See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

DISTRIBUTION OF  See also:

• PLANTS

PLANTS See also:

• COMMON

Common experience shows that temperature is the most important See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition which controls the See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of plants . Those of warmer countries cannot be cultivated in See also:

• BRITISH

British gardens without See also:

• PROTECTION

protection from the rigours of See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter; still less are they able to hold their own unaided in an unfavourable See also:

• CLIMATE

climate . Temperature, then, is the fundamental limit which nature opposes to the indefinite See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of any one See also:

• SPECIES

species . See also:

• BUFFON, GEORGE LOUIS LECLERC, COMTE DE (1707-1788)

Buffon remarked " that the same temperature might have been expected, all other circumstances being equal, to produce the same beings in different parts of the globe, both in the See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal and See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable kingdoms." Yet lawns in the See also:

• UNITED

United States are destitute of the common See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• DAISY (A.S. daeges cage, day's eye)

daisy, the See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild See also:

• HYACINTH (Gr. ualavOor)
• HYACINTH, or JACINTH

hyacinth of the See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods of the United See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom is absent from See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, and the See also:

• FOXGLOVE

foxglove from See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland . We owe to Buffon the recognition of the See also:

• LIMITATION, STATUTES OF

limitation of See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups of species to regions separated from one another by " natural barriers." When by the aid of See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man they surmount these, they often dominate with unexpected vigour the native vegetation amongst which they are colonists . The See also:

• CARDOON

cardoon and See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

milk See also:

• THISTLE

thistle, both See also:

• EUROPEAN

European plants, See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover tracts of See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country in See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• AMERICA

America with impenetrable thickets in which both man and beast may be hopelessly lost . The watercress blocks the See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers of New See also:

• ZEALAND (also SEALAND Or SEELAND; Danish Sjaelland)

Zealand into which it has been introduced from See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . The problem, then, which plant-distribution presents is twofold: it has first to See also:

• MAP
• MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9)

map out the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth's See also:

• SURFACE

surface into " regions " or " areas of vegetation," and secondly to trace the causes which have brought them about and led to their restriction and to their mutual relations . The earliest attempts to See also:

• DEAL

deal with the first See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the inquiry may be called physiognomical . They endeavoured to define " aspects of vegetation " in which the " forms " exhibited an obvious See also:

• ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

adaptation to their See also:

• CLIMATIC

climatic surroundings . This has been done with success and in See also:

• GREAT

great detail by Grisebach, whose Vegetation der Erde from this point of view is still unsurpassed . With it may be studied with See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage the unique collection at See also:

• KEW

Kew of pictures of plant-See also:

• LIFE

life in its broadest aspects, brought together by the See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry and munificence of See also:

• MISS

Miss Marianne See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North .

Grisebach declined to see anything in such " forms " but the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production by nature of that which responds to See also:

• EXTERNAL

external conditions and can only exist as See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long as they remain unchanged . We may agree with Schimper that such a point of view is obsolete without rejecting as valueless the admirable See also:

• ACCUMULATION (from Lat. accumulare, to heap up)

accumulation of data of which it admittedly fails to give any rational explanation . A single example will be sufficient to illustrate this . The genus Senecio, with some loco species, is practically See also:

• COSMOPOLITAN (Gr. Kbvµos, world, and IroXirgs, citizen)

cosmopolitan . In external See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit these exhibitadaptations to every See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of climatic or See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical condition: they may be See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere weeds like groundsels or ragworts, or climbers masquerading like See also:

• IVY (A.S. ifig, Ger. Epheu, perhaps connected with apium, anent)

ivy, or succulent and almost leafless, or they may be shrubs and even trees . Yet thrcughout they agree in the essential structure of their floral See also:

• ORGANS

organs . The cause of such agreement is, according to Grisebach, shrouded in the deepest obscurity, but it finds its obvious and See also:

• COMPLETE

complete explanation in the descent from a common ancestor which he would unhesitatingly reject . From this point of view it is not sufficient, in attempting to map out the earth's surface into " regions of vegetation, " to have regard alone to adaptations to physical conditions . We are compelled to take into See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account the actual See also:

• AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from offinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary)
• AFFINITY, CHEMICAL

affinity of the plants inhabiting them . Anything See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short of this is merely descriptive and empirical, and affords no rational basis for inquiry into the mode in which the distribution of plant-life has been brought about . Our regions will not be " natural " unless they See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark out real discontinuities both of origin and affinity, and these we can only seek to explain by reference to past changes in the earth's See also:

• HISTORY

history . We arrive thus at " the essential aim of See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical See also:

• BOTANY (from Gr. l3or6v17, plant; ,66vicety, to graze)

botany," which, as stated by Schimper, is " an inquiry into the causes of See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences existing among the various floras." To quote further: " Existing floras exhibit only one moment in the history of the earth's vegetation .

A transformation which is sometimes rapid, some-times slow, but always continuous, is wrought by the reciprocal See also:

• ACTION

action of the innate variability of plants and of the variability of the external factors . This See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change is due partly to the migrations of plants, but chiefly to a transformation of the plants covering the earth." This transformation is due to new characters arising through variation . " If the new characters be useful, they are selected and perfected in the descendants, and constitute the so-called `adaptations' in which the external factors acting on the plants are reflected." The study of the nature of these adaptations, which are often extremely subtle and by no means merely superficial, is termed Ecology (see above) . The remark may conveniently find its See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place here that plants which have reached a high degree of adaptive specialization have come to the end of their tether: a too complicated See also:

• ADJUSTMENT (from late Lat. ad juxtare, derived from juxta, near, but early confounded with a supposed derivation from justus, right)

adjustment has deprived them of the See also:

• ELASTICITY

elasticity which would enable them to adapt themselves to any further change in their surroundings, and they would pass away with conditions with which they are too inextricably See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound up . Vast floras have doubtless thus found their See also:

• GRAVE

grave in geologic change . That wrought by man in destroying forests and cultivating the See also:

• LAND

land will be no less effective, and already specimens in our herbaria alone represent species no longer to be found in a living See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state . Extinction may come about indirectly and even more surely . This is easy to happen with plants dependent on See also:

• INSECTS

insects for their fertilization . Kronfeld has shown that aconites are dependent for this on the visits of a Bombus and cannot exist outside the See also:

• AREA

area where it occurs . The actual and past distribution of plants must obviously be controlled by the facts of physical See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

geography . It is concerned with the land-surface, and this is more symmetrically disposed than would at first sight appear from a glance at a map of the See also:

• WORLD

world . See also:

• LYELL, SIR CHARLES (1797-1875)

Lyell points out that the See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye of an observer placed above a point between See also:

• PEMBROKE
• PEMBROKE (Penfro)
• PEMBROKE, EARLS OF

Pembroke and See also:

• WEXFORD

Wexford, See also:

• LAT

lat .

52° N. and long . 6° W., would behold at one view the greatest possible quantity of land, while the opposite hemisphere would contain the greatest quantity of See also:

• WATER

water . The See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental area is on one See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere and the oceanic on the other . Love has shown (Nature, Aug . 1, 1907, p . 328) that this is the result of physical causes and that the existence of the Pacific Ocean " shows that the centre of gravity of the earth does not coincide with the centre of figure." One See also:

• HALF

half of the earth has therefore a greater See also:

• DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick)

density than the other . But " under the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of the rotation the parts of greater density tend to recede further from the See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis than the parts of less density . . . the effect must be to produce a sort of furrowed surface." The furrows are the great ocean basins, and these would still persist even if the land surface were enlarged to the 1400 fathoms See also:

• CONTOUR

contour . These considerations preclude the possibility of solving difficulties in geographical distribution by the construction of hypothetical land-surfaces, an expedient which See also:

• DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT (1809-1882)
• DARWIN, ERASMUS (1731-1802)

Darwin always stoutly opposed (Life and Letters, ii . 74-78) . The furrowed surface of the earth gives the land-area a See also:

• STAR

star-shaped figure, which may from See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time to time have varied in outline, but in the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main has been permanent . It is excentric as regards the See also:

• POLE (FAMILY)
• POLE, REGINALD (1500-1558)
• POLE, RICHARD DE LA (d. 1525)
• POLE, WILLIAM (1814—1900)

pole and sends tapering extensions towards the south .

See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George Darwin finds a possible explanation of these in the screwing See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion which the earth would suffer in its plastic state . The polar regions travelled a little from See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west to See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east relatively to the See also:

• EQUATORIAL

equatorial, which lagged behind . The great See also:

• PRIMARY

primary divisions of the earth's See also:

• FLORA

flora See also:

• PRESENT

present them-selves at a glance . The tropics of See also:

• CANCER (" THE CRAB ")
• CANCER, LUIS (d. 1549)
• CANCER, or CARCINOMA (from Lat. cancer, Gr. KapKivwga, an eating ulcer)

Cancer and Capricorn cut off with surprising precision (the latter somewhat less so) the tropical from the north and south temperate zones . The north temperate region is more sharply separated from the other two than the south temperate region from the tropical . I . NORTH TEMPERATE REGION (Holarctic).—This is the largest of all, circumpolar, and but for the break at See also:

• BERING (BEHRING), VITUS (1680-1741)

Bering Straits, would be, as it has been in the past, continuous in both the old and new worlds . It is characterized by its See also:

• NEEDLE (O. Eng. ncedl; the word appears in various forms in Teutonic languages, Ger. Nadel, Dutch naal, the root being ne-, to sew, cf. Ger. nahen, and probably Lat. nere, to spin, Gr. vi)ats, spinning)

needle-leaved Coniferae, its catkin-bearing (Amentaceae) and other trees, See also:

• DECIDUOUS (from Lat. decidere, to fall down)

deciduous in winter, and its profusion of herbaceous species . II . SOUTH TEMPERATE REGION.—This occupies widely separated areas in South See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa, See also:

• AUSTRALIA

Australia, New Zealand and South America . These are connected by the presence of See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar types, Proteaceae, Restiaceae, Rutaceae, &c., mostly shrubby in habit and on the whole somewhat intolerant of a moist climate . Individual species are extremely numerous and often very restricted in area .

A See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of these regions makes it apparent that they are to a large extent adaptive . The boreal is See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold, the austral warm, and the tropical affords conditions of See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat and moisture to which the vegetation of the others would be intolerant . If we take with Drude the number of known families of flowering plants at 240, 92 are generally dispersed, 17 are more restricted, while the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder are either dominant in or peculiar to See also:

• SEPARATE

separate regions . Of these 40 are boreal, 22 austral and 69 tropical . If we add to the latter figure the families which are widely dispersed, we find that the tropics possess 161 or almost exactly two-thirds of the large groups comprised in the world's vegetation . M . Casimir de See also:

• CANDOLLE, AUGUSTIN PYRAME DE (1778—1841)

Candolle has made an See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent investigation, based on See also:

• HOOKER, JOSEPH (1814–1879)
• HOOKER, RICHARD (1553-1600)
• HOOKER, SIR JOSEPH DALTON (1817— English botanist and traveller, second son of the famous botanist Sir W.J.Hooker, was born on the 3oth of June 1817, at Halesworth, Suffolk. He was educated at Glasgow University, and almost immediately after taking his M.
• HOOKER, SIR WILLIAM JACKSON (1785–1865)
• HOOKER, THOMAS (1586–1647)

Hooker and See also:

• BENTHAM, GEORGE (1800-1884)
• BENTHAM, JEREMY (1748-1832)

Bentham's Genera pientarum . The result is unfortunately (1910) unpublished, but he informs the present writer that the result leads to the striking conclusion: " La vegetation est un phenomene surtout intertropical, dont nous ne voyons plus que restes affaiblis dans nos regions teinperees." In attempting to account for the distribution of existing vegetation we must take into account palaeontological See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence . The results arrived at may be read as a sequel to the See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article on See also:

• PALAEOBOTANY

PALAEOBOTANY . The vegetation of the Palaeozoic era, till towards its See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close, was apparently remarkably homogeneous all over the world . It was characterized by arborescent vascular Cryptogams and See also:

• GYMNOSPERMS

Gymnosperms of a type (Cordaiteae) which have See also:

• LEFT

left no descendants beyond it . In the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern hemisphere the Palaeozoic flora appears ultimately to have been profoundly modified by a lowering of temperature and the existence of glacial conditions over a wide area .

It was replaced by the Glossopteris flora which is assumed to have originated in a vast continental area (See also:

• GONDWANA

Gondwana land), of which remnants remain in South America, South Africa and Australia . The Glossopteris flora gradually spread to the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern hemisphere and intermingled with the later Palaeozoic flora which still persisted . Both were in turn replaced by the See also:

• LOWER

Lower Mesozoic flora, which again is thought to have had its See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth in the hypothetical Gondwana land, and in which Gymnosperms played the leading See also:

• PART

part. formerly taken by vascular Cryptogams . The abundance of Cycadean plants is one of its most striking features . They attained the highest degree of structural complexity in the Bennettiteae, which have been thought even to foreshadow a floral organization . Though now on the way to extinction, Cycadeae are still widely represented in the southern hemisphere by genera which, however, have no counterpart in the Mesozoic era . Amongst Conifers the archaic genera, Ginkgo and See also:

• ARAUCARIA

Araucaria still persist . Once widely distributed in the See also:

• JURASSIC

Jurassic See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period throughout the world, they are now dying out: the former is represented by the solitary See also:

• MAIDEN, or MAID

maiden-See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree of See also:

• CHINA

China and See also:

• JAPAN

Japan; the latter by some ten species confined to the southern hemisphere, once perhaps their See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home . With them may be associated the anomalous Sciadopitys of Japan . So far the See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution of the vegetable kingdom has proceeded with-out any conspicuous break . Successive types have arisen in ascending sequence, taken the See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead, and in turn given way to others . Butthe later period of the Mesozoic era saw the almost sudden See also:

• ADVENT (Lat. Adventus, sc. Redemptoris, " the coming of the Saviour ")

advent of a fully See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed angiospermous vegetation which rapidly occupied the earth's surface, and which it is not easy to See also:

• LINK

link on with any that preceded it .

The closed ovary implies a mode of fertilization which is profoundly different, and which was probably correlated with a simultaneous development of See also:

• INSECT

insect life . This was accompanied by a vegetative organization of which there is no obvious foreshadowing . As See also:

• CLEMENT (Lat. Clemens, i.e. merciful; Gr. K)4gs)
• CLEMENT, FRANCOIS (1714-1793)
• CLEMENT, JACQUES (1567-1589)

Clement See also:

• REID, ROBERT (1862– )
• REID, SIR GEORGE (1841- )
• REID, SIR ROBERT GILLESPIE (184o-19o8)
• REID, SIR WILLIAM (1791-1858)
• REID, THOMAS (1710-1796)
• REID, THOMAS MAYNE (1818-1883)
• REID, WHITELAW (1837- )

Reid remarked: " World-wide floras, such as seem to characterize some of the older periods, have ceased to be, and plants are distributed more markedly according to geographical provinces and in climatic zones." The See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field of evolution has now been transferred to the northern hemisphere . Though See also:

• ANGIOSPERMS

Angiosperms become dominant in all known plant-bearing Upper Cretaceous deposits, their origin See also:

• DATES

dates even earlier . In Europe Heer's Populus primaeva from the Lower Cretaceous in See also:

• GREENLAND (Danish, &c., Gronland)

Greenland was long accepted as the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest dicotyledonous plant . Other undoubted See also:

• DICOTYLEDONS

Dicotyledons, though of uncertain affinity, of similar See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age have now been detected in North America . The Cenomanian rocks of Bohemia have yielded remains of a sub-tropical flora which has been compared with that existing at present in Australia . Upper Cretaceous formations in America have yielded a copious flora of a warm-temperate climate from which it is evident that at least the generic types of numerous not closely related existing dicotyledonous trees had already come into existence . It may be admitted that the See also:

• IDENTIFICATION (Lat. idem, the same)

identification of fragmentary See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf-remains is at most See also:

• PRECARIOUS

precarious . Even, however, with this See also:

• RESERVATION (Lat. reservare, to keep back)

reservation, it is difficult to resist the See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of evidence as a whole . And it is a plausible conjecture that the vegetation of the globe had already in its main features been constituted at this period much as it exists at the present moment . There were oaks, beeches (scarcely distinguishable from existing species), birches, planes and willows (one closely related to'the living Salix candida), laurels, represented by Sassafras and Cinnamomum, magnolias and See also:

• TULIP (Tulipa)

tulip trees (Liriodendron), myrtles, See also:

• LIQUIDAMBAR, LIQUID AMBER

Liquidambar, Diospyros and ivy .

This is a flora which, thinned out by losses, practically exists to this See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day in the southern United States . And one essentially similar but adapted to slightly cooler conditions existed as far north as the See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude of Greenland . The See also:

• TERTIARY

tertiary era opens with a climate in which during the See also:

• EOCENE (Gr. *In, dawn, icauvos, recent)

Eocene period something like existing tropical conditions must have obtained in the northern hemisphere . The remains of palms (Sabal and Nipa) as well as of other large-leaved Monocotyledons are preserved . See also:

• SEQUOIA

Sequoia (which had already appeared in the See also:

• AMERICAN

American Upper Cretaceous) and the deciduous See also:

• CYPRESS (Cupressus)

cypress (Taxodium distichum) are found in Europe . Starkie See also:

• GARDNER
• GARDNER, PERCY (1846– )

Gardner has argued with much plausibility that the Tertiary floras which have been found in the far north must have been of Eocene age . That of See also:

• GRINNELL

Grinnell Land in lat . 81 ° consisted of Conifers (including the living spruce), poplars and willows, such as would be found now 25° to the south . The flora of Disco See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

Island in lat . 700 contained Sequoia, planes, maples and magnolias, and closely agrees with the See also:

• MIOCENE

Miocene flora of central Europe . Of this copious remains have been found in Switzerland and have been investigated with great ability by O . Heer .

They point to cooler conditions in the northern hemisphere: palms and tropical types diminish; deciduous trees increase . Sequoia and the tulip-tree still remain; See also:

• FIGS

figs are abundant; laurels are represented by Sassafras and camphor; herbaceous plants (See also:

• RANUNCULACEAE

Ranunculaceae, See also:

• CRUCIFERAE

Cruciferae, See also:

• UMBELLIFERAE

Umbelliferae) are present, though, as might be expected, only fragmentarily preserved . We may draw with some certainty the conclusion that a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement southward of vegetation had been brought about . While Europe and probably North America were occupied by a warm temperate flora, tropical types had been driven southward, while the adaptation of others to See also:

• ARCTIC (Gr. "ApKroc, the Bear, the northern constellation of Ursa Major)

arctic conditions had become accentuated . A See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual refrigeration proceeded through the See also:

• PLIOCENE (from the Gr. sr?eiov, mere, and xatvbs, recent)

Pliocene period . This was accompanied in Europe by a drastic weeding out of Miocene types, ultimately leaving the flora See also:

• PRETTY

pretty much as it now exists . This, as will be explained, did not take place to anything like the same extent in North America, the vegetation of which still pre-serves a more Miocene facies . Torreya, now confined to North America and Japan, still lingered,- as did Ocotea, now profusely developed in the tropics, but in north temperate regions only existing in the Canaries: the See also:

• EVERGREEN

evergreen oaks, so characteristic of the Miocene, were reduced to the existing Quercus ilex . At the close of the Pliocene the European flora was apparently little different from that now existing, though some warmer types such as the water-See also:

• CHESTNUT (nux Castanea)

chestnut (Trapa natans) had a more northern extension . The glacial period effected in Europe a wholesale extermination of temperate types accompanied by a southern extension of the arctic flora . But Its operation was in great measure See also:

• LOCAL

local . The Pliocene flora found refuges in favoured localities from which at its close the lowlands were restocked while the arctic plants were left behind on the mountains .

During the milder interglacial period some southern types, such as See also:

• RHODODENDRON

Rhododendron ponticum, still held their own, but ultimately succumbed . The evidence which has thus been briefly summarized, points unmistakably to the conclusion that existing vegetation originated in the northern hemisphere and under climatic conditions corresponding to what would now be termed sub-tropical . It occupied a continuous circumpolar area which allowed See also:

• FREE

free communication between the old and new worlds . The gradual differentiation of their floras has been brought about rather by extermination than specialization, and their distinctive facies by the development and multiplication of the surviving types . The distribution of See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain barriers in the Old and New Worlds is in striking contrast . In the former they run from east to west; in the latter from north to south . In the Old World the boreal See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone is almost sharply cut off and afforded no means of See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape for the Miocene vegetation when the climate became more severe . Thus in the Mediterranean region the large groups of palms, figs, myrtles and laurels are each only represented by single surviving species . The great tropical See also:

• FAMILY

family of the Gesneraceae has left behind a few outliers: Ramondia in the See also:

• PYRENEES [Span. Pirineos, Fr. Pyrenees]

Pyrenees, Haberlea in the Balkans, and Jankaea in See also:

• THESSALY

Thessaly; the Pyrenees also possess a See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute Dioscorea, See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole European survivor of the yams of the tropics . In North America there is no such barrier: the Miocene flora has been able to escape by See also:

• MIGRATION

migration the fluctuations of climate and to return when they ameliorated . It has preserved its characteristic types, such as See also:

• MAGNOLIA

Magnolia, Liriodendron, Liquidambar, Torreya, Taxodium and Sequoia . While it has been customary to describe the Miocene flora of Europe as of a North American type, it would be more accurate to describe the latter as having in great measure preserved its Miocene See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character .

If mountains serve as barriers which See also:

• ARREST (Fr. arrester, arreeter, to stop or stay)

arrest the migration of the vegetation at their See also:

• BASE

base, their upper levels and summits afford lines of communication by which the floras of colder regions in the northern hemisphere can obtain a southern extension even across the tropics . They doubtless equally See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply a path by which southern temperate types may have extended northwards . Thus the characteristic assemblage of plants to which Sir See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph Hooker has given the name Scandinavian " is present in every latitude of the globe, and is the only one that is so " (Trans . Linn . See also:

• SOC

Soc. See also:

• XXIII

xxiii . 253) . In the mountains of See also:

• PERU
• PERU (apparently from Biru, a small river on the west coast of Colombia, where Pizarro landed)

Peru we find such characteristic northern genera as Draba, Alchemilla, Saxifraga, Valeriana, Gentiana and Bartsia . High elevations reproduce the physical conditions of high latitudes . The aqueous vapour in the See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere is transparent to luminous but opaque to obscure heat-rays . The latter are retained to warm the See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air at lower levels, while it remains cold at higher . It results that besides a See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal distribution of plants, there is also an altitudinal: a fact of See also:

• CARDINAL (Lat. cardinalis)

cardinal importance, the first observation of which has been attributed to See also:

• TOURNEFORT, JOSEPH PITTON DE (1656-1708)

Tournefort . Speaking generally, all plants tend to exhaust particular constituents of the See also:

• SOIL

soil on which they grow .

Nature therefore has provided various contrivances by which their seeds are disseminated beyond the actual position they occupy . In a large number of cases these only provide for migration within sufficient but narrow limits; such plants would be content to remain local . But other physical agencies come into See also:

• PLAY

play which may be briefly noticed . The first of these is See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind: it cannot be doubted that small seeds can be swept I herbacea, Silene acaulis and Dryas octopetala will serve as examples. up like dust and transported to considerable distances . This is Even so small an area as that of See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain illustrates what has already certainly the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case with See also:

• FERN (from O. Eng. fearn, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch varen, and Ger. Farn; the Indo-European root, seen in the Sanskrit parna, a feather, shows the primary meaning; cf. Gr. rmep6 , feather, rTepis, fern)

fern-spores . The vegetation of See also:

• KRAKATOA (KRAKATAO, KRAKATAU)

Krakatoa been pointed out, that the species of a flora change both with latitude and See also:

• ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

altitude . See also:

• WATSON, RICHARD (1737-1816)
• WATSON, THOMAS (c. 1557–1592)
• WATSON, WILLIAM (1858- )
• WATSON, WILLIAM (c. 1559-1603)

Watson further brought out the striking fact that the west and east of Britain each had species peculiar to it; the former he characterized as See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic, the latter as Germanic . The Cornish See also:

• HEATH
• HEATH, BENJAMIN (1704-1766)
• HEATH, WILLIAM (1737—1814)

heath (Erica vagans) and the maiden-hair fern (Adiantum Capillus-Veneris) may serve as instances of the one, the man-orchis (Aceras anthropophora) and Reseda lutea of the other . See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland illustrates the same fact . It possesses about moo species, or about two-thirds the number of Britain . On its western shores there are some twenty, such as Saxifraga umbrosa, Erica mediterranea and Arbutus unedo, which are not found in Britain at all . The British Phanerogamic flora, it may be remarked, does not contain a single endemic species, and 38 % of the See also:

• TOTAL

total number are common to the three northern continents .

The See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis of larger areas yields results of the same kind . Within the same region we may expect to find considerable differences as we pass from one See also:

• MERIDIAN
• MERIDIAN (from the Lat. meridianus, pertaining to the south or mid-day)

meridian to another . Assuming that in its circumpolar origin the North Temperate flora was fairly homogeneous, it would meet in its centrifugal extension with a wide range of local conditions; these would favour the preservation of numerous species in some genera, their greater or less elimination in others . Thus comparing the Nearctic and Palaearctic floras we find striking differences overlying the points of agreement already indicated . The former is poor in Cruciferae, See also:

• CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Caryophyllaceae, Umbelliferae, See also:

• PRIMULACEAE

Primulaceae and See also:

• LABIATAE (i.e. " lipped," Lat. labium, lip)

Labiatae; but for the occurrence of Calluna in Newfound-land it would have no heaths . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, it is See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in See also:

• COMPOSITAE

Compositae, especially Solidago and See also:

• ASTER (Gr. /MrTI P, a star)

Aster, Polemoniaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Hydrophyllaceae and See also:

• CYPERACEAE

Cyperaceae, and it has the endemic See also:

• SARRACENIA

Sarracenia, type of a family structurally allied to poppies, of which of the remaining genera See also:

• DARLINGTONIA (called after William Darlington, an American botanist)

Darlingtonia is Californian, and Heliamphora Venezuelan . These distinctions led Sir Joseph Hooker to claim for the two divisions the See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank of primary regions . Darwin doubted, however, whether they ought to be separated (Life, iii . 230) . Lyell, discussing the facts of zoological distribution, admits that " the farther we go north . . . the more the discordance in genera and species diminishes " (Principles, ii . 340); and Hemsley finds that not less than 75 % of the genera in the flora of eastern North America " are represented in the old world," and, according to See also:

• ASA

Asa See also:

• GRAY
• GRAY (or GREY), WALTER DE (d. 1255)
• GRAY, ASA (1810-1888)
• GRAY, DAVID (1838-1861)
• GRAY, ELISHA (1835-1901)
• GRAY, HENRY PETERS (1819-18/7)
• GRAY, HORACE (1828–1902)
• GRAY, JOHN DE (d. 1214)
• GRAY, JOHN EDWARD (1800–1875)
• GRAY, PATRICK GRAY, 6TH BARON (d. 1612)
• GRAY, ROBERT (1809-1872)
• GRAY, SIR THOMAS (d. c. 1369)
• GRAY, THOMAS (1716-1771)

Gray, 50 % in Europe .

Latitudinally the region subdivides naturally into several well-marked sub-regions which must be briefly discussed . as in the Old World—oaks, chestnuts, beeches, hazels, hornbeams, birches, alders, willows and poplars . Or to take the small but well-defined See also:

• GROUP

group of five-leaved pines, all the species of which may be seen growing side by side at Kew under identical conditions: we have the See also:

• WEYMOUTH

Weymouth See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine (Pinus Strobus) in eastern North America, P. monticola and the See also:

• SUGAR

sugar pine (P . Lambertiana) in See also:

• CALIFORNIA
• CALIFORNIA, LOWER (Baja California)
• CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF

California, P . Ayacahuste in See also:

• MEXICO
• MEXICO (Span. Mejico, or Mexico,)
• MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF
• MEXICO, GULF OF

Mexico, the Arolla pine (P . Cembra) in Switzerland and See also:

• SIBERIA

Siberia, P . Pence in See also:

• GREECE

Greece, the Bhotan pine (P. excelsa) in the Himalayas, and two other species in Japan . Amongst broad-leaved trees Juglans has a similar Holarctic range, descending to the West Indies; so has Aesculus, were it not lacking in Europe; it becomes tropical in South America and Malaya . If we turn to herbaceous plants, Hemsley has pointed out that of the thirteen genera of Ranunculaceae in California, eleven are British . While the tropics preserve for us what remains of the pre-Tertiary or, at the latest, Eocene vegetation of the earth, which formerly had a much wider extension, the flora of the North Temperate region is often described as the survival of the Miocene . Engler therefore calls it Arcto-Tertiary . We must, however, agree with Starkie Gardner that it is only Miocene as regards its present position, which was originally farther north, and that its actual origin was much earlier .

There has been in effect a successive shifting of zones of vegetation southwards from the pole . Their distinctive and adaptive characteristics doubtless began to be established as soon as the phanerogamic flora was constituted . There is no See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to suppose that the peculiarities of the arctic flora are more See also:

• MODERN

modern than those of any other, though there is no fossil evidence to prove that it was not so . The North Temperate region admits of subdivision into several well-marked sub-regions . The general method by which this is effected in this and other cases is statistical . As A. de Candolle, however, points out, exclusive reliance on this may be misleading unless we also take into account the character and See also:

• AFFINITIES

affinities of the plants dealt with (Geogr . Bot. i . 1166) . The numerical predominance of certain families or their See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence affords criteria for marking out boundary lines and tracing relationships . The analysis of the flora of the British Isles will afford an See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration . This was first attempted in 1835 by H . C .

Watson, and his conclusions were en-forced ten years later by See also:

• EDWARD

Edward See also:

• FORBES
• FORBES, ALEXANDER PENROSE (1817-1875)
• FORBES, ARCHIBALD (1838-1900)
• FORBES, DAVID (1828--1876)
• FORBES, DUNCAN
• FORBES, EDWARD (1815—1854)
• FORBES, JAMES DAVID (1809—1868)
• FORBES, SIR JOHN (1787—1861)

Forbes, who dealt also with the See also:

• FAUNA

fauna . Watson showed that See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland primarily, and to a less extent the north of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, possessed species which do not reach the south . Such are the See also:

• CROWBERRY, or CRAKEBERRY

crowberry (Empetrum nigrum), Trientalis europaea, Rubus saxatilis and the globe-See also:

• FLOWER (Lat. flos, floris; Fr. fleur)
• FLOWER, SIB

flower (Trollius europaeus) . He further found that there was an See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element which he termed " boreal in a more intense degree," which amounted to about " a fifteenth of the whole flora." This was not confined to the north .but may occur on the mountains of England and See also:

• WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria)

Wales: Salix was completely exterminated in 1883 by a thick coat of red-hot See also:

• PUMICE (Lat. purnex, spumex, spuma, froth)

pumice . Yet in 1886 Treub found that it was beginning to cover itself again with plants, including eleven species of ferns; but the nearest source of supply was to m. distant . Seeds are carried with more facility when provided with plumes or wings . Treub found on Krakatoa four species of composites and two See also:

• GRASSES

grasses . Water is another obvious means of transport . The littoral vegetation of See also:

• CORAL

coral islands is derived from See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea-See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne fruits . The seeds of West See also:

• INDIAN

Indian plants are thrown on the western shores of the British Isles, and as they are capable of germination, the species are only pre-vented from establishing themselves by an uncongenial climate . Travers picked up a See also:

• SEED (from the root seen in Lat. serere, to sow)

seed of Edwardsia in the See also:

• CHATHAM
• CHATHAM, WILLIAM PITT

Chatham Islands, evidently washed ashore from New Zealand (Linn . Soc .

Journ. ix . 1865) . Rivers bring down the plants of the upper levels of their basins to the lower: thus species characteristic of the See also:

• CHALK

chalk are found on the See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks of the See also:

• THAMES

Thames near See also:

• LONDON

London . Birds are even more effective than wind .in transporting seeds to long distances . Seeds are carried in soil adhering to their feet and plumage, and aquatic plants have in consequence for the most part an exception-ally wide range . See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

Fruit-pigeons are an effective means of transport in the tropics by the undigested seeds which they void in their excrement . Quadrupeds also play their part by carrying seeds or fruits entangled in their coats . Xanthium spinosum has spread from the See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian See also:

• STEPPES

steppes to every stock-raising country in the world, and in some cases has made the industry impossible . Even insects, as in the case of South See also:

• AFRICAN

African locusts, have been found to be a means of distributing seeds . The primary regions of vegetation, already indicated, and their subordinate provinces may now be considered more in detail . I . NORTH TEMPERATE REGION.—Many writers on the distribution of animals prefer to separate this into two regions of " primary rank " : the Palaearctic and the Nearctic .

But to justify such a See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division it is necessary to establish either an exclusive See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession or a marked predominance of types in the one which are correspondingly deficient in the other . This cannot apparently be done for insects or for birds; See also:

• NEWTON
• NEWTON, ALFRED (1829–1907)
• NEWTON, JOHN (1725-1807)
• NEWTON, JOHN (1823-1895)
• NEWTON, SIR CHARLES THOMAS (1816-1894)
• NEWTON, SIR ISAAC (1642-1727)

Newton accordingly unites the two into the Holarctic region . It equally fails for plants . To take, for example, one of the most characteristic features of the Palaearctic region, its catkin-bearing deciduous trees: in North America we find precisely the same genera 1 . The Arctic-Alpine sub-region consists of races of plants belonging originally to the general flora, and recruited by subsequent additions, which have been specialized in See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low stature and great capacity of endurance to survive long dormant periods, sometimes even unbroken in successive years by the transitory activity of the brief summer . It is continuous See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the pole and roughly is bounded by the arctic circle . Mature seeds are highly tolerant of cold and have been shown to be capable of withstanding the temperature even of liquid See also:

• HYDROGEN [symbol H, atomic weight x-oo8 (0=16)]

hydrogen . Arctic plants make their brief growth and flower at a temperature little above freezing point, and are dependent for their heat on the See also:

• DIRECT

direct rays of the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun . Characteristic representatives are Pa paver nudicaule, Sazifraga oppositifolia, which forms a profuse See also:

• CARPET

carpet, and Dryas octopetala . Such plants perhaps extend to the most northern lands at present known . On May 3oth, in See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

Ward See also:

• HUNT, ALFRED WILLIAM (183o-1896)
• HUNT, HENRY (1i73-1835)
• HUNT, HENRY JACKSON (1819-1889)
• HUNT, JAMES HENRY LEIGH (1784-1859)
• HUNT, ROBERT (1807-1887)
• HUNT, THOMAS STERRY (1826-1892)
• HUNT, WILLIAM HENRY (1790—1864)
• HUNT, WILLIAM HOLMAN (1827-1910)
• HUNT, WILLIAM MORRIS (1824-1879)

Hunt's Island, lat . 83° 5', Sir George See also:

• NARES, SIR GEORGE STRONG (1831– )

Nares found that vegetation was fairly represented as regards quantity in the See also:

• POPPY

poppy, See also:

• SAXIFRAGE (Saxifraga)

saxifrage and small tufts of grass." We may compare this with extreme alpine conditions: on a spot above the Aletsch See also:

• GLACIER
• GLACIER (adopted from the French; from glace, ice, Lat. glacies)

glacier at a height of 10,700 ft .

See also:

• BALL (in Mid. Eng. bal; the word is probably cognate with " bale," Teutonic in origin, cf. also Lat. falls, and Gr. 7raXXa)
• BALL, JOHN (1585-1640)
• BALL, JOHN (1818-1889)
• BALL, JOHN (d. 1381)
• BALL, SIR ALEXANDER JOHN, BART
• BALL, THOMAS (1819- )

Ball found the temperature one See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch below the surface to be 83°, and he collected " over See also:

• FORTY

forty species in flower." Taking the whole arctic flora at 762 species, Hooker found that 616 occurred in arctic Europe, and of these 586 are Scandinavian . Beyond the arctic circle some 200, or more than a See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)