See also:

• DREAM (from a root dreug, connected with Germ. trugen, to deceive)

DREAM (from a See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root dreug, connected with Germ. trugen, to deceive)  , the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of consciousness during See also:

• SLEEP (0. Eng. slcepan; Ger. schlafen; cf. Lat. labi, to glide, and " slip ")

sleep; it may also be defined as a See also:

• HALLUCINATION (from Lat. alucinari or allucinari, to wander in mind, Gr. a.)^i resty or hXvecv, from an, wandering)

hallucination or illusion peculiarly associated with the See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of sleep, but not necessarily confined to that state . In sleep the withdrawal of the mind from the See also:

• EXTERNAL

external See also:

• WORLD

world is more See also:

• COMPLETE

complete and the objectivity of the See also:

• DREAM (from a root dreug, connected with Germ. trugen, to deceive)

dream images is usually unquestioned, whereas in the waking state the hallucination is usually recognized as such; we may, however, be conscious that we are dreaming, and thus in a measure be aware of the hallucinatory See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of our percepts . The physiological nature of sleep (q.v.; see also MUSCLE AND See also:

• NERVE (Lat. nervus, Gr. vevpov, a bowstring)

NERVE) and of dreaming is obscure . As a See also:

• RULE

rule the See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control over the voluntary muscles in dreams is slight; the sleep-See also:

• WALKER, FRANCIS AMASA (1840-1897)
• WALKER, FREDERICK (184o--1875)
• WALKER, GEORGE (c. 1618-169o)
• WALKER, HENRY OLIVER (1843— )
• WALKER, HORATIO (1858– )
• WALKER, JOHN (1732—1807)
• WALKER, OBADIAH (1616-1699)
• WALKER, ROBERT (d. c. 1658)
• WALKER, ROBERT JAMES (1801-1869)
• WALKER, SEARS COOK (1805—1853)
• WALKER, THOMAS (1784—1836)
• WALKER, WILLIAM (1824-1860)

walker is the exception and not the rule, and the motor activity represented in the dream is seldom realized in practice, largely, no doubt, because we are ignorant, under these circumstances, of the spatial relations of our bodies . Among the psychological problems raised by dreams are the condition of See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention, which is variously regarded as altogether absent or as fixed, the extent of See also:

• MENTAL

mental control, and the relation of ideas and motor impulses . There is See also:

• PRESENT

present in all dreams a certain amount of See also:

• DISSOCIATION

dissociation of consciousness, or of obstructed association, which may See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

manifest itself in the preliminary See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of drowsiness by such phenomena as the apparent transformation or See also:

• INVERSION (Lat. invertere, to turn about)

inversion of the words of a See also:

• BOOK

book . We may distinguish two types of dreams, (a) representative or centrally initiated, (b) presentative or due to the stimulation of the end See also:

• ORGANS

organs of sense . In both cases, the dream having once been initiated, we are concerned with a See also:

• PROCESS

process of reasoning, i.e. the See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of ideas suggested by resemblances or other associative elements . The false reasoning of dreams is due in the first See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place to the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence, to a large extent, of the memory elements on which our See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary reasoning depends, and, secondly, to the absence of sensory elements . Objectivity of Dreams.—In waking See also:

• LIFE

life we distinguish ideas or mental images from real See also:

• OBJECTS

objects by the fact that we are able under normal circumstances to dismiss the former at will . In sleep, on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, we have, in the first place, no real objects with which to compare the images, which therefore take on a character of reality comparable to the hallucination of waking life; moreover, See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of visualization and other faculties are enhanced in sleep, so that the strength of dream images considerably exceeds those of the mental images of the ordinary See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man; changes in powers of attention, volition and memory help to increase the hallucinatory force of the dream . In the second place, the ideas of our dreams are presented in the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of images, which we are unable to dismiss; we therefore See also:

• MISTAKE (i.e. take amiss)

mistake them for realities, exactly as the sufferer from See also:

• DELIRIUM (a Latin medical term for madness, from delirare, to be mad, literally to wander from the lira, or furrow)

delirium tremens in waking life is See also:

• APT

apt to regard his phantoms as real .

Relations of Dreaming and Sleep.—It has been maintained by See also:

• HAMILTON
• HAMILTON (GRAND or ASHUANIPI)
• HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (1757-1804)
• HAMILTON, ANTHONY, or ANTOINE (1646-1720)
• HAMILTON, ELIZABETH (1758–1816)
• HAMILTON, EMMA, LADY (c. 1765-1815)
• HAMILTON, JAMES (1769-1831)
• HAMILTON, JAMES HAMILTON, 1ST DUKE OF (1606-1649)
• HAMILTON, JOHN (c. 1511–1571)
• HAMILTON, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF
• HAMILTON, PATRICK (1504-1528)
• HAMILTON, ROBERT (1743-1829)
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1730-1803)
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN (1805-1865)
• HAMILTON, THOMAS (1789-1842)
• HAMILTON, WILLIAM (1704-1754)
• HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD (1729-1796)

Hamilton and others (see below, See also:

• MODERN

Modern Views) that dreams invariably accompany sleep, and that we always find ourselves dreaming when we are awakened . But even if it were true that dreams were invariably experienced at the moment of waking, this would not by any means establish the invariable concomitance of dreams and sleep of all sorts; at most it would show that imperfect sleep is a condition of dreaming; in the same way, dreams before wakening, known to have taken place either from the recollection of the dreamer or from the observation of another See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person, may clearly be due to imperfect wakening, followed by a deepening of sleep . It is, however, by no means true that awakening from sleep is invariably accompanied by a dream; in considering the question it must be recollected that it is complicated by the See also:

• COMMON

common experience of very rapid forgetfulness of even a vivid and complicated dream, only the fact of having dreamt remaining in the memory; it is clear that amnesia may go so far that even the fact of dreaming may be forgotten . On the whole, however, there appear to be no See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good grounds for the assertion that we always dream when we are asleep . On the other hand, there is no See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof that partial awakening is a necessary condition of dreaming . Representative Dreams.—Centrally initiated dreams maybe due to a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of automatic excitation of the cerebral regions, especially in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of those clearly arising from the occupations or sensations of the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day or the See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours immediately preceding the dream . To the same cause we may attribute the recalling of images apparently See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long since forgotten . Some of these revivals of memory may be due to the fact that links of association whichare insufficient to restore an See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea to consciousness in the waking state may suffice to do so in sleep . Just as a good visualizer in his waking moments may See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call up an See also:

• OBJECT

object never clearly seen and yet distinguish the parts, so in sleep, as L . F . A . See also:

• MAURY, LOUIS FERDINAND ALFRED (1817–1892)
• MAURY, MATTHEW FONTAINE (1806-1873)

Maury (1817–1892) and others have shown, an See also:

• IMAGE (Lat. imago, perhaps from the same root as imitari, copy, imitate)

image may be more distinct in a dream than it was when originally presented (see also below, Memory) .

Presentative Dreams.—The dreams due to real sensations, more or less metamorphosed, may arise (a) from the states of the See also:

• INTERNAL

internal organs, (b) from See also:

• MUSCULAR

muscular states, (c) from subjective sensations due to the circulation, &c., or (d) from the ordinary cause of the See also:

• ACTION

action of external stimuli on the organs of sense . (a) The state of the See also:

• STOMACH (Gr. vrbsaxos from arbga, a mouth)

stomach,See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart, &c., haslongbeenrecognized as important in the See also:

• CAUSATION

causation of dreams (see below, Classical Views) . The common sensation of flying seems to be due in many cases to the disturbance of these organs setting up sensations resembling those See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt in rapidly ascending or descending, as in a See also:

• SWING, DAVID (1830-1894)

swing or a lift . Indigestion is a frequent cause of nightmare—the See also:

• TERM

term given to oppressive and horrible dreams—and bodily discomfort is sometimes translated into the moral region, giving rise to the dream that a See also:

• MURDER

murder has been committed . (b) Dreams of flying, &c., have also been attributed to the condition of the muscles during sleep; W . See also:

• WUNDT, WILHELM MAX (1832— )

Wundt remarks that the movements of the See also:

• BODY

body, such as breathing, extensions of the limbs and so on, must give rise to dream fancies; the awkward position of the limbs may also excite images . (c) Especially important, probably, for the dreams of the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• PART

part of the See also:

• NIGHT

night are the retinal conditions to which are due the illusions hypnagogiques of the preliminary drowsy stage; but probably See also:

• LADD, GEORGE TRUMBULL (1842– )

Ladd goes too far in maintaining that entoptic stimuli, either. See also:

• INTRA

intra- or extra-organic in origin, condition all dreams . Illusions hypnagogiques, termed popularly " faces in the dark," of which Maury has given a full See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account, are the not uncommon sensations experienced, usually visual and seen with both open and closed eyes, in the See also:

• INTERVAL

interval between retiring to See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest and actually falling asleep; they are comparable to the crystal-gazing visions of waking moments; though mainly visual they may also affect other senses . Besides the See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye the See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

ear may See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply material for dreams, when the circulation of the See also:

• BLOOD

blood suggests rushing See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters or similar ideas . (d) It is a See also:

• MATTER

matter of common observation that the temperature of the See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the body determines in many cases the character of the dreams, the real circumstances, as might be expected from the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general character of the dream state, being exaggerated . In the same way the pressure of See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed-clothes, obstruction of the supply of See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air, &c., may serve as the starting-point of dreams . The common dream of being unclothed may perhaps be due to this cause, the sensations associated with clothing being absent or so far modified as to be unrecognizable .

In the same way the absence of See also:

• FOOT

foot-See also:

• GEAR (connected with " garb," properly elegance, fashion, especially of dress, and with " gar," to cause to do, only found in Scottish and northern dialects; the root of the word is seen in the Old Tent. garwjan, to make ready)

gear may account for some dreams of flying . It is possible to test the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of external stimuli by See also:

• DIRECT

direct experiment; Maury made a number of trials with the aid of an assistant . Rapidity of Dreams.—It has often been asserted that we dream with extreme rapidity; but this statement is by no means See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne out by experiment . In a trial recorded by J . Claviere the beginning of the dream was accurately fixed by the See also:

• SOUNDING (for derivation see SOUND above)

sounding of an alarm See also:

• CLOCK

clock, which rang, then was silent for 22 seconds, and then began to See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring continuously; the dream See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene was in a See also:

• THEATRE (BEarpov, " a place for seeing," from OeacOae)

theatre, and he found by actual trial that the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time required in ordinary life for the performance of the scenes during the interval of silence was about the same as in ordinary life . Spontaneous dreams seem to show a different state of things; it must be remembered that (r) dreams are commonly a See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession of images, the number of which cannot be legitimately compared with the number of extra-organic stimuli which would correspond to them in ordinary life; the real comparison is with mental images; and (2) the rapidity of association varies enormously in ordinary waking life . No proof, therefore, that some dreams are slow can show that this mentation in others is not extremely rapid . The most commonly quoted case is one of Maury's; a bed-See also:

• POLE (FAMILY)
• POLE, REGINALD (1500-1558)
• POLE, RICHARD DE LA (d. 1525)
• POLE, WILLIAM (1814—1900)

pole See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell on his See also:

• NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch ride, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word was heals; cf. Ger. Hals)

neck, and (so it is stated) he dreamt of the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French Revolution, the scenes culminating in the fall of the See also:

• GUILLOTINE

guillotine on his neck; this has been held to show that (r) dreams are extremely rapid; and (2) we construct a dream See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story leading up to the external stimulus which is assumed to have originated the dream . But Maury's dream was not recorded till many years after it had occurred; there is nothing to show that the dream, in this as in other similar cases, was not in progress when the bed-pole fell, which thus by See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere coincidence would have intervened at the psychological moment; Maury's memory on waking may have been to some extent hallucinatory . But there are records of waking states, not necessarily abnormal, in which time-See also:

• PERCEPTION (from Lat. percipere, to perceive)

perception is disturbed and brief incidents seem interminably long; on the other hand, it appears from the experiences of persons recovered from drowning that there is See also:

• GREAT

great rapidity of ideation before the extinction of consciousness; the same rapidity of thought has been observed in a fall from a See also:

• BICYCLE (from prefix bi = twice, and Gr. KuKXOr, a circle, wheel)

bicycle . See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

Reason in Dreams.—Studies of dreams of normal individuals based on large collections of instances are singularly few in number; such as there are indicate great See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations in the source of dream thoughts and images, in the coherence of the dream, and in the powers of memory . In ordinary life attention dominates the images presented; in dreams heterogeneous and disconnected elements are often combined; a resemblance need not even have been consciously recognized for the mind to combine two impressions in a dream; for example, an aching tooth may (according to the dream) be extracted, and found to resemble rocks on the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea-See also:

• SHORE

shore, which had not struck the waking mind as in any way like See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth .

Incongruence and incoherence are not, however, a necessary characteristic of dreams, and individuals are found whose dream ideas and scenes show a See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of reasoning and orderliness equal to that of a scene imagined or experienced in ordinary life . In some cases the reasoning power may attain a higher level than that of the ordinary conscious life . In a well-authenticated case See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor Hilprecht was able in a dream to solve a difficulty connected with two Babylonian See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions, which had not previously been recognized as complementary to each other; a point of See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar See also:

• INTEREST

interest is the dramatic form in which the See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information came to him—an old Babylonian See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest appeared in his dream and gave him the See also:

• CLUE

clue to the problem (see also below, See also:

• PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's mask, from personare,1 to sound through)

Personality) . Memory in Dreams.—Although prima facie the dream memory is fragmentary and far less complete than the waking memory, it is by no means uncommon to find a revival in sleep of early, apparently quite forgotten, experiences: more striking is the recollection in dreams of matters never supraliminally (see SUBLIMINAL SELF) apperceived at all . The relation between the memory in dreams and in the hypnotic See also:

• TRANCE (through the French, from Lat. transitus, from transire, to cross, pass over)

trance is curious: suggestions given in the trance may be accepted and then forgotten or never remembered in ordinary life; this does not prevent them from reappearing occasionally in dreams; conversely dreams forgotten in ordinary life may be remembered in the hypnotic trance . These dream memories of other states of consciousness suggest that dreams are some-times the product of a deeper stratum of the personality than comes into See also:

• PLAY

play in ordinary waking life . It must be remembered in this connexion that we See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge of our dream consciousness by our waking recollections, not directly, and our recollection of our dreams is extraordinarily fragmentary; we do not know how far our dream memory really extends . Connected with memory of other states is the question of memory in dreams of previous dream states; occasionally a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain of memory, analogous to a secondary personality, seems to be formed . We may be also conscious that we have been dreaming, and subsequently, without intermediate waking, relate as a dream the dream previously experienced . In spite of the irrationality of dreams in general, it by no means follows that the earlier and later portions of a dream do not cohere; we may interpolate an See also:

• EPISODE

episode and again take up the first See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive, exactly as happens in real life . The strength of the dream memory is shown by the recurrence of images in dreams; a picture, the See also:

• PAGE
• PAGE, THOMAS NELSON (1853- )
• PAGE, WILLIAM (1811-1885)

page of a book, or other image may be reproduced before our eyes several timesin the course of a dream without the slightest alteration, although the waking consciousness would be quite incapable of such a feat of visualizing . In this connexion may be mentioned the phenomenon of redreaming; the same dream may recur either on the same or on different nights; this seems to be in many cases pathological or due to drugs, but may also occur under normal conditions .

Personality.—As a rule the personality of the dreamer is unchanged; but it also happens that the confusion of identity observed with regard to other objects embraces the dreamer himself; he imagines himself to be some one else; he is alternately actor and observer; he may see himself playing a part or may divest himself of his body and wander incorporeally . Ordinary dreams, however, do not go beyond a splitting of personality; we hold conversations, and are intensely surprised at the utterances of a dream figure, which, however, is merely an alter ego . As in the case of Hilprecht (see above) the information given by another part of the personality may not only appear but actually be novel . Supernormal Dreams.—In addition to dreams in which there is a revival of memory or a rise into consciousness of facts previously only subliminally cognized, a certain number of dreams are on See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record in which See also:

• TELEPATHY (Gr. rnXe, far, wan, feelings), or THOUGHT TRANSFERENCE

telepathy (q.v.) seems to play a part; much of the See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence is, however, discounted by the possibility of hallucinatory memory . Another class of dreams (prodromic) is that in which the abnormal bodily states of the dreamer are brought to his knowledge in sleep, sometimes in a symbolical form; thus a dream of See also:

• BATTLE

battle or sanguinary conflict may presage a See also:

• HAEMORRHAGE (Gr. atµa, blood, and prryvvvac, to burst)

haemorrhage . The increased power of See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion which is the normal See also:

• ACCOMPANIMENT (i.e. that which " accompanies ")

accompaniment of the hypnotic trance may make its See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance in dreams, and exercise either a curative influence or See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act capriciously in producing See also:

• HYSTERIA

hysteria and the tropic changes known as " stigmata." We may meet with various forms of hyperaesthesia in dreams; quite apart from the recovery of sight by those who have lost it wholly or in part (see below, Dreams of the See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

Blind), we find that the powers of the senses may undergo an intensification, and, e.g., the power of appreciating See also:

• MUSIC

music be enormously enhanced in persons usually indifferent to it . Mention must also be made of the experience of R . L . See also:

• STEVENSON, ADLA1 EWING (1835- )
• STEVENSON, ROBERT (1772-1850)
• STEVENSON, ROBERT LEWIS BALFOUR (1850-1894)

Stevenson, who tells in Across the Plains how by self-suggestion he was able to secure from his dreams the motives of some of his best romances . Voluntary Action in Dreams.—Connected with dreams voluntarily influenced is the question of how far dreams once initiated are modifiable at the will of the dreamer . Some few observers, like F . W .

H . See also:

• MYERS, FREDERIC WILLIAM HENRY (1843-1901)

Myers and Dr F. See also:

• VAN

van Eeden, record that they can at longer or shorter intervals control their actions in their dreams, though usually to a less extent than their imagined actions in waking life . Dr van Eeden, for example, tells us that he has what he calls a " clear dream " once a See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month and is able to predetermine what he will do when he becomes aware that he is dreaming . Dreams of See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

Children.—Opinions differ widely as to the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age at which children begin to dream; G . See also:

• COMPAYRE, JULES GABRIEL (1843– )

Compayre maintains that dreaming has been observed in the See also:

• FOURTH

fourth month, but reflex action is always a possible explanation of the observed facts . S. de See also:

• SANCTIS, FRANCESCO DE (1817-1883)

Sanctis found that in boys of eleven only one out of eight said that he dreamt seldom, as against four out of seven at the age of six; but we cannot exclude the possibility that dreams were frequent but forgotten . If correct, the observation suggests that dreams appear comparatively See also:

• LATE

late . Individual cases of dreaming, or possibly of waking hallucination, are known as early as the age of two and a See also:

• HALF

half years; according to de Sanctis dreams occur before the fifth See also:

• YEAR

year, but are seldom remembered; as a rule the conscious dream age begins with the fourth year; speech or See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement, however, in earlier years, though they may be attributed to reflex action, are more probably due to dreams . Dreams of the Old.—In normal individuals above the age of sixty-five de Sanctis found dreams were rare; atmospheric influences seem to be important elements in causing them; memory of them is weak; they are emotionally poor, and See also:

• DEAL

deal with long past scenes . ' Dreams of Adults.—Any See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to record or influence our dreams may be complicated by (a) direct suggestion, leading to the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of the phenomena for which we are looking, and (b) indirect suggestion leading to the more lively recollection of dreams in general and of certain dreams in particular . Consequently it cannot be assumed that the facts thus ascertained represent the normal conditions . According to F .

Heerwagen's See also:

• STATISTICS

statistics See also:

• WOMEN

women sleep more lightly and dream more than men; the frequency of dreams is proportional to their vividness; women who dream sleep longer than those who do not; dreams tend to become less frequent with advancing age . The See also:

• TOTAL

total number of remembered dreams varies considerably with different observers, some attaining an See also:

• AVERAGE

average of ten per night . The senses mainly active in dreams are, according to one set of experiments, See also:

• VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT

vision in 6o %, See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

hearing in 5 %, See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste in 3 %, and See also:

• SMELL (connected etymologically with " smoulder " and " smoke ")

smell in 1.5%, where the dreamers had looked at coloured papers before falling asleep; when taste or smell had been stimulated, the visual dreams fell to about 50%, and the sense stimulated was active twice as often as it would otherwise be; dreams in which See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion was a prominent feature were ro% of the former class, 14% and 18% of the two latter . Experiments by J . Mourly Vold show even more distinctly the influence of suggestion both as to the form, visual or otherwise, and the content (See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours and forms of objects) of dreams . According to most observers dreams are most vivid and frequent between the ages of 20 and 25, but H . Maudsley puts the maximum between 30 and 35 . De Sanctis got replies from 165 men and 55 women: the proportion between the sexes closely agrees with the results attained by Heerwagen and M . W . Calkins; 13% of men and 33% of women said they always dreamt, 27% and 45% often, 50% and 13% rarely, and the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder (precisely the same percentage for men and women—9.o9) either did not dream or did not remember that they dreamt . Nearly twice as many women as men had vivid dreams; in the matter of complication of the dream experiences the sexes are about equal; daily life supplies more material in the dreams of men; nearly twice as many women as men remember their dreams clearly, a fact which hangs together to some extent with the vividness of the dreams, though it by no means follows that a vivid dream is well remembered . There are great variations in the emotional character of dreams; some observers See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report twice as many unpleasant dreams as the See also:

• REVERSE

reverse; in other cases the emotions seem to be absent; others again have none but pleasing dreams .

Individual experience also varies very largely as to the time when most dreams are experienced; in some cases the great See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority are subsequent to 6.3o A.M.; others find that quite half occur before 4.0 A.M . Dreams of the Neuropathic, Insane, Idiots, &c.—Much attention has been given to the dreams of hysterical subjects . It appears that their dreams are specially liable to exercise an influence over their waking life, perhaps because they do not distinguish them, any more than their waking hallucinations, from reality . P . See also:

• JANET, PAUL (1823—1899)

Janet maintains that the cause of hysteria may be sought in a dream . The dreams of the hysterical have a tendency to recur . Epileptic subjects dream less than the hysterical, and their dreams are seldom of a terrifying nature; certain dreams seem to take the place of an epileptic attack . Dreaming seems to be rare in idiots . De Sanctis divides paranoiacs into three classes: (a) those with systematized delusions, (b) those with frequent hallucinations, and (c) degenerates; the dreams of the first class resemble their delusions; the second class is distinguished by the complexity of its dreams; the third by their vividness, by their delusions of megalomania, and by their influence on daily life . Alcoholic subjects have vivid and terrifying dreams, characterized by the frequent appearance of animals in them, and delirium tremens may originate during sleep . Dreams of the Blind, See also:

• DEAF

Deaf, &c.—As regards visual dreams the blind fall into three classes—(r) those who are blind from See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth or become blind before the age of five; (2) those who become blind at the " See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical age " from five to seven; (3) those who become blind after the age of seven . The dreams of the first class are non-visual; but in the dreams of See also:

• HELEN

Helen See also:

• KELLER, ALBERT (1845- )
• KELLER, GOTTFRIED (1819-1890)
• KELLER, HELEN ADAMS (188o- )

Keller there are traces ofa visual content; the second class sometimes has visual dreams; the third class does not differ from normal persons, though visual dreams may fade away after many years of See also:

• BLINDNESS

blindness .

In the case of the partially blind the clearness of vision in a dream exceeds that of normal life when the partial loss of sight occurred in the See also:

• SIXTH

sixth or later years . The See also:

• EDUCATION

education of Helen Keller is interesting from another point of view; after losing the senses of sight and hearing in See also:

• INFANCY

infancy she began her education at seven years and was able to articulate at eleven; it is recorded that she " talked " in her dreams soon after . This accords with the experience of normal individuals who acquire a See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language . Her extraordinary memory enables her to recall faintly some traces of the sunlit See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of her life, but they hardly affect her dreams, so far as can be judged . The dreams of the blind, according to the records of F . Hitsthmann, present some peculiarities; animals as well as man speak; toothache and bodily pains are perceived as such; impersonal dreaming, taking the form of a See also:

• DRAMA (literally "action," from Gr. Snail, act or do)

drama or See also:

• READING

reading aloud, is found; and he had a strong tendency to reproduce or create See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse . Dreams of Animals.—We are naturally reduced to inference in dealing with animals as with very See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young children; but various observations seem to show that dreams are common in older See also:

• DOGS, ISLE OF

dogs, especially after See also:

• HUNTING (the verbal substantive from " hunt "; O. Eng. huntian, hunta; apparently connected with O. Eng. hentan, Gothic hinpan, to capture, O.H.G. hunda,booty)

hunting expeditions; in young dogs sleep seems to be quieter; dogs accustomed to the See also:

• CHASE
• CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND (1808-1873)
• CHASE, SAMUEL (1741–1811)
• CHASE, WILLIAM MERRITT (1849– )

chase seem to dream more than other kinds . Dreams among the Non-See also:

• EUROPEAN

European Peoples.—In the See also:

• LOWER

lower stages of culture the dream is regarded as no less real and its personages as no less See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective than those of the ordinary waking life; this is due in the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main to the See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit of mind of such peoples (see See also:

• ANIMISM (from animus, or anima, mind or soul)

ANIMISM), but possibly in some measure also to the occurrence of veridical dreams (see TELEPATHY) . In either case the See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage explanation is animistic, and animism is commonly assumed to have been See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed very largely as a result of theorising dreams . Two explanations of a dream are found among the lower races: (1) that the soul of the dreamer goes out, and visits his See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends, living or dead, his old haunts or unfamiliar scenes and so on; or (2) that the souls of the dead and others come to visit him, either of their own motion or at divine command . In either of the latter cases or at a higher stage of culture when the dream is regarded as See also:

• GOD

god-sent, though no longer explained in terms of animism, it is often regarded as oracular (see See also:

• ORACLE (Lat. oraculum, from ora' to pray; the corresponding Greek word is uavreiov or Xpnuri7pwov)

ORACLE), the explanation being sometimes symbolical, sometimes See also:

• SIMPLE

simple . There are two classes of dreams which have a See also:

• SPECIAL

special importance in the lower cultures: (r) the dream or vision of the See also:

• INITIATION (Lat. inilium, beginning, entrance, from mire, to go in)

initiation fast; and (2) the dream caused by the process known as See also:

• INCUBATION

incubation, which is often analogous to the initiation fast .

In many parts of See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North See also:

• AMERICA

America the individual See also:

• INDIAN

Indian acquires a tutelary spirit, known as manito or nagual, by his initiation dream or vision; the idea being perhaps that the spirit by the act of appearing shows its subjection to the will of the man . Similarly, the magician acquires his See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar in North America, See also:

• AUSTRALIA

Australia and elsewhere by dreaming of an See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal . Incubation consists in retiring to sleep in a See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple, sometimes on the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of a See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain or other unusual spot, in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to obtain a See also:

• REVELATION, BOOK OF

revelation through a dream . See also:

• FASTING (from " fast," derived from old Teutonic fastejan; synonyms being the Gr. vnorebety, late Lat. jejunare)

Fasting, continence and other observances are frequently prescribed as preliminaries . Certain classes of dreams have, especially in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages, been attributed to the influence of evil See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits (see See also:

• DEMONOLOGY (L1alµwv, demon, genius, spirit)

DEMONOLOGY) . Classical and See also:

• MEDIEVAL

Medieval Views of Dreams.—See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

Side by side with the prevalent animistic view of dreams we find in antiquity and among the semi-civilized attempts at philosophical or physiological explanations of dreams . See also:

• DEMOCRITUS

Democritus, from whom the Epicureans derived their theory, held the cause of them to be the simulacra or phantasms of corporeal objects which are constantly floating about the See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere and attack the soul in sleep—a view hardly distinguishable from animism . See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle, however, refers them to the impressions See also:

• LEFT

left by objects seen with the eyes of the body; he further remarks on the exaggeration of slight stimuli when they are incorporated into a dream; a small See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound becomes a See also:

• NOISE (a word of doubtful origin; O. Fr. nogse or nose; Prov. nausa, which points to Lat. nausea, sickness, as the origin; others take Lat. noxia, harm, as the source)

noise like See also:

• THUNDER

thunder . See also:

• PLATO

Plato, too, connects dreaming with the normal waking operations of the mind; See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny, on the other hand, admits this only for dreams which take place after meals, the remainder being supernatural . See also:

• CICERO

Cicero, however, takes the view that they are simply natural occurrences no more and no less than the mental operations and sensations of the waking state . The pathological side of dreams attracted the See also:

• NOTICE

notice of physicians . See also:

• HIPPOCRATES

Hippocrates was disposed to ad.nit that some dreams might be divine, but held that others were premonitory of diseased states of the body .

See also:

• GALEN (or GALENUS), CLAUDIUS
• GALEN, CHRISTOPH BERNHARD, FREIHERR VON (16o6-1678)

Galen took the same view in some of his speculations . Symbolical interpretations are combined with pathological no less than animistic interpretations of dreams; they are also extremely common among the lower classes in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe at the present day, but in this case no consistent explanation of their importance for the See also:

• DIVINATION
• DIVINATION, OMEN, ASTROLOGY

divination of future events is usually discoverable . Among the Greeks Plato in the See also:

• TIMAEUS (c. 345—c. 250 B.e.)

Timaeus (ch. xlvi., xlvii.) explains dreams as prophetic visions received by the lower appetitive soul through the See also:

• LIVER (O. Eng. lifer; cf. cognate forms, Dutch lever, Ger. Leber, Swed. lefver, &c.; the O. H. Ger. forms are libara, lipora, &c.; the Teut. word has been connected with Gr. i'prap and Lat. jecur)

liver; their See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation requires intelligence . The See also:

• STOICS

Stoics seem to have held that dreams may be a divine revelation; and more than one See also:

• VOLUME

volume on the interpretation of dreams has come down to us, the most important being perhaps the 'Ovecpoxpirtxa of Daldianus See also:

• ARTEMIDORUS

Artemidorus . We find See also:

• PARALLELS

parallels to this in a Mussulman See also:

• WORK

work by Gabdorrachaman, translated by See also:

• PIERRE

Pierre Vattier under the name of Onirocrite mussulman, and in the numerous books on the interpretation of dreams which circulate at the present day . In See also:

• SIAM (known to its inhabitants as Muang Thai)

Siam dream books are found (Intern . Archiv See also:

• FUR (connected with O. Fr. forre, a sheath or case; so " an outer covering ")

fur Anthr. viii . 150); one of the functions of the Australian See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine man is to decide how a dream is to be interpreted . Modern Views.—The See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of See also:

• DESCARTES, RENE (1596-1650)

Descartes that existence depended upon thought naturally led his followers to maintain that the mind is always thinking and consequently that dreaming is continuous . See also:

• LOCKE, GOTTFRIED CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1791–1855)
• LOCKE, JOHN (1632-1704)
• LOCKE, MATTHEW (c. 1630-1677)

Locke replied to this that men are not always conscious of dreaming, and it is hard to be conceived that the soul of the sleeping man should this moment be thinking, while the soul of the waking man cannot recollect in the next moment a jot of all those thoughts . That we always dream was maintained by See also:

• LEIBNITZ (LEIBNIZ), GOTTFRIED WILHELM

Leibnitz, See also:

• KANT, IMMANUEL (1724-1804)

Kant, See also:

• SIR

Sir W . Hamilton and others; the latter refutes the See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument of Locke by the just observation that the somnambulist has certainly been conscious, but fails to recall the fact when he returns to the normal state .

It has been commonly held by metaphysicians that the nature of dreams is explained by the suspension of volition during sleep; Dugald See also:

• STEWART, ALEXANDER TURNEY (1803-1876)
• STEWART, BALFOUR (1828-1887)
• STEWART, CHARLES (1778–1869)
• STEWART, DUGALD (1753-1828)
• STEWART, J
• STEWART, JOHN (1749—1822)
• STEWART, JULIUS L
• STEWART, SIR DONALD MARTIN (1824–19o0)
• STEWART, SIR HERBERT (1843—1885)
• STEWART, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1540—c. 1605)
• STEWART, STUART
• STEWART, WILLIAM (c. 1480-c. 1550)

Stewart asserts that it is not wholly dormant but loses its hold on the faculties, and he thus accounts for the incoherence of dreams and the apparent reality of dream images . See also:

• CUDWORTH, RALPH (1617-1688)

Cudworth, from the orderly sequence of dream combinations and their novelty, argues that the state arises, not from any " fortuitous dancings of the spirits," but from the " phantastical power of the soul." According to K . A . Schermer, dreaming is a decentralization of the movement of life; the ego becomes purely receptive and is merely the point around which the peripheral life plays in perfect freedom . See also:

• HOBBES, THOMAS (1588–1679)

Hobbes held that dreams all proceed from the agitation of the inward parts of a man's body, which, owing to their connexion with the See also:

• BRAIN (A.S. braegen)

brain, serve to keep the latter in motion . For See also:

• SCHOPENHAUER, ARTHUR (1788-186o)

Schopenhauer the cause of dreams is the stimulation of the brain by the internal regions of the organism through the sympathetic See also:

• NERVOUS

nervous See also:

• SYSTEM

system . These impressions the mind afterwards See also:

• WORKS

works up into quasi-realities by means of its forms of space, time, causality, &c . BIILIoGRAPuY.—For full lists of books and articles see J . M . See also:

• BALDWIN, JAMES MARK (1861– )
• BALDWIN, ROBERT (1804–1858)

Baldwin's See also:

• DICTIONARY

Dictionary of See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

Philosophy, bibliography volume (1906), and S. de Sanctis, I Sogni, also translated in See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German with additions as See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die Trdume . Important works are Binz, Uber den Trausn; Giessler, Aus den Tiefen See also:

• DES

des Traumlebens; Maury, Le Sommeil et See also:

• LES

les See also:

• REEVES, JOHN SIMS (1818-1900)

reeves; Radestock, Schlaf and Traum; Tessie, Les See also:

• RIVES, WILLIAM CABELL (1793-1868)

Rives; See also:

• SPITTA, FRIEDRICH (1852— )

Spitta, Schlaf and Traumzustdnde . For super-normal dreams see F .

W . H . Myers, Human Personality, vol. i., and Proc . S.P.R. viii . 362 . For voluntary dreams see Proc . S.P.R. iv . 241, xvii . 112 . On prophetic dreams see Monist, xi . 161; See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

Bull . See also:

• SOC

Soc .

Anth . (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1901), 196, (1902), 228; Rev. de synthese historique (1901), 151, &c . On incubation see Deubner, De incubatione; Maury, La Magie . On the dreams of See also:

• AMERICAN

American See also:

• INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN

Indians see Handbook of American Indians (See also:

• WASHINGTON
• WASHINGTON (or WASHINGTON COURT HOUSE)
• WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO (c. 1859– )
• WASHINGTON, BUSHROD (1762-1829)
• WASHINGTON, GEORGE (1732-1799)

Washington, 1907), s.v . " Dreams " and " Manito." On the interpretation of dreams see Freud, Die Traumdeutung . Other works are F . See also:

• GREENWOOD, FREDERICK (1830-19o9)
• GREENWOOD, JOHN (d. 1593)

Greenwood, See also:

• IMAGINATION

Imagination in Dreams; See also:

• HUTCHINSON
• HUTCHINSON, ANNE (c. 1600-1643)
• HUTCHINSON, JOHN (1615-1664)
• HUTCHINSON, JOHN (1674-1737)
• HUTCHINSON, SIR JONATHAN (1828– )
• HUTCHINSON, THOMAS (1711-1780)

Hutchinson, Dreams and their Meanings . (N . W .