See also:

• DUALISM (from rare Lat. dualis, containing two, from duo)

DUALISM (from rare See also:

• LAT

Lat. dualis, containing two, from duo)  , a philosophical See also:

• TERM

term applied to all theories which See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to explain facts by reference to two coexistent principles . The term plays an important See also:

• PART

part in metaphysical, ethical and theological See also:

• SPECULATION

speculation . In See also:

• METAPHYSICS
• METAPHYSICS, or METAPHYSIC (from Gr. /sera, after, d v med, things of nature, lots, i.e. the natural universe)

Metaphysics.—Metaphysical See also:

• DUALISM (from rare Lat. dualis, containing two, from duo)

dualism postulates the eternal coexistence of mind and See also:

• MATTER

matter, as opposed to See also:

• MONISM (from Gr. µ6vos, alone)

monism both idealistic and materialistic . Two forms of this dualism are held . On the one See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand it is said that mind and matter are absolutely heterogeneous, and, therefore, that any causal relation between them is ex hypothesi impossible . On the other hand is a hypothetical dualism, according to which it is held that mind cannot See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge over the chasm so far as to know matter in itself, though it is compelled by its own See also:

• LAWS

laws of cause and effect to postulate matter as the origin, if not the See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive cause, of its sensations . It follows that, for the thinking mind, matter is a necessary See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis . Hence the theory is a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of monism, inasmuch as it confessedly does not assert the existence of matter See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save as an intellectual postulate for the thinking mind . Matter, in other words, must be assumed to exist, though mind cannot know it in itself . From this question there emerges a second and more difficult problem . Consciousness, it is held, is of two See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main kinds, sensation and See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason . Sensation alone is insufficient to explain all our intellectual phenomena; all sensation is momentary and individual (cf .

See also:

• EMPIRICISM (from Gr. Eµrretpor, skilled in, from sreipa, experiment)

EMPIRICISM) . How then are we to See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account for memory and the principles of See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity, similarity, universality ? It is argued that there must be in the mind an enduring, See also:

• PRIMARY

primary See also:

• FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas, ability to do anything, from facilis, easy, facere, to do; another form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning)

faculty whereby we retain, compare and See also:

• GROUP

group the presentations of sense . This faculty is a priori, transcendental, and entirely See also:

• SEPARATE

separate from all the data of experience and sense See also:

• PERCEPTION (from Lat. percipere, to perceive)

perception . Here then we have a dualism within experience . The mind is not to be regarded as a sensitized film which automatically records the impressions of the senses . It contains within itself this modifying See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical faculty which reacts upon and arranges the sense-given presentations . In See also:

• ETHICS
• ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES

Ethics and See also:

• THEOLOGY

Theology.—In the domain of morals; dualism postulates the separate existence of See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

Good and Evil, as principles of existence . In theology the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of dualism is sporadic and has not the fundamental, determining importance which it has in metaphysics . It is a result rather than a starting-point . The old Zoroastrianism, and those See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian sects (e.g . See also:

• MANICHAEISM

Manichaeism) which were influenced by it, postulate two contending deities Ormuzd and See also:

• AHRIMAN (Gr. 'Apecµavios in Aristotle, or 'Apeiµav+7s in Agathias; in the Avesta, Angr3 Mainyush)—" the Destructive Spirit ")

Ahriman (Good and Evil), which See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war against one another in influencing the conduct of men .

So, in See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity, the existence of Satan as an evil See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence, antagonistic to See also:

• GOD

God, involves a kind of dualism . But generally speaking this dualism is permissive, inasmuch as it is always held that God will See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph over Satan in His own See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . So in Zoroastrianism the dualism is not ultimate, for Ahriman and Ormuzd are represented as the twin sons of Zervana Akarana, i.e. limitless time, wherein both will be finally absorbed . The postulate of an Evil Being arises from the difficulty, at all times acutely See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt by a certain type of mind, of reconciling the existence of evil with the divine attributes of perfect goodness, full knowledge and See also:

• INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere, to deave)

infinite See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power . See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• STUART, ARABELLA (1575-1615)
• STUART, GILBERT (1755-x828)
• STUART, JAMES EWELL BROWN (1833-1864)
• STUART, JOHN
• STUART, MOSES (1780-1852)
• STUART, SIR JOHN, COUNT

Stuart See also:

• MILL
• MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the late Lat. molina, cf. Fr. moulin, from Lat. mola, a mill, molere, to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived " meal;" the word appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. molen, Ger. muhle)
• MILL, JAMES (1773-1836)
• MILL, JOHN (c. 1645–1707)
• MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873)

Mill (See also:

• ESSAY, ESSAYIST (Fr. essai, Late Lat. exagium, a weighing or balance; exigere, to examine; the term in general meaning any trial or effort)

Essay on See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

Religion) preferred to disbelieve in the omnipotence of God rather than forgo the belief in His goodness . It follows from such a view that Satan is not the creation of God, but rather a power coeval in origin, over whose activity God has no See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control . In Theology.—Dualism is also used in a See also:

• SPECIAL

special theological sense to describe a See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of the Nestorian See also:

• HERESY

heresy . According to this doctrine the See also:

• PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's mask, from personare,1 to sound through)

personality of See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ is twofold; the divine See also:

• LOGOS (X4os)

Logos dwells as a distinct personality in the See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man Jesus Christ, the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union of the two natures being analogous to the relation between the believer and the indwelling See also:

• HOLY

Holy Spirit . See also:

• HISTORY

History of the Doctrine.—The earliest See also:

• EUROPEAN

European thinkers (see IONIAN SCHOOL OF See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

PHILOSOPHY) endeavoured to reduce all the facts of the universe to a single material origin, such as See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

Fire, See also:

• WATER

Water, See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

Air . It is only gradually that there appears any recognition of a spiritual principle exercising a modifying or causal influence over inert matter . Anaxagoras was the first to postulate the existence of Reason (vows) as the source of See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change and progress . Yet even he did not conceive this Reason as incorporeal; it was in reality only the most highly rarefied See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of matter in existence .

In See also:

• PLATO

Plato for the first time we find a truly dualistic conception of the universe . Asserting that Ideas alone really exist, he yet found it necessary to postulate a second principle of not-being, the groundwork of sensuous existence and of imperfection and evil . Herein he identified metaphysics and ethics, combining the good with the truly existent and evil with the non-existent . See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle rebels against this conception and substitutes the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of rpUirri 6X and development . Nevertheless he does not See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape from the dualism of Form and Matter, vour and Ott) . The scholastic philosophers naturally held dualistic views resulting from their extreme devotion to formalism . This See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind dualism found its natural consequence in the revolt of the See also:

• RENAISSANCE, THE

Renaissance thinkers, See also:

• BRUNO (BRUN, BRUNS) OF QUERFURT, SAINT (c. 975-1009)
• BRUNO, GIORDANO (c. 1548-1600)
• BRUNO, or BRUN (925–965)
• BRUNO, SAINT

Bruno and See also:

• PARACELSUS (c. 1490-1541)

Paracelsus, who asserted the unity of mind and matter in all existence and were the precursors of the more intelligent monism of See also:

• LEIBNITZ (LEIBNIZ), GOTTFRIED WILHELM

Leibnitz and the scientific metaphysics of his successors . The See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth of See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science on the other hand in the investigations of See also:

• BACON
• BACON (through the O. Fr. bacon, Low Lat. baco, from a Teutonic word cognate with " back," e.g. O. H. Ger. pacho, M. H. Ger. backe, buttock, flitch of bacon)
• BACON, FRANCIS (BARON VERULAM, VISCOUNT ST ALBANS) (1561-1626)
• BACON, JOHN (1740–1799)
• BACON, LEONARD (1802–1881)
• BACON, ROGER (c. 1214-c. 1294)
• BACON, SIR NICHOLAS (1509-1579)

Bacon and See also:

• DESCARTES, RENE (1596-1650)

Descartes obscured the metaphysical issue by the predominance of the See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical principles of natural philosophy . They attempted to explain DU See also:

• BARRY
• BARRY, ELIZABETH (1658—1713)
• BARRY, JAMES (1741—1806)
• BARRY, SIR CHARLES (1795-1860)
• BARRY, SIR REDMOND (1813-188o)
• BARRY, SPRANGER (1719-1777)

BARRY the fundamental problems of existence by the unaided See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of the new natural science . Thus Descartes maintained the absolute dualism of the res cogitans and the res extensa . See also:

• SPINOZA, BARUCH (1632-1677)

Spinoza realized the flaw in the See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division and preferred to postulate behind mind and matter a single substance (unica substantia) while Leibnitz explained the universe as a See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony of spiritual or semispiritual principles . See also:

• KANT, IMMANUEL (1724-1804)

Kant practically abandons the problem .

He never really establishes a relation between pure reason and things-in-themselves (Dinge an sick), but rather seeks See also:

• REFUGE

refuge in a dualism within consciousness, the transcendental and the empirical . Since Kant there are, therefore, two streams of dualism, dealing, one with the See also:

• RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root)

radical problem of the relation between mind and matter, the other with the relation between the pure rational and the empirical elements within consciousness . To the first problem there is one obvious and conclusive See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer, namely that matter in itself is inherently unthinkable and comes within the See also:

• VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT

vision of the mind only as an intellectual presentation . It follows that philosophy is in a sense both dualist and monist; it is a See also:

• COSMIC (from Gr. Kovµos, order or universe)

cosmic dualism inasmuch as it admits the possible existence of matter as a hypothesis, though it denies the possibility of any true knowledge of it, and is hence in regard of the only possible knowledge an idealistic monism . It is a self-destructive dualism, a confessedly one-sided monism, agnostic as to the fundamental problem . To the second problem there are two main answers, that of Associationism which denies to the mind any a priori existence and asserts that sensation is the only source of know-ledge, and that which admits the existence of both transcendental and empirical knowledge .