fully clear, clams)

declaration of Aix-la-Chapelle . The cynical picture given by La Bruyere of the diplomatist of the 18th century still remained largely true:" His talk is only of peace, of alliances, of the public tranquillity, and of the public interests; in reality he is thinking only of his own, that is to say, of those of his See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master or of his See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic." 1 The proceedings of the See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

congress of Vienna proved how little the common See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good weighed unless reinforced by particular interests; but the conception of " Europe " as a See also:

• POLITICAL

political entity none the less survived . The congresses, notably 1 La Bruyere, Caracteres, ii . 77 (ed .

P . Jouast, See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1881) . the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (q.v.) in 1818, were in a certain sense European parliaments, and their ostensible See also:

• OBJECT

object was the furtherance of common interests . Had the imperial dreamer See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander I. of See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia had his way, they would have been permanently established on the broad basis of the Holy Alliance; and would have included, not the great powers only, but representatives of every See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state (see ALEXANDER I. and EUROPE: History) . Whatever the effective value of that " See also:

• CONCERT (through the French from Lat. con-, with, and certare, to strive)

Concert of Europe " which was the outcome of the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of the congresses, it certainly produced a great effect on the spirit and the practice of diplomacy . In the congresses and conferences diplomacy assumes international functions both legislative and administrative . The diplomat is responsible, not only to his own See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government, butto " Europe." Thus Castlereagh was accused of subordinating the interests of Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain to those of Europe; and the same See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge was brought, perhaps with greater See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice, against Metternich in respect of See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria . See also:

• CANNING, CHARLES JOHN, EARL (1812-1862)
• CANNING, GEORGE (1770-1827)

Canning's principle.of, "Every nation for itself and See also:

• GOD

God for us all!" prevailed, it is true, over that of Alexander's " See also:

• CONFEDERATION (Fr. confederation, Lat. confoederatio, from foedus, a league, foederare, to form a league)

Confederation of Europe "; yet, as one outcome of the congresses, every diplomatic agent, though he represents the interests of his own state, has behind him the whole See also:

• BODY

body of the treaties which constitute the public law of the world, of which he is in some sort the interpreter and the See also:

• GUARDIAN

guardian . Parallel with this development runs the second process making for change: the increasing responsibility of diplomacy to public See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion . To discuss all the momentous issues involved in this is impossible; but the subject is too important to he altogether passed over, since it is one of the main problems of modern international intercourse, and concerns every one who by his See also:

• VOTE

vote may See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence the policy of the state to which he belongs . The question, broadly speaking, is: how far has the public discussion of international affairs affected the legitimate functions of diplomacy for better or for worse ? To, the diplomatist of the old school the See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer seems clear .

For him diplomacy was too delicate and too See also:

• PERSONAL

personal an art to survive the glare and confusion of publicity . Metternich, the last representative of the old haute diplomatic, lived to moralize over the ruin caused by the first manifestations of the " new diplomacy," the outcome of the rise of the power of public opinion . He had See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early, from his own point of view, unfavourably contrasted the " limited " constitutional monarchies of the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west with the " See also:

• FREE

free " autocracies of the east of Europe,. free because they were under no See also:

• OBLIGATION

obligation to give a• public See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of their actions . He himself was a master of the old diplomatic art, of intrigue, of veiling his purpose under a See also:

• CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as " clod," a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the late 13th century; the Anglo-Saxon chid is only used in the sense of " a ma

cloud of magniloquence, above all, of the art of personal See also:

• FASCINATION (from Lat. fascinare, to bewitch, probably connected with the Or. f3ao-Kaiveev, to speak ill of, to bewitch)

fascination . But public opinion was for him only a dangerous force to be kept under control; and, even had he realized the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity for appealing to it, he had none of the qualities that would have, made the See also:

• APPEAL

appeal successful . In See also:

• DIRECT

direct antagonism to him was See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George Canning, who may be called the great prototype of the " new diplomacy," and to Metternich was a " malevolent See also:

• METEOR (Gr. µerEwpa, literally " things in the air,” from µera, beyond, and aeip6Lv, to lift up)

meteor hurled by divine See also:

• PROVIDENCE

providence upon Europe." Canning saw clearly the immense force that would be added to his diplomatic action if he had behind him the force of public opinion . In answer to Metternich's complaint of the See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone of speeches in See also:

• PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

parliament and of the popular support given in England to revolutionary movements, he wrote, " Our influence, if it is to be maintained abroad, must be secure in its See also:

• SOURCES

sources of strength at See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home: and the sources of that strength are in the sympathy between the See also:

• PEOPLE

people and the government; in the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union of the public sentiment with the public counsels; in the reciprocal confidence of the See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

House of See also:

• COMMONS

Commons and the See also:

• CROWN

crown." 2 It would be a See also:

• MISTAKE (i.e. take amiss)

mistake to jump to the conclusion that Canning was wholly right and Metternich wholly wrong . The conditions of the See also:

• HABSBURG, or HAPSBURG

Habsburg See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy were not those of Great Britain,3 and even if it had been possible to speak of a public opinion in the See also:

• AUSTRIAN

Austrian See also:

• EMPIRE

empire at all, it certainly possessed no such See also:

• ORGAN

organ as the See also:

• BRITISH

British parliament . But the See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument may be carried yet 2 To See also:

• WELLESLEY
• WELLESLEY, RICHARD COLLEY WESLEY (or WELLESLEY)

Wellesley, in Stapleton's Canning, i . 374 . 3 For the motives of Metternich's See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign policy see AUSTRIA-See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

HUNGARY : History (iii . 332-333) further .

In the abstract the success of the policy of a See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister in a democratic state must ultimately See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest upon the support of public opinion; yet the necessity for this support has in the conduct of foreign affairs its See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar dangers . In the difficult game of diplomacy a certain reticence is always necessary . See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

Secret sources of See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information would be dried up were they to be lightly revealed; a See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain exposition of policy would often give an undue See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage to the other party to a negotiation . Thus, even in Great Britain, the diplomatic See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence laid before parliament is carefully edited, and all governments are jealous of granting See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access to their modern archives . Yet a representative See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly is See also:

• APT

apt to be resentful of such reservations . Its members know little or nothing of the conditions under which foreign affairs are conducted, and they are not unnaturally irritated by explanations which seem to lack candour or completeness . Canning himself had experience of this in the affair of the See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of the Danish See also:

• FLEET

fleet at See also:

• COPENHAGEN (Danish Kjobenhavn)

Copenhagen; and Castlereagh's diplomacy was hampered by the See also:

• BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867– )

bitter attacks of an opposition which accused him, with little justice, of pursuing a policy which he dared not reveal in its full See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope to parliament . Moreover, the appeal to public opinion may be used as a diplomatic weapon for ends no less " selfish " than any aimed at by the old diplomacy . See also:

• BISMARCK
• BISMARCK, OTTO EDUARD LEOPOLD VON, PRINCE

Bismarck, whose statesmanship was at least as cynical as that of Metternich, was a master of the art of taking the world into his confidence—when it suited him to do so; and the " reptile press," hired to give a seemingly See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent support to his policy, was one of his most potent weapons . So far the only necessary consequence of the growth of the power of public opinion on the art of diplomacy has been to extend the See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere of its application; it is but one more See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor to be dealt with; and experience has proved that it is subject to the See also:

• WILES, IRVING RAMSAY (1861- )

wiles of a skilful diplomatist no less than were the princes and statesmen with whom the old diplomacy was solely concerned . The third factor making for change—the revolution in the means of communication which has brought all the world into closer See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch—remains to be discussed . It is obvious that before the invention of the See also:

• TELEGRAPH (Gr. Tike, far, and rypaq5eiv, to write)

telegraph, the diplomatic agent was in a far more responsible position than he is now, when he can, in most cases, receive immediate instructions from his government on difficult questions as they arise .

When communication was still slow there was often no time to await instructions, or the instructions when they arrived were not seldom already out of date and had to be set aside on the minister's own responsibility . It would, however, be easy to exaggerate the importance of this change as affecting the character and status of diplomatic agents . It is true that the tendency has been for ministers of foreign affairs to hold the threads of diplomacy in their own hands to a far greater extent than was formerly the case; but they must still depend for information and See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice on the " See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man on the spot," and the success of their policy largely depends upon his qualities of discretion and See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment . The growth of democracy, moreover, has given to the See also:

• AMBASSADOR (also EMBASSADOR, the form sometimes still used in America; from the Fr. ambassadeur, with which compare Ital. ambasciatore and Span. embajador, all variants of the Med. Lat. ambassiator, ambassiator, ambasator, &c., derived from Med. Lat. amba

ambassador a new and peculiar importance; for he represents not only the See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign to the sovereign, but the nation to the nation; and, as a succession of notable See also:

• AMERICAN

American ambassadors to Great Britain has proved, he may by his personal qualities do a large amount to remove the prejudices and ignorances which stand as a barrier between the nations . It marks an immense advance in the See also:

• COMITY (from the Lat. comitas, courtesy, from antis, friendly, courteous)

comity of international intercourse when the representatives of friendly powers are no longer regarded as " spies rather than ambassadors," to be " quickly heard and dismissed," as Philippe de See also:

• COMMINES, PHILIPPE DE (c. 1445-c. 1511)

Commines would have them, but as agreeable guests to be parted from with regret . As to the qualifications for an ambassador, it is clearly impossible to See also:

• LAY

lay down a genera] See also:

• RULE

rule, for the same qualities are obviously not required in See also:

• WASHINGTON
• WASHINGTON (or WASHINGTON COURT HOUSE)
• WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO (c. 1859– )
• WASHINGTON, BUSHROD (1762-1829)
• WASHINGTON, GEORGE (1732-1799)

Washington as in Vienna, nor in Paris as in See also:

• PEKIN

Pekin . Yet the effort to depict the ideal ambassador bulks largely in the See also:

• WORKS

works of the earlier theorists, and the demands they make are sufficiently alarming . Ottaviano Maggi, himself a diplomatist of the brilliant See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of the See also:

• RENAISSANCE, THE

Renaissance, has See also:

• LEFT

left us in his De legato (Hanoviae, 1596) his idea of what an ambassador should be . He must not only be a good See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian but a learned theologian; he must be a philosopher, well versed in Aristotleand See also:

• PLATO

Plato, and able at a moment's See also:

• NOTICE

notice to solve in correct dialectical See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the most abstruse problems; he must be well read in the See also:

• CLASSICS

classics, and an See also:

• EXPERT (Lat. expertus, from experiri, to try)

expert in See also:

• MATHEMATICS (Gr. /saBnµar1Kil, Sc. vOcvn or E7rlQTt'µn; from p iN.La, "learning" or "science ")

mathematics, See also:

• ARCHITECTURE (Lat. architectura, from the Gr. ap)(LTEKrwv, a master-builder)

architecture, See also:

• MUSIC

music, physics and See also:

• CIVIL

civil and See also:

• CANON

canon law . He must not only know how to write and speak Latin with classical refinement, but he must be a master of See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek, See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish, French, See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German and See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish . He must have a See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound knowledge of history, See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

geography and the science of See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war; but at the same time is not to neglect the poets, and never to be without his See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

Homer . Add to this that he must be well See also:

• HORN
• HORN (a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. cornu; cf. Gr. Kipas)
• HORN (Lat. cornu; corresponding terms being Fr. cor, trompe; Ger. Horn; Ital. corno)
• HORN, ARVID BERNHARD, COUNT (1664-1742)
• HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY, COUNT

horn, See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich and of a handsome presence, and we have a portrait of a diplomatist whose See also:

• ORIGINAL

original can hardly have existed even in that age of brilliant versatility .

The Dutchman Frederikus de Marselaer, in his an puseiov she legationum insigne (See also:

• ANTWERP
• ANTWERP (Fr. Anvers)

Antwerp, 161S), is scarcely less exacting than the Venetian . His ideal ambassador is a nobleman of See also:

• FINE

fine presence and in the See also:

• PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING

prime of See also:

• LIFE

life, famous, rich, munificent, abstemious, not violent, nor quarrelsome, nor morose, no flatterer, learned, eloquent, witty without being talkative, a good linguist, widely read, prudent and cautious, but brave and—as he adds somewhat superfluously—many-sided . With these theoretical perfections one or two instances of the qualifications demanded by the exigencies of See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical politics may be cited by way of See also:

• ILLUMINATING

illuminating contrast . At the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of the empress See also:

• ELIZABETH
• ELIZABETH (1533-1603)
• ELIZABETH (1596-1662)
• ELIZABETH (1635–1650)
• ELIZABETH [ AMELIE EUGENIE ] (1837—1898)
• ELIZABETH [1lisabeth Philippine Marie Helene of France] (1764—1794)
• ELIZABETH [PAULINE ELIZABETH OTTILIE LOUISE] (1843– )
• ELIZABETH [PETROVNA] (1709-1762), EMPRESS
• ELIZABETH, SAINT (1207-1231)

Elizabeth of Russia good looks were a surer means of diplomatic success than all the talents and virtues, and the princess of See also:

• ZERBST

Zerbst (See also:

• MOTHER

mother of the empress See also:

• CATHERINE
• CATHERINE, SAINT

Catherine II.) wrote to See also:

• FREDERICK
• FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrich; Ital. Federigo; Fr. Frederic and Federic; M.H.G. Friderich; O.H.G. Fridurih, " king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, A.S. frith, " peace," and rfh " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY)

Frederick of See also:

• PRUSSIA
• PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; Lat. Borussia)

Prussia advising him to replace his elderly ambassador by a handsome See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young man with a good complexion; and the essential qualification for an ambassador to See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland, See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, See also:

• POLAND (Polish Polska, Ger. Polen), (see POLAND, RUSSIAN, below)
• POLAND, RUSSIAN

Poland, See also:

• DENMARK
• DENMARK (Danmark)

Denmark and Russia used to be that he should be able to drink the native diplomatists, seasoned from babyhood to strong liquors, under the table . History.—In its widest sense the history of diplomacy is that of the intercourse between nations, in so far as this has not been a mere See also:

• BRUTE, SIMON WILLIAM GABRIEL (1779–1839)

brute struggle for the mastery; in a narrower sense, with which the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article is alone concerned, it is that of the methods and spirit of diplomatic intercourse and of the character and status of diplomatic agents . Earlier writers on the See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office and functions of ambassadors, such as Gentilis or See also:

• ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

Archbishop See also:

• GERMONIUS, ANASTASIUS [ANASTASE GERMON] (1551-1627)

Germonius, conscientiously trace their origin to God himself, who created the angels to be his legates; and they fortify their arguments by copious examples See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient history, sacred and profane . But, whatever the influence upon it of earlier practice, modern diplomacy really See also:

• DATES

dates from the rise of permanent See also:

• MISSIONS (Lat. missio, a sending)

missions, and the consequent development of the diplomatic hierarchy as an international institution . Of this the first beginnings are traceable to the 15th century and to See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy . There had, of course, during the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages been embassies and negotiations; but the embassies had been no more than temporary missions directed to a particular end and conducted by ecclesiastics or nobles of a dignity appropriate to each occasion; there were neither permanent diplomatic agents nor a professional diplomatic class . To the See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution of such a class the Italy of the Renaissance, the See also:

• NURSING

nursing-ground of modern statecraft, gave the first impetus . This was but natural; for Italy, with its numerous independent states, between which there existed a lively inter-course and a yet livelier rivalry, anticipated in See also:

• MINIATURE

miniature the modern states' system of Europe . In feudal Europe there had been little See also:

• ROOM

room for diplomacy; but in See also:

• NORTHERN

northern and central Italy See also:

• FEUDALISM
• FEUDALISM (from Late Lat. feodum or feudum, a fee or fiel; see FEE)

feudalism had never taken See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root, and in the struggles of the See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula diplomacy had early played a part as great as, or greater than, war .

Where all were struggling for the mastery, the existence of each depended upon alliances and See also:

• COUNTER

counter-alliances, of which the object was the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of the balance of power . In this school there was trained a notable succession of men of affairs . Thus, in the 13th and 14th centuries See also:

• FLORENCE
• FLORENCE (Ital. Firenze, Lat. Florentia)

Florence counted among her envoys See also:

• DANTE

Dante, See also:

• PETRARCH (1304-1374)

Petrarch and See also:

• BOCCACCIO, GIOVANNI (1313-1375)

Boccaccio, and later on could boast of agents such as See also:

• CAPPONI, GINO, MARQUIS (1792-1876)
• CAPPONI, PIERO (1447-1496)

Capponi, Vettori, See also:

• GUICCIARDINI, FRANCESCO (1483-1540)

Guicciardini and See also:

• MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLO (1469-1527)

Machiavelli . Papal See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, too, as was to be expected, had always been a fruitful nursing-mother of diplomatists; and some 1 e.g . A History of Diplomacy in the International Development of Europe, by D . J . See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

Hill (See also:

• LONDON

London and New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York, 1905) . authorities have traced the beginnings of modern diplomacy to a conscious See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

imitation of her legatine system.' It is, however, in See also:

• VENICE
• VENICE (continued)
• VENICE (Venezia)

Venice, that the origins of modern diplomacy are to be sought ? So early as the 13th century the republic, with a view to safeguarding the public interests, began to lay down a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of rules for the conduct of its ambassadors . Thus, in 1236, envoys to the court of Rome are forbidden to procure a See also:

• BENEFICE (Lat. beneficium, benefit)

benefice for anyone without leave of the See also:

• DOGE

doge and little See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council ; in 1268 ambassadors are commanded to surrender on their return any gifts they may have received, and by another See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

decree they are compelled to take an See also:

• OATH (0. Eng. ddh)

oath to conduct affairs to the See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour and advantage of the republic . About the same time it was decided that diplomatic agents were to See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand in, on their return, a written account of their See also:

• MISSION

mission; in 1288 this was somewhat See also:

• EXPANDED

expanded by a law decreeing that ambassadors were to See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit, within fifteen days of their return, a written account of the replies made to them during their mission, together with anything they might have seen or heard to the honour or in the interests of the republic . These provisions, which were several times renewed, notably in 1296, 1425 and 1533, are the origin of the famous reports of the Venetian ambassadors to the See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate, which are at once a See also:

• MONUMENT (Lat. monumentum or monumentum; from monere, to advise, bring to mind, remind; the German equivalent is Denkmal)

monument to the political See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius of Venetian statesmen and a mine of invaluable historical material.3 These are but a few examples of a long series of regulations, many others also dating to the 13th century, by which the Venetian government sought to systematize its diplomatic service .

That permanent diplomatic agencies were not established by it earlier than was the case is probably due to the distrust of its agents by which most of this legislation of the republic is inspired . In the 13th century two or three months was considered over-long a period for an ambassador to reside at a foreign court; in the 15th century the period of See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence was extended to two years, and in the 16th century to three . This latter rule continued till the end of the republic; the See also:

• EMBASSY

embassy had become permanent, but the ambassador was changed every three years . The origin of the change from temporary to permanent missions has been the subject of much debate and controversy . The theory that it was due, in the first instance, to the evolution of the Venetian consulates (bajulats) in the See also:

• LEVANT

Levant into permanent diplomatic posts, and that the idea was thence transferred to the West, is disproved by the fact that Venice had established other permanent embassies before the See also:

• BAYLO (Lat. bajulus or baillivus; cf. Ital. balio, Fr. bailli, Eng. bailiff)

baylo (q.v.) at See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople was transformed into a diplomatic agent of the first See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank . Nor is the first known instance of the See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment of a permanent ambassador Venetian . The earliest record4 is contained in the announcement by See also:

• FRANCESCO
• FRANCESCO, 210

Francesco See also:

• SFORZA
• SFORZA, CATERINA (1463-1509)

Sforza, See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of See also:

• MILAN
• MILAN (Ital. Milano, Ger. Mailand, anc. Mediolanum, q.v.)

Milan, in 1455, of his intention to maintain a permanent embassy at See also:

• GENOA (anc. Genua, Ital. Genova, Fr. GPnes)

Genoa '; and in 146o the duke of See also:

• SAVOY, HOUSE
• SAVOY, HOUSE OF

Savoy sent Eusebio Margaria, See also:

• ARCHDEACON (Lat. archidiaconus, Gr. &oxt3tauovor)

archdeacon of See also:

• VERCELLI (anc. Vercellae)

Vercelli, as his permanent representative to the See also:

• CURIA

Curia.6 Though, however, the early records of such appointments are rare, the practice was probably common among the See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian states . Its extension to countries outside Italy was a somewhat later development . In 1494 Milan is already represented in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France by a permanent ambassador . In 1495 Zacharia See also:

• CONTARINI

Contarini, Venetian ambassador to the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

• MAXIMILIAN
• MAXIMILIAN (1832—1867)

Maximilian, is described by See also:

• SANUTO (or SANUTO), MARINO
• SANUTO (SANUDO), MARINO

Sanuto (Diarii, i . 294) as stato ambasciatore; and from the time of 1 For this see See also:

• HINSCHIUS, PAUL (1835–1898)

Hinschius, Kirchenrecht, i. p . 498 .

s The Venetians, however, in their turn, doubtless learned their diplomacy originally from the Byzantines, with whom their See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade expansion in the Levant early brought them into See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close contact . For See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine diplomacy see See also:

• ROMAN

ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER: Diplomacy . 3 See Eugenio Alberi, Le Relazioni degli ambasciatori See also:

• VENETI

Veneti al senato, 15 vols . (Florence, 1839-1863) . 4 The apocrisiarii (a~ro,cpwtiesaa) or responsales should perhaps be mentioned, though they certainly did not set the precedent for the modern permanent missions . They were See also:

• RESIDENT

resident agents, practically legates, of the popes at the court of Constantinople . They were established by See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

Pope See also:

• LEO
• LEO (THE LION)
• LEO, BROTHER (d. c. 1270)
• LEO, HEINRICH (1799-1878)
• LEO, JOHANNES (c. 1494-1552)
• LEO, LEONARDO (1694–1744)

Leo I., and continued until the Iconoclastic controversy See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke the intimate ties between East and West._ See Luxardo, Das vordekretalische Gesandtschaftsrecht der Pei pste (See also:

• INNSBRUCK

Innsbruck, 1878) ; also Hinschius, Kirchenrecht, i . 501 . N . Bianchi, Le Materie politiche relative all' estero degli archivi di stato piemontese (See also:

• BOLOGNA
• BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI DA (1524–1608)

Bologna, See also:

• MODENA (ancient Mutina)

Modena, 1875), p . 29 . a lb .

See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

Note 2, teneamus et deputemus ibidem continue mansurum . During the same period the practice had been growing up among the other European powers . See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain led the way in 1487 by the appointment of Dr Roderigo Gondesalvi de See also:

• PUEBLA
• PUEBLA (full title La Puebla de los Angeles, and more recently, Puebla de Zaragoza)

Puebla as ambassador in England . As he was still there in 1500, the Spanish embassy in London may be regarded as the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest still surviving See also:

• POST

post of the new permanent diplomacy . Other states followed suit, but only fitfully; it was not till late in the 16th century that permanent embassies were regarded as the norm . The See also:

• PRECARIOUS

precarious relations between the European powers during the 16th century, indeed, naturally retarded the development of the system . Thus it was not till after good relations had been established with France by the treaty of London that, in 1519, See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas See also:

• BOLEYN (or BULLEN), ANNE (c. 1507–1536)

Boleyn and Dr West were sent to Paris as resident English ambassadors, and, after the'renewed See also: