EARLY  See also:

• HISTORY

HISTORY On See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of its isolated position we might expect to find See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland in See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of a highly See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed See also:

• SYSTEM

system of legends bearing on the origins of its inhabitants . Ireland See also:

• HISTORICAL

Historical remained outside the See also:

• PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

pale of the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• SOURCES

sources. See also:

• WORLD

world, and a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of society which was peculiarly favourable to the preservation of See also:

• NATIONAL

national folk-See also:

• LORE
• LORE, AMBROISE DE (1396-1446)

lore survived in the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island until the 16th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century . The See also:

• JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. jalousie, formed from jaloux, jealous, Low Lat. zelosus, Gr. j'i os, ardour, zeal, from the root seen in '&u', to boil, ferment; cf. " yeast ")

jealousy with which the hereditary antiquaries guarded the tribal genealogies naturally leads us to See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope that the records which have come down to us may See also:

• SHED

shed some See also:

• LIGHT

light on the difficult problems connected with the early inhabitants of these islands and the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . Although innumerable histories of Ireland have appeared in See also:

• PRINT

print since the publication of See also:

• RODERICK

Roderick O'Flaherty's Ogygia (See also:

• LONDON

London, 1677), the authors have in almost every See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case been content to reproduce the legendary accounts without bringing any serious See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism to See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear on the sources . This is partly to be explained by the fact that the serious study of Irish See also:

• PHILOLOGY

philology only See also:

• DATES

dates from 1853 and much of the most important material has not yet appeared in print . In the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 19th century O'See also:

• DONOVAN, EDWARD (1768–1837)

Donovan and O'See also:

• CURRY

Curry collected a vast amount of undigested See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information about the early history of the island, but as yet J . B . See also:

• BURY
• BURY, JOHN BAGNELL (1861- )

Bury in his monograph on St See also:

• PATRICK, SIMON (1626–1707)
• PATRICK, ST

Patrick is the only trained historian who has ever adequately dealt with any of the problems connected with ancient Ireland . Hence it is evident that our knowledge of the subject must remain extremely unsatisfactory until the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief sources have been properly sifted by competent scholars . A beginning has been made by See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John Rhys in his " Studies in Early Irish History " (Proceedings of the See also:

• BRITISH

British See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy, vol. i.), and by John See also:

• MACNEILL, HECTOR (1946-1818)

MacNeill in a suggestive See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of papers contributed to the New Ireland See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review (See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 1906-Feb . 1907) . Much might reasonably be expected from the sciences of See also:

• ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. &pxa1a, ancient things, and Xoyos, theory or science)

archaeology and See also:

• ANTHROPOLOGY (Gr. avOpw1ror man, and Xoyos, theory or science)

anthropology .

But although Ireland is as See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich as, or even richer in monuments of the past than, most countries in Europe, comparatively little has been done owing in large measure to the lack of systematic investigation . It may be as well to specify some of the more important sources at the outset . Of the classical writers who See also:

• NOTICE

notice Ireland See also:

• PTOLEMY (CLAUDIUS PTOLEMAEUS)

Ptolemy is the only one who gives us any very definite information . The legendary origins first appear in See also:

• NENNIUS (fl. 796)

Nennius and in a number of poems by such writers as Maelmura (d . 884), Cinaed Uah Artacain (d . 975), Eochaid Ua Flainn (d . 984), Flann Mainistrech (d. ro56) and Gilla Coemgin (d . 1072) . They are also embodied in the Leabhar Gabhdla or See also:

• BOOK

Book of Invasions, the earliest copy of which is contained in the Book of See also:

• LEINSTER

Leinster, a 12th-century MS .. See also:

• GEOFFREY
• GEOFFREY (1158-1186)
• GEOFFREY (c. I152-1212)

Geoffrey Keating's History, Dugald MacFirbis's Genealogies and various collections of See also:

• ANNALS (Annales, from annus, a year)

annals such as those,by the Four Masters . Of See also:

• PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING

prime importance for the earlier penod are the stories known collectively as the See also:

• ULSTER
• ULSTER, EARLS OF

Ulster See also:

• CYCLE
• CYCLE (Gr. KUK)^os, a circle)

cycle, among which the lengthy epic the T¢in Bo Cualnge takes first See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place . Amongst the numerous See also:

• CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF

chronicles the Annals of Ulster, which commence with the See also:

• YEAR

year 441, are by far the most trustworthy .

The Book of Rights is another compilation which gives valuable information with regard to the relations of the various kingdoms to one another . Finally, there are the extensive collections of genealogies preserved in See also:

• RAWLINSON, GEORGE (1812-1902)
• RAWLINSON, RICHARD (169o-1755)
• RAWLINSON, SIR HENRY CRESWICKE (1810—1895)
• RAWLINSON, SIR ROBERT (1810—1898)

Rawlinson B 502, the Books of Leinster and See also:

• BALLYMOTE

Ballymote . Earliest Inhabitants.—There is as yet no certain See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence to show that Ireland was inhabited during the See also:

• PALAEOLITHIC (Gr. iraXates, old, and )tWBor, stone)

palaeolithic See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period . But there are abundant traces of See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man in the See also:

• NEOLITHIC, or LATER STONE AGE (Gr. vEOr, new, and XLOos, stone)

neolithic state of culture (see Sir W . R . W . See also:

• WILDE, OSCAR

Wilde's See also:

• CATALOGUE (a Fr. adaptation of the Gr. KaraXoyos, a register, from Karalyety, to enrol or pick out)

Catalogue of the antiquities in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy) . The use of See also:

• BRONZE

bronze was perhaps introduced about 1450 B.C . The craniological evidence is unfortunately at See also:

• PRESENT

present insufficient to show whether the introduction of See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal coincided with a.ry particular invasion either from See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain or the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent . At any See also:

• RATE

rate it was not until well on in the Bronze See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

Age, perhaps about 600 or 500 B.C., that the Goidels, the first invaders speaking a See also:

• CELTIC

Celtic See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, set See also:

• FOOT

foot in Ireland . The newcomers probably overran the whole island, subduing but not exterminating the older See also:

• RACE

race with which they doubtless intermarried freely, as pre-Celtic types are frequent among the populations of See also:

• CONNAUGHT
• CONNAUGHT, ARTHUR WILLIAM PATRICK ALBERT, DUKE OF (1850– )

Connaught and See also:

• MUNSTER
• MUNSTER, SEBASTIAN (1489-1552)

Munster at the present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day . What the language was that was spoken by the neolithic See also:

• ABORIGINES

aborigines is a question which will probably never be settled .

The See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division into provinces or " fifths " (Ulster, Leinster, Connaught, E . Munster and W . Munster) appears to be older than the historical period, and may be due to the Goidels . Between 300 B.C. and 150 B.C. various Belgic and other Brythonic tribes established themselves in Britain bringing with them the knowledge of how to See also:

• WORK

work in See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron . Probably much about the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time certain Belgic tribes effected settlements in the S.E. of Ireland . Some time must have elapsed before any Brythonic See also:

• PEOPLE

people undertook to defy the powerful Goidelic states, as the supremacy of the Brythonic See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of See also:

• TARA
• TARA, VISCOUNTS AND BARONS

Tara does not seem to have been acknowledged before the 4th century of our era . The early Belgic settlers constituted perhaps in the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main trading states which acted as intermediaries of See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce between Ireland and See also:

• GAUL
• GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855— )

Gaul.l In addition to these Brythonic colonies a number of Pictish tribes, who doubtless came over from See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland, conquered for themselves parts of See also:

• ANTRIM
• ANTRIM, RANDAL MACDONNELL, 1ST EARL OF (d. 1636)
• ANTRIM, RANDAL MACDONNELL, 1ST MARQUESS OF (1609-1683)

Antrim and Down where they maintained their See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence till See also:

• LATE

late in the historical period . Picts are also represented as having settled in the See also:

• COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. comae, cf. O. Fr. cunte, conk', Mod. Fr. comae, from Lat. comitatus, cf. Ital. comitato, Prov. comtat; see COUNT)

county of See also:

• ROSCOMMON
• ROSCOMMON, WENTWORTH DILLON, 4TH EARL OF (c. 163o-1685)

Roscommon; but we have at present no means of ascertaining when this invasion took place . Classical Writers.—See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek and Roman writers seem to have possessed very little definite information about the island, though much of what they relate corresponds to the state of society disclosed in the older epics . See also:

• STRABO (born c. 63 n.c.)

Strabo held the inhabitants to be See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere savages, addicted to See also:

• CANNIBALISM

cannibalism and having no See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage ties . See also:

• SOLINUS, GAIUS JULIUS

Solinus speaks of the luxurious pastures, but the natives he terms an inhospitable and warlike nation . The conquerors among them having first drunk the See also:

• BLOOD

blood of their enemies, afterwards besmear their faces therewith; they regard right and wrong alike .

Whenever a woman brings forth a male See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

child, she puts his first See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food on the See also:

• SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

sword of her See also:

• HUSBAND

husband, and lightly introduces the first auspicium of nourishment into his little mouth with the point of the sword . See also:

• POMPONIUS, LUCIUS

Pomponius See also:

• MELA, POMPONIUS (ft. c. A.D. 43)

Mela speaks of the See also:

• CLIMATE

climate as unfit for ripening See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain, but he, too, notices the luxuriance of the grass . However, it is not until we reach Ptolemy that we feel we are treading on See also:

• FIRM

firm ground . His description is of supreme importance for the study of early Irish ethnography . Ptolemy gives the names of sixteen peoples in Ireland, several of which can be identified . As we should expect from our knowledge of later Irish history scarcely any towns are mentioned . In the S.E., probably in Co . See also:

• WICKLOW

Wicklow, we find the Manapii—evidently a See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony from N.E . Gaul . See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North of them, perhaps in See also:

• KILDARE

Kildare, a similar people, the Cauci, are located . In See also:

• WATERFORD

Waterford and See also:

• WEXFORD

Wexford are placed the See also:

• BRIGANTES (Celtic for " mountaineers " or " free, privileged ")

Brigantes, who also occur in See also:

• YORKSHIRE

Yorkshire . The territory to the west of the Brigantes is occupied by a people called by Ptolemy the Iverni .

Their See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital he gives as Ivernis, and in the extreme S.W. of the island he marks the mouth of the riber Iernos, by which the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of See also:

• DINGLE

Dingle See also:

• BAY

Bay called See also:

• CASTLEMAINE

Castlemaine See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

Harbour is perhaps intended . The Iverni must have been a nation of considerable importance, as they See also:

• PLAY

play a prominent See also:

• PART

part in the historical period, where they are known as the trnai or Eraind of Munster . It would seem that the Iverni were the first native tribe with whom See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign traders came in contact, as it is from them that the Latin name for the whole island is derived . The earliest See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form was probably Iveriyo or Iveriyu, genitive Iveryonos, from which come See also:

• LAT

Lat . Iverio, Hiverio (Antonine Itinerary), Hiberio (See also:

• CONFESSION (Lat. confessio, from confiteor, acknowledge, confess)

Confession of St Patrick), Old Irish Eriu,'Heriu, gen . Herenn The importance of the commerce between Ireland and Gaul in early times, and in particular the See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade in See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine, has been insisted upon by H . Zimmer in papers in the Abh. d . Berl . Akad. d . Wissenschaftex (1909).with See also:

• REGULAR

regular loss of intervocalic v, Welsh Iwerddon (from the oblique cases) . West of the Iverni in Co . See also:

• KERRY

Kerry Ptolemy mentions the Vellabori, and going in a northerly direction following the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast we find the Gangani, Autini (Autiri), Nagnatae (Magnatae) .

Erdini (cf. the name Lough See also:

• ERNE

Erne), Vennicnii, Rhobogdii, Darini and Eblanii, none of whom can be identified with certainty . In See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south Ulster Ptolemy locates a people called the Voluntii who seem to correspond to the Ulidians of a later period (Ir . Ulaid, in Irish Lat . Uloti) . About See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

Queen's county or See also:

• TIPPERARY

Tipperary are situated the Usdiae, whose name is compared with the later See also:

• OSSORY (Osraighe)
• OSSORY, THOMAS BUTLER, EARL OF (1634-1680)

Ossory (Ir . Os-raige) . Lastly, in the north of Wexford we find the Coriondi who occur in Irish texts near the See also:

• BOYNE

Boyne (See also:

• MID

Mid . Ir . Coraind) . It would seem as if Ptolemy's description of Ireland answered in some measure to the state of affairs which we find obtaining in the older Ulster epic cycle ? Both are probably anterior to the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of a central state at Tara . Legendary Origins.—We can unfortunately derive no further assistance from See also:

• EXTERNAL

external sources and must therefore examine the native traditions .

From the 9th century onwards we find accounts of various races who had colonized the island . These stories naturally become amplified as times goes on, and in what we may regard as the classical or See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard versions to be found in Keating, the Four Masters, ,Dugald MacFirbis and elsewhere, no fewer than five successive invasions are enumerated . The first colony is represented as having arrived in Ireland in A.M . 2520, under the leadership of an individual named Partholan who hailed from Middle See also:

• GREECE

Greece . His See also:

• COMPANY

company landed in See also:

• KEN
• KEN, THOMAS (1637-1711)

Ken-See also:

• MARE

mare Bay and settled in what is now Co . See also:

• DUBLIN

Dublin . After occupying the island for 300 years they were all carried off by a See also:

• PLAGUE (in Gr. Xotµos; in Lat. pestis, pestilentia)

plague and were buried at Tallaght (Ir . Tamlacht, " plague-See also:

• GRAVE

grave "), at which place a number of ancient remains (probably belonging, however, to the See also:

• VIKING

Viking period) have come to light . In A.M . 2850 a See also:

• WARRIOR

warrior from See also:

• SCYTHIA (Gr. EKuOia)

Scythia called Nemed reached Ireland with 900 fighting men . Nemed's people are represented as having to struggle for their existence with a race of See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea-pirates known as the Fomorians . The latter's stronghold was Tory Island, where they had a mighty fortress .

After undergoing See also:

• GREAT

great hardship the Nemedians succeeded in destroying the fortress and in slaying the enemies' leaders, but the Fomorians received reinforcements from See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa . A second See also:

• BATTLE

battle was fought in which both parties were nearly exterminated . Of the Nemedians only See also:

• THIRTY

thirty warriors escaped, among them being three descendants of Nemed, who made their way each to a different See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country (A.M . 3066) . One of them, See also:

• SIMON, ABRAHAM (1622-1692)
• SIMON, JULES FRANCOIS (1814–1896)
• SIMON, RICHARD (1638–1712)
• SIMON, SIR JOHN (1816–1904)
• SIMON, THOMAS (c. 1623-1665)

Simon Brec, proceeded to Greece, where his posterity multiplied to such an extent that the Greeks See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew afraid and reduced them to See also:

• SLAVERY

slavery . In time their position became so intolerable that they resolved to See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape, and they arrived in Ireland A.M . 3266 . This third See also:

• BODY

body of invaders is known collectively as Firbolgs, and is ethnologically and historically very important . They are stated to have had five leaders, all See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

brothers, each of whom occupied one of the provinces or " fifths." We find them landing in different places . One party, the See also:

• FIR

Fir Galeoin, landed at Inber Slangi, the mouth of the Slaney, and occupied much of Leinster . Another, the Fir Domnand, settled in See also:

• MAYO
• MAYO, RICHARD SOUTHWELL BOURKE, 6TH EARL OF (1822-1872)

Mayo where their name survives in Irrus Domnand, the ancient name for the See also:

• DISTRICT

district of Erris . A third See also:

• BAND

band, the Firbolg proper, took possession of Munster .

Many authorities such as Keating and MacFirbis admit that descendants of the Firbolgs were still to be found in parts of Ireland in their own day, though they are characterized as " tattling, guileful, See also:

• TALE (O.Eng. talu, number, account, story; the word is common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Zahl, number, Erzahlung, narrative, Du. taal, speech, language)

tale-bearing, noisy, contemptible, mean, wretched, unsteady, harsh and inhospitable:" The Firbolgs had scarcely established themselves in the island when a fresh set of invaders appeared on the See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene . These were the Tuatha De Danann (" tribes of the See also:

• GOD

god Danu "), who according to the See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story were also descended from Nemed . They came originally from Greece and were highly skilled in See also:

• NECROMANCY (Gr. veKpoµavreia, or veIVoµavrEia, from vEKpos or ViKVS, corpse, and µavreia, divination)

necromancy . Having to flee from Greece on account of a Syrian invasion they proceeded to Scandinavia . Under Nuadu Airgetlaim they 2 On the subject of Ptolemy's description of Ireland see articles by G . H . Orpen in the See also:

• JOURNAL
• JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily)

Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland (See also:

• JUNE

June 18 4), and John MacNeill in the New Ireland Review (See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September 1906) . moved to Scotland, and finally arrived in Ireland (A.M . 3303), bringing with them in addition to the celebrated Lia Fail (" See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone of destiny ") which they set up at Tara, the cauldron of the Dagda and the sword and See also:

• SPEAR (O. Eng. spere, O. H. Ger. sper, mod. Ger. speer, &c., cf. Lat. sparrs; probably related to " spar, " a beam)

spear of Lugaid Lamfada . Eochaid, son of Erc, See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of the Firbolgs, having declined to surrender the See also:

• SOVEREIGNTY

sovereignty of Ireland, a great battle was fought on the See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain of Moytura near Cong (Co . Mayo), the site of a prehistoric See also:

• CEMETERY (Gr. Korrsnri7pwv, from Hoiµav, to sleep)

cemetery . In this contest the Firbolgs were overthrown with great slaughter, and the remnants of the race according to Keating and other writers took See also:

• REFUGE

refuge in See also:

• ARRAN
• ARRAN, EARLS OF

Arran, See also:

• ISLAY

Islay, Rathlin and the See also:

• HEBRIDES, THE, or WESTERN ISLES

Hebrides, where they dwelt until driven out by Picts .

Twenty-seven years later the Tuatha De had to defend themselves against the Fomorians, who were almost annihilated at the battle of north Moytura near See also:

• SLIGO

Sligo . The Tuatha De then enjoyed undisturbed possession of Ireland until the arrival of the Milesians in A.M.3J00 . All the. early writers dwell with great fondness on the origin and adventures of this race . The Milesians came primarily from Scythia and after sojourning for some time in See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt, See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

Crete and in Scythia again, they finally arrived in See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain . In the See also:

• LINE

line of mythical ancestors which extends without interruption up to See also:

• NOAH (ni, rest; Septuagint, New Testament, Philo, Josephus, Na*, N&i os, Nweos: Vulg. Noe)

Noah, the names of Fenius Farsaid, Goedel See also:

• GLAS, GEORGE (1725-1765)
• GLAS, JOHN (1695-1773)

Glas, See also:

• EBER, PAUL (1511-1569)

Eber See also:

• SCOT, MICHAEL (? 1175-1232)

Scot and Breogan constantly recur in Irish story . At length eight sons of Miled (Lat . Milesius) set forth to conquer Ireland . The spells of the Tuatha De accounted for most of their number . However, after two battles the newcomers succeeded in over-coming the older race; and two brothers, Eber Find and Eremon, divided the island between them, Eber Find taking See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east and west Munster, whilst Eremon received Leinster and Connaught . Lugaid, son of the See also:

• BROTHER

brother of Miled, took possession of south-west Munster . At the same time Ulster was See also:

• LEFT

left to Eber son of Ir son of Miled . The old historians agree that Ireland was ruled by a See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession of Milesian monarchs until the reign of Roderick O'See also:

• CONNOR (or O'CONNOR), BERNARD (1666-1698)

Connor, the last native king .

The Tuatha De are represented as retiring into the sid or See also:

• FAIRY (Fr. fee, faerie; Prov. facia; Sp. hada; Ital. fata; med. Lat. fatare, to enchant, from Lat. fatum, fate, destiny)

fairy mounds . Eber Find and Eremon did not remain See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long in agreement . The historians place the beginnings of the See also:

• ANTITHESIS (the Greek for " setting opposite ")

antithesis between north and south at the very commencement of the Milesian domination . A battle was fought between the two brothers in which Eber Find lost his See also:

• LIFE

life. in the reign of Eremon the Picts are stated to have arrived in Ireland, coming from Scythia . It will have been observed that Scythia had a See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar attraction for See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval Irish chroniclers on account of its resemblance to the name Scotti, Scots . The Picts first settled in Leinster; but the main body were forced to remove to Scotland, only a few remaining behind in See also:

• MEATH (pronounced with th soft, as in the)

Meath . Among the numerous mythical See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings placed by the See also:

• ANNALISTS (from Lat. annas, year; hence annales, sc. libri, annual records)

annalists between Eremon and the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian era we may mention Tigernmas (A.M . 3581), 011am Fodla (A.M . 3922) who established the See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting of Tara, Cimbaeth (c . 305 B.C.) the reputed founder of Emain Macha, Ugaine Mor, Labraid Loingsech, and Eochaid Feidlech, who built See also:

• RATH, GERHARD VOM (183o-1888)

Rath Cruachan for his celebrated daughter, Medb queen of Connaught . During the 1st century of our era we hear of the rising of the aithech-tuatha, i.e. subject or plebeian tribes, or in other words the Firbolgs, who paid See also:

• BAER, KARL ERNST VON (1792-1876)
• BAER, WILLIAM JACOB (186o– )

Baer- or See also:

• BASE

base See also:

• RENT

rent to the Milesians . From a resemblance in the name which is probably fortuitous these tribes have been identified with the Attecotti of Roman writers .

Under Cairbre Cinnchait (" See also:

• CAT
• CAT, CIVET
• CAT, HOUSE

cat-See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head ") the oppressed peoples succeeded in wresting the sovereignty from the Milesians, whose princes and nobles were almost exterminated (A.D . 90) . The line of Eremon was, however, restored on the See also:

• ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach)

accession of Tuathal Techtmar (" the legitimate "), who reigned A.D . 130-160 . This ruler took See also:

• MEASURES

measures to consolidate the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of the ardri (supreme king) . He constructed a number of fortresses on the great central plain and carved out the kingdom of Meath to serve as his mensal See also:

• LAND

land . The new kingdom was composed of the present counties of Meath, See also:

• WESTMEATH
• WESTMEATH, EARL OF

Westmeath and See also:

• LONGFORD

Longford together with portions of See also:

• MONAGHAN

Monaghan, See also:

• CAVAN

Cavan, King's Co. and Kildare . He was also the first to See also:

• LEVY (Fr. levee, from lever, Lat. levare, to lift, raise)
• LEVY, AMY (1861–1889)
• LEVY, AUGUSTE MICHEL (1844– )

levy the famous Leinster See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute, the boroma, in consequence of an insult offered to him by one of the kings of that See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province . This tribute, which was only remitted in the 7th century at the instance of St Moling, must have been the source of See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war and oppression . Agrandson of Tuathal's, the famous See also:

• CONN
• CONN, LOUGH

Conn Cetchathach (" the See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred-fighter "), whose See also:

• DEATH

death is placed in the year 177 after a reign of about twenty years, was constantly at war with the Munster ruler Eogan Mbr, also called Mog Nuadat, of the race of Eber Find . Eogan had subdued the trnai and the Corco Laigde (descendants of Lugaid son of Ith) in Munster, and even the supreme king was obliged to See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share the island with him . Hence the well-known names Leth Cuinn or " Conn's See also:

• HALF

half " (north Ireland), and Leth Moga or " Mug's half " (south Ireland) .

The boundary line ran from the Bay of See also:

• GALWAY

Galway to Dublin along the great See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge of See also:

• GRAVEL, or PEBBLE BEDS

gravel known as Eiscir Riada which stretches across Ireland . Mog Nuadat had a son Ailill Aulom who plays a prominent part in the Irish sagas and genealogies, and his sons Eogan, Cian and Cormac Cas, all became the ancestors of well-known families . Conn's See also:

• GRANDSON (Ger. Grandsee)

grandson, Cormac son of See also:

• ART

Art, is represented as having reigned in great splendour (254–266) and as having been a great See also:

• PATRON

patron of learning . It was during this reign that the See also:

• SEPT

sept of the Desi were expelled from Meath . They settled in Munster where their name still survives in the See also:

• BARONY

barony of Decies (Co . Waterford) . A curious passage in Cormac's Glossary connects one of the leaders of this sept, Cairpre Muse, with the settlements of the Irish in.south See also:

• WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria)

Wales which may have taken place as early as the 3rd century . Of greater consequence was the invasion of Ulster by the three Collas, See also:

• COUSINS, SAMUEL (18o1-1887)

cousins of the ardri Muredach . The stronghold of Emain Macha was destroyed and the Ulstermen were driven across the See also:

• NEWRY

Newry See also:

• RIVER

River into See also:

• DALRIADA

Dalriada, which was inhabited by Picts . The old inhabitants of Ulster are usually termed Ulidians to distinguish them from the Milesian peoples who overran the province . With the See also:

• ADVENT (Lat. Adventus, sc. Redemptoris, " the coming of the Saviour ")

advent of Niall Nbigiallach (" N. of the nine hostages " reigned 379–405) son of Eochaid Muigmed6in (358–366) we are treading safer ground . It was about this time that the Milesian kingdom of Tara was firmly established .

Nor was Niall's activity confined to Ireland alone . Irish sources represent him as constantly engaged in marauding expeditions oversea, and it was doubtless on one of these. that St Patrick was taken See also:

• CAPTIVE (from Lat. capere, to take)

captive . These movements coincide with the inroads of the Picts and Scots recorded by Roman writers . It is probably from this period that the Irish colonies in south Wales, See also:

• SOMERSET, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• SOMERSET, EDMUND BEAUFORT, DUKE OF (c. 1404–1455)
• SOMERSET, EDWARD SEYMOUR, DUKE OF (c. 1506–1552)
• SOMERSET, LORD ROBERT EDWARD HENRY (1776-1842)
• SOMERSET, ROBERT CARR (or KER), EARL OF (e. 1590-1645)

Somerset, See also:

• DEVON, EARLS OF

Devon and See also:

• CORNWALL

Cornwall date . And the earliest migrations from Ulster to See also:

• ARGYLL, EARLS AND DUKES OF

Argyll may also have taken place about this time . See also:

• LITERARY

Literary evidence of the colonization of south Wales is preserved both in Welsh and Irish sources, and some See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of the extent of Irish oversea activity may be gathered from the See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of the Ogam See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions in Wales, south-west See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England and the Isle of Man . Criticism of the Legendary Origins.—It is only in See also:

• RECENT

recent years that the Irish legendary origins have been subjected to serious criticism . The fondly cherished theory which attributes Milesian descent to the bulk of the native See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population has at length been assailed . MacNeill asserts that in MacFirbis's genealogies the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the tribes in early Ireland do not trace their descent to Eremon and Eber Find; they are rather the descendants of the subject races, one of which figures in the See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of conquests under the name of Firbolg . The stories of the Fomorians were dcubtless suggested in part by the Viking invasions, but the origin of the Partholan See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend has not been discovered . The Tuatha De do not appear in any of the earliest quasi-historical documents, nor in Nennius, and they scarcely correspond to any particular race . It seems more probable that a See also:

• SPECIAL

special invasion was assigned to them by later writers in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to explain the presence of mythical personages going by their name in the heroic cycles, as they were found inconvenient by the monkish historians .

In the early centuries of our era Ireland would tllrefore have been occupied by the Firbolgs and kindred races and the Milesians . Aceiording to MacNeill the Firbolg tribal names are formed with the suffix -raige, e.g . Ciarraige, Kerry, Osraige, Ossory, or with the obscure words Corcu and mocu (maccu), e.g . Corco Duibne, Corkaguiney, Corco Mruad, Corcomroe, Macu Loegdae, Macu Teimne . In the case of corcu and mocu the name which follows is frequently the name of an See also:

• EPONYMOUS

eponymous ancestor . The Milesians on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand. named themselves after an historical ancestor employing terms such as ui, " descendants," See also:

• ELAND (= elk)

eland " See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children," dal, " division " anal, " kindred," or s£l, " See also:

• SEED (from the root seen in Lat. serere, to sow)

seed." In this connexion it may be noted that practically all the Milesian pedigrees converge on three ancestors in the 2nd century—Conn Cetchathach king of Tara, Cathair Mor of Leinster, and Ailill Aulom of Munster,—whilst in scarcely any of them are mythological personages absent when we go farther back than A.D . 300 . Special genealogies were framed to See also:

• LINK

link up other races, e.g. the Eraind and Corcu Loegdi of Munster and the Ulidians with the Milesians of Tara . The peculiar characteristic of the Milesian See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest is the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of a central See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy at Tara . No trace of such a state of affairs is to be found in the Ulster epic . In the Tdin B6 Cfainge we find Ireland divided into fifths, each ruled over by its own king . These divisions were: Ulster with Emain Macha as capital, Connaught with Cruachu as See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence, north Munster from Slieve See also:

• BLOOM (from A.S. bloma, a flower)

Bloom to north Kerry, south Munster from south Kerry to Waterford, and Leinster consisting of the two kingdoms of Tara and Ailinn .

Moreover, the kings of Tara mentioned in the Ulster cycle do not figure in any list of Milesian kings . It would appear then that the central kingdom of Tara was an innovation subsequent to the state of society described in the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest sagas and the See also:

• POLITICAL

political position reflected in Ptolemy's account . It was probably due to an invasion undertaken by Brythons 1 from Britain, but it is impossible to assign a precise date for their arrival . Until the end of the 3rd century the Milesian power must have been confined to the valley of the Boyne and the district around Tara . At the beginning of the 4th century the three Collas founded the kingdom of See also:

• ORIEL
• ORIEL, JOHN FOSTER, BARON (1740-1828)

Oriel (comprising the present counties of See also:

• ARMAGH

Armagh, Monaghan, north See also:

• LOUTH

Louth, south See also:

• FERMANAGH

Fermanagh) and drove the Ulidians into the eastern part of the province . See also:

• BRIAN (926-1014)

Brian and Fiachra, sons of Eochaid Muigmedoin, conquered for themselves the country of the Ui Briuin (Roscommon, See also:

• LEITRIM

Leitrim, Cavan) and Tir Fiachrach, the territory of the Firbolg tribe the Fir Domnann in the valley of the Moy (Co . Mayo) . Somewhat later south Connaught was similarly wrested from the older race and colonized by descendants of Brian and Fiachra, later known as Ui Fiachrach Aidni and Ui Briuin Seola . The north of Ulster is stated to have been conquered and colonized by Conall and Eogan, sons of Niall NSigiallach . The former gave his name to the western portion, Tfr Conaill (Co . See also:

• DONEGAL

Donegal), whilst Inishowen was called Tfr Eogain after Eogan . The name Tfr Eogain later became associated with south Ulster where it survives in the county name See also:

• TYRONE
• TYRONE, EARLS OF

Tyrone .

The whole kingdom of the north is commonly designated the kingdom of Ailech, from the ancient stronghold near Derry which the sons of Niall probably took over from the earlier inhabitants . At the end of the 5th century See also:

• MAINE
• MAINE, ANNE LOUISE BENEDICTE DE BOURBON
• MAINE, SIR HENRY JAMES SUMNER (1822–1888)

Maine, a relative of the king of Tara, was apportioned a See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract of Firbolg territory to the west of the Suck in Connaught, which formed the See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus of a powerful state known as Hy Maine (in See also:

• ENGLISH

English commonly called the " O'See also:

• KELLY, EDWARD (1854–188o)
• KELLY, HUGH (1739–1777)
• KELLY, MICHAEL (1762–1826)
• KELLY, SIR FITZROY (1796–1880)

Kelly's country ") . Thus practically the whole of the north and west gradually came under the sway of the Milesian rulers . Nevertheless one portion retained its independence . This was Ulidia, consisting of Dalriada, Dal Fiatach, Dal Araide, including the present counties of Antrim and Down . The bulk of the population here was probably Pictish; but the Dal Fiatach, representing the old Ulidians or ancient population of Ulster, maintained themselves until the 8th century when they were subdued by their Pictish neighbours . The relationship of Munster and Leinster to the Tara See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

dynasty is not so easy to define . The small kingdom of Ossory remained See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent until a very late period . As for Leinster none of the Brythonic peoples mentioned by Ptolemy left traces of their name, although it is possible that the ruling ' Scholars are only beginning to realize how See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close was the connexion between Ireland and Wales from early'times . See also:

• PEDERSEN, CHRISTIERN (c. 1480-1554)

Pedersen has recently pointed out the large number of Brythonic and Welsh See also:

• LOAN (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Swed. Mn, Icel. lan, Dut. leen; the O.E. laen appears in " lend," the ultimate source is seen in the root of Gr. Xeiaecv and Lat. linquere, to leave)

loan words received into Irish from the time of the Roman occupation of Britain to the beginning of the literary period . Welsh writers now assume an Irish origin for much of the contents of the See also:

• MABINOGION (plural of Welsh mabinogi, from mabinog, a bard's apprentice)

Mabinogion.See also:

• FAMILY

family may have been derived from them . It would seem that the Fir Galeoin who play such a prominent part in the See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain had been crushed before See also:

• AUTHENTIC (from Gr. aOO 'rns, one who does a thing himself)

authentic history begins .

The king of Leinster was for centuries the most determined opponent of the ardr£, an antithesis which is embodied in the story of the boroma tribute . When we turn to Munster we find that See also:

• CASHEL

Cashel was the seat of power in historical times . Now Cashel (a loanword from Lat. castellum) was not founded until the beginning of the 5th century by Corc son of Lugaid . The legendary account attributes the subjugation of the various peoples inhabiting Munster to Mog Nuadat, and the pedigrees are invariably traced up to his son Ailill Aulom . Rhys adopts the view that the race of Eber Find was not Milesian but a See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the Ernai, and this theory has much in its favour . The See also:

• ALLEGIANCE (Mid. Eng. ligeaunce; med. Lat. ligeantia, &c.; the al- was probably added through confusion with another legal term, allegeance, an allegation; the Fr. allegeance comes from the English; the word is formed from " liege," of which the derivatio

allegiance of the rulers of Munster to Niall and his descendants can at the best of times only have been nominal . In this way we get a number of over-kingdoms acknowledging only the supremacy of the Tara dynasty . These were (r) Munster with Cashel as centre, (2) Connaught, (3) Ailech, (4) Oriel, (5) Ulidia, (6) Meath, (7) Leinster, (8) Ossory . Some of these states might be split up into various parts at certain periods, each part becoming for the time-being an over-kingdom . For instance, Ailech might be resolved into Tfr Conaill and Tfr Eogain according to political conditions . Hence the number of over-kingdoms is given variously in different documents . The supremacy was vested in the descendants of Niall N6igiallach without interruption until roosi but as Niall's descendants were represented by four reigning families, the high-kingship passed from one branch to another .

Nevertheless after the middle of the 8th century the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of ardri (high-king) was only held by the Cinel Eogain (See also:

• NORTHERN

northern Hy See also:

• NEILL, JAMES GEORGE SMITH (1810-1857)

Neill) and the rulers of Meath (See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern Hy Neill), as the kingdom of Oriel had dropped into insignificance . The supremacy of the ardri was more often than not purely nominal . This must have been particularly the case in Leth Moga . See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

Religion in Early Ireland.—Our knowledge of the beliefs of the See also:

• PAGAN
• PAGAN (Lat. paganus, of or belonging to a pagus, a canton, county district, village, commune)

pagan Irish is very slight . The oldest texts belonging to the heroic cycle are not preserved in any MS. before two, and though the sagas were certainly committed to See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing several centuries before that date, it is evident that the monkish transcribers have toned down or omitted features that savoured too strongly of paganism . Supernatural beings play an important part in the rain B6 Cualgne, See also:

• CUCHULINN (Cuchuinn; pronounced " Coohoollin ")

Cuchulinn's Sickbed, the Wooing of Emer and similar stories, but the relations between See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary mortals and such divine or semi-divine personages is not easy to establish . It seems unlikely that the ancient Irish had a highly developed See also:

• PANTHEON (Lat. pantheum or pantheon; Gr. srav& ov, all-holy, from re, s, all, and Oeor god)

pantheon . On the other hand there are abundant traces of animistic See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship, which have survived in See also:

• WELLS
• WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (1798?–1879)
• WELLS, DAVID AMES (1828—1898)
• WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866— )
• WELLS, SIR THOMAS SPENCER, 1ST BART

wells, often associated with a sacred See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree (Ir. bile), bullans, See also:

• PILLAR (0. Fr. piler, Mod. pilier, Late Lat. pilare, from pila, column)

pillar stones, weapons . There are also traces of the worship of the elements, prominent among which are See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun and See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire . The belief in See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits or fairies (Ir. aes See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side, See also:

• SKI (pronounced " skee," Icel. scidh, snow -shoe, properly " piece of wood ")

ski) forms perhaps the most striking feature of Irish belief . The sagas teem with references to the inhabitants of the fairy mounds, who play such an important part in the mind of the peasantry of our own time . These supernatural beings are sometimes represented as immortal, but often they fall victims to the prowess of mortals .

Numerous cases of marriage between fairies and mortals are recorded . The Tuatha De Danann is used as a collective name for the aes side . The representatives of this race in the Tdin B6 Cualgne play a somewhat similar part to the gods of the ancient Greeks in the .. Iliad, though they are of See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity of a much more shadowy nature . Prominent among them were Manannan mac Lir, who is connected with the sea and the Isle of Man, and the Dagda, the See also:

• FATHER

father of a numerous progeny . One of them, Bodb See also:

• DERG, LOUGH

Derg, re-sided near Portumna on the See also:

• SHORE

shore of Lough Derg, whilst another, See also:

• ANGUS, EARLS OF

Angus Mac-in-6g, dwelt at the Brug of the Boyne, the well-known See also:

• TUMULUS

tumulus at New See also:

• GRANGE (through the A.-Fr. graunge, from the Med. Lat. granea, a place for storing grain, granum)

Grange . The Dagda's daughter Brigit transmitted many of her attributes to the Christian See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

saint of the same name (d . 523) . The ancient Brigit seems to have been the patroness of the arts and was probably also the goddess of fertility . At any rate it is with her that the sacred fire at Kildare which burnt almost uninterruptedly until the time of the See also:

• REFORMATION
• REFORMATION, THE

Reformation was associated; and she was commonly invoked in the Hebrides, and until quite recently in Donegal, to secure See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good crops . Well-known fairy queens are Clidna (south Munster) and Aibell (north Munster) . We frequently hear of three goddesses of war—See also:

• ANA

Ana, Bodb and Macha, also generally called Morrigu and Badb .

They showed themselves in battles hovering over the heads of the combatants in the form of a carrion See also:

• CROW (Dutch, kraal, Ger. Krdhe, Fr. corbeau, Lat. corvus)

crow . The name Bodb appears on a Gaulish stone as (Cathu-)bodvae . The Geniti glinni and demna aeir were other fierce spirits who delighted in carnage: When we come to treat of religious See also:

• RITES

rites and worship, our sources leave us completely in the dark . We hear. in several documents of a great idol covered with See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold and See also:

• SILVER

silver named Cromm Cruach, or Cenn Cruaich, which was surrounded by twelve lesser idols covered with See also:

• BRASS
• BRASS (O. Eng. braes)

brass or bronze, and stood on Mag Slecht (the plain of prostrations) near Ballymagauran, Co . Cavan . In one See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text the Cromm Cruach is styled the chief idol of Ireland . According to the story St Patrick overthrew the idol, and one of the lives of the saint states that the See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark of his crosier might still be seen on the stone . In the Dindfenchus we are told that the worshippers sacrificed their children to the idol in order to secure See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn, See also:

• HONEY (Chin. me ; Sansk. madhu, mead, honey; cf. A.S. medo, medu, mead; Gr. p Xt, in which 0 or b is changed into X; Lat. mel ; Fr. miel ; A.S. hung ; Ger. Honig)

honey and See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

milk in plenty . On the occasion of See also:

• FAMINE (Lat. fames, hunger)

famine the See also:

• DRUIDS, ORDER OF

druids advised that the son of a sinless married couple should be brought to Ireland to be killed in front of Tara and his blood mixed with the See also:

• SOIL

soil of Tara . We might naturally expect to find the druids active in the capacity of priests in Ireland . D'See also:

• ARBOIS

Arbois de Jubainville maintains that in Gaul the three classes of druids, vates and gutuatri, corresponded more or less to the pontifices, See also:

• AUGURS

augurs and flamens of ancient See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome . In ancient Irish literature the functions of the druids correspond fairly closely to those of their Gaulish brethren recorded by See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar and other writers of antiquity .

Had we contemporary accounts of the position of the druid in Ireland See also:

• PRIOR (from Lat. prior—former, and hence superior, through O. Fr. priour)
• PRIOR, MATTHEW (1664-1721)

prior to the introduction of See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity, it may be doubted if any serious difference would be discovered . In early Irish literature the druids chiefly appear as magicians and diviners, but they are also the repositaries of the learning of the time which they transmitted to the disciples accompanying them (see See also:

• DRUIDISM

DRUIDISM) . The Druids were believed to have the power to render a See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person insane by flinging a magic wisp of See also:

• STRAW

straw in his See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face, and they were able to raise clouds of mist, or to bring down showers of fire and blood . They claimed to be able to foretell the future by watching the clouds, or by means of See also:

• DIVINING

divining-rods made of See also:

• YEW (Taxus baccata)

yew . They also resorted to See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice . They possessed several means for rendering a person invisible, and various peculiar and complicated methods of See also:

• DIVINATION
• DIVINATION, OMEN, ASTROLOGY

divination, such as Imbas forosna, See also:

• KIN (0. E. cyn, a word represented in nearly all Teutonic languages, cf. Du. kunne, Dan. and Swed. kon, Goth kuni, tribe; the Teutonic base is kunya; the equivalent Aryan root gan- to beget, produce, is seen in Gr. 'yEvos, Lat. genus, cf. "kind")

kin laegda, and dichetal do chennaib, are described in early authorities . Whether or not the Irish druids taught that the soul was immortal is a question which it is impossible to decide . There is one passage which seems to support the view that they agreed with the Gaulish druids in this respect, but it is not safe to deny the possible See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of Christian teaching in the document in question . The Irish, however, possessed some more or less definite notions about an See also:

• ABODE (from " abide," to dwell, properly " to wait for ," to bide)

abode of See also:

• EVERLASTING, or IMMORTELLE

everlasting youth and See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace inhabited by fairies . The latter either dwell in the sid, and this is probably the earlier conception, or in islands.out in the ocean where they live a life of never-ending delight . These happy abodes were known by various names, as Tir Tairngiri (Land of Promise), Mag Mell (Plain of Pleasures) . Condla Caem son of Conn Cetchathach was carried in a See also:

• BOAT (0. Eng. bdt; the true etymological connexion with Dutch and Ger. boot, Fr. bateau, Ital. battello presents great difficulties; Celtic forms are from O. Eng.)

boat of crystal by a fairy See also:

• MAIDEN, or MAID

maiden to the land of youth, and among other mortals who went thither See also:

• BRAN

Bran, son of Febal, and See also:

• OSSIAN

Ossian are the most famous .

The See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of See also:

• METEMPSYCHOSIS (Gr. µF El.4/1Xco rts)

metempsychosis seems to have been See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar in early Ireland . Mongan king of Dalriada in the 7th century is stated to have passed after death into various shapes—a See also:

• WOLF
• WOLF (Canis lupus)
• WOLF, FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1759-1824)
• WOLF, HUGO (1860-1903)
• WOLF, JOSEPH (1820-1899)

wolf, a See also:

• STAG (0. Eng. stagga, a Norse word, cf. Icel. steggr, steggi, a male animal, cf. Steggander, a drake; it is usually referred to stigan, to climb, to mount, but this is doubtful)

stag, a See also:

• SALMON
• SALMON, GEORGE (1819-1904)

salmon, a See also:

• SEAL
• SEAL, FUR
• SEAL, HAIR

seal, a See also:

• SWAN (A. S. swan and swan, Icel. svanr, Du. zwaart, Ger. Schwan)
• SWAN, J
• SWAN, JOHN MACALLAN (1847-1910)
• SWAN, SIR JOSEPH WILSON (1828– )

swan . Fintan, See also:

• NEPHEW

nephew of Partholan, is also reported to have survived the See also:

• DELUGE, THE (through the Fr. from Lat. diluvium, flood, diluere, to wash away)

deluge and to have lived in various shapes until he was reborn as Tuan mac Cairill in the 6th century . This legend appears to have been worked up, if not manufactured, by the historians of the 9th to rrth centuries to support their See also:

• FICTIONS

fictions . It may, however, be mentioned that Giraldus Cambrensis and the See also:

• SPECULUM

Speculum Regalestate in all seriousness that certain of the inhabitants of Ossory were able at will to assume the form of wolves, and similar stories are not infrequent in Irish See also:

• ROMANCE

romance . See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

Conversion to Christianity.—In the beginning of the 4th century there was an organized Christian See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church in Britain; and in view of the intimate relations existing between Wales and Ireland during that century it is safe to conclude that there were Christians in Ireland before the time of St Patrick . Returned colonists from south Wales, traders and the raids of the Irish in Britain with the consequent influx of British captives sold into slavery must have introduced the knowledge of Christianity into the island considerably before A.D . 400 . In this connexion it is interesting to find an Irishman named Fith (also called Iserninus) associated with St Patrick at See also:

• AUXERRE

Auxerre . Further, the earliest Latin words introduced into Irish show the influence of British See also:

• PRONUNCIATION (Lat. pronuntiatio, from pronuntiare, proclaim, announce, pronounce)

pronunciation (e.g . O . Ir. trindoit from trinitat-em shows the Brythonic See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change of a to o) .

Irish records preserve the names of three shadowy pre-Patrician See also:

• SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE

saints who were connected with south-east Ireland, Declan, Ailbe and Ciaran . In one source the great heresiarch See also:

• PELAGIUS
• PELAGIUS (c. 360- c. 420)

Pelagius is stated to have been a Scot . He may have been descended from an Irish family settled in south Wales . We have also the statement of Prosper of See also:

• AQUITAINE

Aquitaine that See also:

• PALLADIUS, RUTILIUS TAURUS AEMILIANUS

Palladius was sent by See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

Pope See also:

• CELESTINE (CAELESTINUS)
• CELESTINE, or CELESTITE

Celestine as first See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop to the Scots that believe in See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ . But though we may safely assume that a number of scattered communities existed in Ireland, and probably not in the south alone, it is unlikely that there was any organization before the time of St Patrick . This See also:

• MISSION

mission arose out of the visit of St Germanus of Auxerre to Britain . The British bishops had grown alarmed at the rapid growth of Pelagianism in Britain and sought the aid of the Gaulish church . A See also:

• SYNOD
• SYNOD (Gr. vbvobos)

synod summoned for the occasion commissioned Germanus and See also:

• LUPUS (Lat. lupus, wolf)
• LUPUS, PUBLIUS RUTILIUS

Lupus to go to Britain, which they accordingly did in 429; Pope Celestine, we are told, had given his See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

sanction to the mission through the See also:

• DEACON (Gr. S&& ovos, minister, servant)

deacon Palladius . The See also:

• HERESY

heresy was successfully stamped out in Britain, but distinct traces of it are to be found some three centuries later in Ireland, and it is to Irish monks on the European continent that we owe the preservation of the recently discovered copies of Pelagius's Commentary . Palladius's activity in Britain probably marked him out as the man to undertake the task of bringing Ireland into See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch with Western Christianity . In any case Prosper and the Irish Annals represent him as arriving in Ireland in 431 with episcopal See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank . His missionary activity unfortunately is extremely obscure .

Tradition associates his name with Co . Wicklow, but Irish sources state that after a brief sojourn there he proceeded to the land of the Picts, among whom he was beginning to labour when his career was cut See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short by death . St Patrick.—At this juncture Germanus of Auxerre decided to consecrate his See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil Patrick for the purpose of carrying on the work begun by Palladius . Patrick would possess several qualifications for the dignity of a missionary bishop to Ireland . See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

Born in Britain about 389, he had been carried into slavery in Ireland when a youth of sixteen . He remained with his See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master for seven years, and must have had ample opportunity for observing the conditions, and learning the language, of the people around him; and such knowledge would have been indispensable to the Christian bishop in view of the peculiar state of Irish society (see PATRICK, ST) . The new bishop landed in Wicklow in 432 . Leinster was probably the province in which Christianity was already most strongly represented, and Patrick may have entrusted this part of his See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere to two See also:

• FELLOW

fellow-workersfrom Gaul, Auxilius and Iserninus . At any rate he seems rather to have addressed himself more especially to the task of See also:

• FOUNDING (from Lat. fundere, to pour)

founding churches in Meath, Ulster and Connaught . In Ireland the land nominally belonged to the tribe, but in reality a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of feudal system existed . In order to succeed with the body of the tribe it was necessary to secure the adherence of the chief . The conversion in consequence was in large measure only apparent; and such pagan superstitions and practices as did not run directly See also:

• COUNTER

counter to the new teaching were tolerated by the saint .

Thus, whilst the See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of the people practically still continued in heathendom, the apostle was enabled to found churches and See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools and educate a priesthood which should provide the most effective and certain means of conversion . It would be a See also:

• MISTAKE (i.e. take amiss)

mistake to suppose that his success was as rapid or as See also:

• COMPLETE

complete as is generally assumed . There can be no doubt that he met with great opposition both from the high-king Loigaire and from the druids . But though Loigaire refused to See also:

• DESERT

desert the faith of his ancestors we are told that a number of his nearest kinsmen accepted Christianity; and if there be any truth in the story of the codification of the Brehon See also:

• LAWS

Laws we gather that he realized that the future belonged to the new religion . St Patrick's work seems to fall under two heads . In the first place he planted the faith in parts of the north and west which had probably not yet heard the See also:

• GOSPEL (O. Eng. godspel, i.e. good news, a translation of Lat. bona annuntiatio, or evangelium, Gr. evayyeXwv; cf. Goth. iu spillon, " to announce good news," Ulfilas' translation of the Greek, from iu, that which is good, and spellon to announce)

gospel . He also organized the already existing Christian communities, and with this in view founded a church at Armagh as his See also:

• METROPOLITAN (Lat. metropolitanus, Gr. µnrpoiroXtrns)

metropolitan see (444) . It is further due to him that Ireland became linked up with Rome and the Christian countries of the Western church, and that in consequence Latin was introduced as the language of the church . It seems probable that St Patrick consecrated a considerable number of bishops with small but definite dioceses which doubtless coincided in the main with the territories of the tuatha . In any case the ideal of the apostle from Britain was almost certainly very different from the monastic system in See also:

• VOGUE, EUGENE MELCHIOR, COMTE DE (1848- )

vogue in Ireland in the 6th and 7th centuries . The Early Irish Church.—The church founded by St Patrick was doubtless in the main identical in doctrine with the churches of Britain and Gaul and other branches of the Western church; but after the recall of the Roman legions from Britain the Irish church was shut off from the Roman world, and it is only natural that there should not have been any great amount of See also:

• SCRUPLE

scruple with regard to orthodox doctrine . This would explain the survival of the writings of Pelagius in Ireland until the 8th century .

Even See also:

• COLUMBA, SAINT (Irish, Colum)

Columba himself, in his Latin hymn Altus prosator, was suspected by See also:

• GREGORY
• GREGORY (Gregorius)
• GREGORY (Grigorii) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1734-1783)
• GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-19o9)
• GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774—1841)
• GREGORY, ST (c. 213-C. 270)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329–389)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (c.331—c. 396)
• GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594)

Gregory the Great of favouring Arian doctrines . After the death of St Patrick there was apparently a relapse into paganism in many parts of the island . The church itself gradually became grafted on to the feudal organization, the result of which was the peculiar system which we find in the 6th and 7th centuries . Wherever Roman See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law and municipal institutions had been in force the church was modelled on the See also:

• CIVIL

civil society . The bishops governed' ecclesiastical districts co-See also:

• ORDINATE

ordinate with the civil divisions . In Ireland there were no cities and no municipal institutions; the nation consisted of See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups of tribes connected by kinship, and loosely held together by a feudal system which we shall examine later . Although St Patrick endeavoured to organize the Irish church 'on regular diocesan lines, after his death an approximation to the See also:

• LAY

lay system was under the circumstances almost inevitable . When a chief became a Christian and bestowed lands on the church, he at the same time transferred all his rights as a chief; but these rights still remained with his sept, albeit subordinate to the uses of the church . At first all church offices were exclusively confined to members of the sept . In this new sept there was consequently a twofold succession . The religious sept or family consisted in the first instance not only of the ecclesiastical persons to whom the See also:

• GIFT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. die Gift, gift, das Gift, poison, formed from the Teut. stem gab-, to give, cf. Dutch geven, Ger. geben; in O. Eng. the word appears with initial y, the guttural of later English is due to Scandinavian influence)

gift was made, but of all the celi or vassals, tenants and slaves, connected with the land bestowed . The head was the coarb (Ir. comarba, " co-See also:

• HEIR (Lat. heres, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in heres or erus, master of a house, Gr. xeip, hand, Sans. hat ana, hand)

heir "), i.e. the inheritor both of the spiritual and temporal rights and privileges of the founder; he in his temporal capacity exacted rent and tribute like other chiefs, and made war not on temporal chiefs only, the spectacle of two coarbs making war on each other not being unusual .

The ecclesiastical colonies that went forth from a See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent family generally remained in subordination to it, in the same way that the spreading branches of a ruling family remained in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general subordinate to it . The heads of the secondary families were also called the coarbs of the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original founder . Thus there were coarbs of Columba at See also:

• IONA

Iona, See also:

• KELLS

Kells, Derry, Durrow and other places . The coarb of the chief spiritual foundation was called the high coarb (ard-chomarba) . The coarb might be a bishop or only an See also:

• ABBOT (from the Hebrew ab, a father, through the Syriac abba, Lat. abbas, gen. abbatis, O.E. abbad, fr. late Lat. form abbad-em changed in 13th century under influence of the Lat. form to abbat, used alternatively till the end of the 17th century; Ger. Ab
• ABBOT, EZRA (1819-1884)
• ABBOT, GEORGE (1603-1648)
• ABBOT, ROBERT (1588?–1662?)
• ABBOT, WILLIAM (1798-1843)

abbot, but in either case all the ecclesiastics in the 'family were subject to him; in this way it frequentlyhappened that bishops, though their See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior functions were recognized, were in subjection to abbots who were only priests, as in the case of St Columba, or even to a woman, as in the case of St Brigit . This singular association of lay and spiritual See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers was liable to the abuse of allowing the whole succession to fall into lay hands, as happened to a large extent in later times . The temporal chief had his steward who superintended the collection of his rents and tributes; in like manner the coarb of a religious sept had his airchinnech (Anglo-Irish erenach, herenach), whose See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office was generally, but not necessarily, hereditary . The office embodied in a certain sense the lay succession in the family . From the beginning the life of the converts must have been in some measure coenobitic . Indeed it could hardly have been otherwise in a pagan and half-See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage land . St Patrick himself in his Confession makes mention of monks in Ireland in connexion with his mission, but the few glimpses we get of the monastic life of the decades immediately following his death prove that the earliest type of coenobium differed considerably from that known at a later period . The coenobium of the end of the 5th century consisted of an ordinary sept or family whose chief had become Christian .

After making a gift of his lands the chief either retired, leaving it in the hands of a coarb, or remained as the religious head himself . The family went on with their usual avocations, but some of the men and See also:

• WOMEN

women, and in some cases all, practised See also:

• CELIBACY (Lat. caelibatus, from caelebs, unmarried)

celibacy, and all joined in See also:

• FASTING (from " fast," derived from old Teutonic fastejan; synonyms being the Gr. vnorebety, late Lat. jejunare)

fasting and See also:

• PRAYER (from Lat. precari, entreat; Ital. pregaria, Fr. priere)
• PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON

prayer . It may be inferred from native documents that grave disorders were prevalent under this system . A severer and more exclusive type of See also:

• MONASTICISM (Gr. p.ovacrnabs, living alone, µ6vos)

monasticism succeeded this See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive one, but apart from the separation of the sexes the general See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character never entirely changed . Diocesan organization as understood in countries under Roman Law being unknown, there was not that See also:

• LIMITATION, STATUTES OF

limitation of the number of bishops which territorial See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction- renders necessary, and consequently the number of bishops increased beyond all See also:

• PRO

pro-portions . Thus, St Mochta, abbot of Louth, and a reputed See also:

• DISCIPLE

disciple of St Patrick, is stated to have had no less than too bishops in his monastic family . All the bishops in a coenobium were subject to the abbot; but besides the bishop in the monastic families, every tuath or tribe had its own bishop . The church in Ireland having been evolved out of the monastic nuclei already described the tribe bishop was an episcopal development of a somewhat later period . He was an important personage, his status being fixed in -the Brehon laws, from which we learn that his See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price was seven cumals, and that he had the right to be accompanied by the same number of followers as a See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty king . The power of the bishops was considerable, as they were strong enough to resist the kings with regard to the right of See also:

• SANCTUARY (from the late Lat. sanctuarium, a sacred place)

sanctuary, ever a fertile source of dissension . The trath bishop in later centuries corresponded to the diocesan bishop as closely as it was possible in two systems so different as tribal and municipal See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government . When diocesan jurisdiction was introduced into Ireland in the 12th century the tuuth became a See also:

• DIOCESE (formed on Fr. diocese, in place of the Eng. form diocess—current until the 19th century—from Lat. dioecesis, med. Lat. variant diocesis, from Gr. Swucio•tc, " house-keeping," " administration," &miceas, " to keep house," " to govern ")

diocese .

Many of the old dioceses represent ancient tuatha, and even enlarged See also:

• MODERN

modern dioceses coincide with the territories of ancient tribal states . Thus the diocese of Kilmacduagh was the territory of the Hui Fiachrach Aidne; that of Kilfenora was the tribe land of Corco-Mruad or Corcomroe . Many deaneries also represent tribe territories . Thus the deanery of Musgrylin (Co . See also:

• CORK
• CORK (perhaps through Sp. corcha from Lat. cortex, bark, but possibly connected with quercus, oak)
• CORK, RICHARD BOYLE

Cork) was the ancient Muscraige Mitaine, and no doubt had its tribe bishop in ancient times . Bishops without dioceses and monastic bishops were not unknown outside Ireland in the Eastern and Western churches in very early times, but they had disappeared with rare exceptions in the 6th century when the Irish reintroduced the monastic bishops and the monastic church into Britain and the continent . In the 8th and 9th centuries, when the great See also:

• EMIGRATION (from Lat. emigrare; e, ex, out of, and migrare, to depart)

emigration of Irish scholars and ecclesiastics took place, the number of wandering bishops without dioceses became a reproach to the Irish church; and there can be no doubt that it led to much inconvenience and abuse, and was subversive of the stricter discipline that the popes had succeeded in establishing in the Western church . They were accused of ordaining See also:

• SERFS, SERROS

serfs without the consent of their lords, consecrating bishops per saltum, i.e. of making men bishops who had not previously received the orders of priests, and of permitting bishops to be consecrated by a single bishop . This See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom can hardly, however, be a reproach to the Irish church, as the practice was never held to be invalid; and besides, the Nicene canons of discipline were perhaps not known in Ireland until comparatively late times . The isolated position of Ireland, and the existence of tribal organization in full vigour, explain fully the anomalies of Irish discipline, many of which were also survivals of the early Christian practices before the complete organization of the church . After the death of St Patrick the See also:

• BOND
• BOND, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1815-1898)

bond between the numerous church families which his authority supplied was greatly relaxed; and the saint's most formidable opponents, the druids, probably regained much of their old power . The transition period which follows the loosening of a people's faith in its old religion and before the authority of the new is universally accepted is always a time of confusion and relaxation of morals .

Such a period appears to have followed the fervour of St Patrick's time . To See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge from the early literature the marriage-tie seems to have been regarded very lightly, and there can be little doubt that pagan marriage customs were practised long after the introduction of Christianity . The Brehon Laws assume the existence of married as well as unmarried See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy, and when St Patrick was seeking a bishop for the men of Leinster he asked for " a man of one wife." Marriage among the See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular clergy went on in Ireland until the 15th century . Like the Gaulish druids described by Caesar, the poet (fili) and the druid possessed a huge stock of unwritten native lore, probably enshrined in See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse which was learnt by rote by their pupils . The exalted position occupied by the learned class in ancient Ireland perhaps affords the See also:

• KEY
• KEY (in O. Eng. tang; the ultimate origin of the word is unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation was kay, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in aeg; cf. daeg, day; clang
• KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens)
• KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888)
• KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875)

key to the wonderful outbursts of scholarly activity in Irish monasteries from the 6th to the 9th centuries . That some of the filid embraced Christianity from the outset is evident from the story of Dubthach . As early as the second half of the 5th century Endo, a royal See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince of Oriel (c . 450—540), after spending some time at See also:

• WHITHORN

Whithorn betook himself to Aranmore, off the coast of Galway, and founded a school there which attracted scholars from all over Ireland . The connexion between Ireland and Wales was strong in the 6th century, and it was from south Wales that the great reform See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement in the Irish monasteries emanated . Findian of Clonard (c . 470—548) is usually regarded as the institutor of the type of monastery for which Ireland became so famous during the next few centuries . He spent some time in Wales, where he came under the influence of St See also:

• DAVID
• DAVID (a Hebrew name meaning probably beloved 1)
• DAVID, FELICIEN (1810—1876)
• DAVID, GERARD [GHEERAERT DAVIT], (?=1523)
• DAVID, PIERRE JEAN (1789–1856)
• DAVID, ST (Dewi, Sant)

David, See also:

• GILDAS, or GILDUS (c. 516–J70)

Gildas and Cadoc; and on returning to Ireland he founded his famous monastery at Clonard (Co .

Meath) about 520 . Here no less than 3000 students are said to have received instruction at the same time . Such a monastery consisted of countless tiny huts of wattles and See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay (or, where stone was plentiful, of beehive cells) built by the pupils and enclosed by a See also:

• FOSSE (or Foss) WAY

fosse, or See also:

• TRENCH, RICHARD CHENEVIX (1807-1886)

trench, like a permanent military encampment . The pupils sowed their own corn, fished in the streams, and milked their own cows . Instruction was probably given in the open See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air . Twelve of Findian's disciples became known as the twelve apostles of Ireland, the monastic schools they founded becoming the greatest centres of learning and religious instruction not only in Ireland, but in the whole of the west of Europe . Among the most famous were Moville (Co . Down), founded by another Findian, c . 540; See also:

• CLONMACNOISE

Clonmacnoise, founded by Kieran, J41; Derry, founded by Columba, 546; Clonfert, founded by See also:

• BRENDAN, BRANDON

Brendan, 552; See also:

• BANGOR
• BANGOR (formerly BANGOR FAWR, as distinguished from several other towns of this name in Wales, Ireland, Brittany, &c.)

Bangor, founded in 558 by Comgall; Durrow, founded by Columba, c . 553 . The chief reform due to the influence of the British church' seems to have been the intro- duction of monastic life in the strict sense of the word, i.e . communities entirely separated from the laity with complete separation of the sexes .

One almost immediate outcome of the reformation effected 1 It seems probable that the celebrated monastery of Whithorn in See also:

• GALLOWAY
• GALLOWAY, JOSEPH (1731-1803)
• GALLOWAY, THOMAS (1796-1851)

Galloway played some part in the reform movement, at any rate in the north of Ireland . Findian of Moville spent some years there.by Findian was that wonderful spirit of missionary enterprise which made the name of Scot and of Ireland so well known throughout Europe, while at the same time the Irish were being driven out of their colonies in Wales and south-west Britain owing to the advance of the Saxon power . In 563 Columba founded the monastery of Hi (Iona), which spread the knowledge of the Gospel among the Picts of the Scottish mainland . From this same solitary outpost went forth the illustrious See also:

• AIDAN
• AIDAN (d. 6o6)

Aidan to plant another Iona at Lindisfarne, which, " long after the poor parent brotherhood had fallen to decay, See also:

• EXPANDED

expanded itself into the bishopric of See also:

• DURHAM
• DURHAM, JOHN GEORGE LAMBTON, 1ST EARL OF (1792–1840)

Durham." And See also:

• LIGHTFOOT, JOHN (1602-1675)
• LIGHTFOOT, JOSEPH BARBER (1828-1889)

Lightfoot claims for Aidan " the first place in the evangelization of the English race . See also:

• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (354-430)
• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (d. c.613)

Augustine was the apostle of See also:

• KENT
• KENT, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• KENT, JAMES (1763-1847)
• KENT, WILLIAM (1685-1748)

Kent, but Aidan was the apostle of England." In 590 Columbanus, a native of Leinster (b . 543), went forth from Bangor, accompanied by twelve companions, to preach the Gospel on the continent of Europe . Columbanus was the first of the long stream of famous Irish monks who left their traces in See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland, See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany and See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France; amongst them being See also:

• GALLUS, C
• GALLUS, CORNELIUS (c. 70-26 B.C.)
• GALLUS, GAIUS AELIUS
• GALLUS, GAIUS CESTIUS
• GALLUS, GAIUS SULPICIUS

Gallus or St See also:

• GALL (a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch gal, and Ger. Galle; the Indo-European root appears in Gr. xoXi,, and Lat. fel; possibly connected with " yellow," with reference to the colour of bile)
• GALL, FRANZ JOSEPH (1758-1828)

Gall, founder of St Gallen, See also:

• KILIAN (CHILIAN, KILLIAN), ST

Kilian of Wtirzburg, See also:

• VIRGIL (PUBLIUS VERGILIUS MARC)
• VIRGIL, POLYDORE (c. 1470-1555)

Virgil of See also:

• SALZBURG

Salzburg, Cathald of See also:

• TARENTUM
• TARENTUM (Gr. rapas)

Tarentum and numerous others . At the beginning of the 8th century a long series of missionary establishments extended from the mouths of the See also:

• MEUSE
• MEUSE (Flem. Maes, Du. Maas)

Meuse and See also:

• RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijn)

Rhine to the See also:

• RHONE
• RHONE (Fr. Rhone, Lat. Rhodanus)

Rhone and the See also:

• ALPS

Alps, whilst many others founded by Germans are the offspring of Irish monks . See also:

• WILLIBRORD (or WILBRORD), ST (d. 738)

Willibrord, the apostle of the See also:

• FRISIANS (Lat. Frisii; in Med. Lat. Frisones, Frisiones, Fresones; in their own tongue Frsasa, FrPsen)

Frisians, for instance, spent twelve years in Ireland . Other Irishmen seeking remote places wherein to See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead the lives of anchorites, studded the numerous islands on the west coast of Scotland with their little buildings . Cormac ua Liathain, a disciple of St Columba, visited the Orkneys, and when the Northmen first discovered See also:

• ICELAND (Dan. Island)

Iceland they found there books and other traces of the early Irish church . It may be mentioned that the geographer See also:

• DICUIL (fl. 825)

Dicuil who lived at the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of See also:

• CHARLEMAGNE [CHARLES THE GREAT] (c. 742-814)
• CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND (1753–1838)

Charlemagne gives a description of Iceland which must have been obtained from some one who had been there .

The peculiarities which owing to Ireland's See also:

• ISOLATION

isolation had survived were brought into prominence when the Irish missionaries came into contact with Roman ecclesiastics . The chief points of difference were the calculation of See also:

• EASTER

Easter and the form of the See also:

• TONSURE (Lat. tonsura, from tondere, to shave)

tonsure, in addition to questions of discipline such as the See also:

• CONSECRATION (Lat. consecrallo, from con and sacrare, " to make sacred ")

consecration of bishops per saltum and bishops without dioceses . With regard to tonsure it would seem that the druids shaved the front part of the head from See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

ear to ear . St Patrick doubtless introduced the ordinary coronal tonsure, but in the period following his death the old druidical tonsure was again revived . In the calculation of Easter the Irish employed the old Roman and Jewish 84-years' cycle which they may have received from St Patrick and which had once prevailed all over Europe . Shut off from the world, they were probably ignorant of the ,new cycle of 532 years which had been adopted by Rome in 463 . This question aroused a controversy which waxed hottest in England, and as the Irish monks stubbornly adhered to their traditions they were vehemently attacked by their opponents . As early as 633 the church of the south of Ireland, which had been more in contact with Gaul, had been won over to the Roman method of computation . The north and Iona on the other hand refused to give in until See also:

• ADAMNAN, or ADOMNAN (c. 624-704)

Adamnan induced the north of Ireland to yield in 697, while Iona held out until 716, although by this time the monastery had lost its influence in Pictland . Owing to these controversies the real work of the early Irish missionaries in converting the pagans of Britain and central Europe, and See also:

• SOWING (from "to sow," O. Eng. shwan, cf. Du. zaaijen, Ger. saen, &c.; the root is seen in Lat. severe, cf. "seed")

sowing the seeds of culture there, is See also:

• APT

apt to be-overlooked . Thus, when the Anglo-Saxon, Winfrid, surnamed See also:

• BONIFACE (Bonifacius)
• BONIFACE, SAINT (680-754)

Boniface, appeared in the kingdom of the See also:

• FRANKS
• FRANKS, SIR AUGUSTUS WOLLASTON (1826-1897)

Franks as papal See also:

• LEGATE (Lat. legatus, past part. of legare, to send as deputy)
• LEGATE, BARTHOLOMEW (c. 1575-1612)

legate in 723, to romanize the existing church of the time, neither the Franks, the Thuringians, the Alemanni nor the Bavarians could be considered as pagans . What Irish missionaries and their foreign pupils had implanted for more than a century quite independently of Rome, Winfrid organized and established under Roman authority partly by force of arms .

During the four centuries which elapsed between the arrival of St Patrick and the establishment of a central state in Dublin by the Norsemen the history of Ireland is almost a See also:

• BLANK (from the Fr. blanc, white)

blank as regards outstanding events . From the time that the Milesians quartering themselves on the chiefs and nobles during the See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter and See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring, story-telling, and lampooning those who dared to hesitate to comply with their demands . Some idea of the See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style of living of the learned professions in early Ireland may be gathered from the income enjoyed in later times by the literati of Tfr Conaill (Co . Donegal) . It has been computed that no less than £2000 was set aside yearly in this small state for the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of the class . No wonder, then, that See also:

• AED

Aed determined to banish them from Ireland . At the See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

convention of Drumcet the number of filid was greatly reduced, lands were assigned for their maintenance, the ollams were required to open schools and to support the inferior bards as teachers . This reform may have helped to See also:

• FOSTER, GEORGE EULAS (1847– )
• FOSTER, JOHN (177o-1843)
• FOSTER, MYLES BIRKET (1825-1899)
• FOSTER, SIR CLEMENT LE NEVE (1841-1904)
• FOSTER, SIR MICHAEL (1836-r9o7)
• FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS (1826-1864)

foster the cultivation of the native literature, and it is possible that we owe to it the preservation of the Ulster epic . But the Irish were unfortunately incapable of rising above the See also:

• SAGA (literally a story committed to writing)

saga, consisting of a mixture of See also:

• PROSE

prose and verse . Their greatest achievement in literature dates back to the See also:

• DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " Jawing " or " dawning," from an old verb " daw," O. Eng. dagian, to become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen)

dawn of history, and we find no more trace of development in the world of letters than in the political sphere . The Irishman, in his own language at any rate, seems incapable of a sustained literary effort, a consequence of which is that he invents the most intricate measures . Sense is thus too frequently sacrificed to See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound .

The influence of the professional literary class kept the See also:

• CLAN (Gaelic clann, O. Ir. cland, connected with Lat. planta, shoot or scion, the ancient Gaelic or Goidelic substituting k for p)

clan spirit alive with their elaborate genealogies, and in their poems they only pandered to the vanity and vices of their patrons . That no new ideas came in may be gathered from the fact that the bulk of Irish literature so far published dates from before Boo, though the See also:

• MSS

MSS. which contain it are much later . Bearing in mind how largely the Finn cycle is modelled on the older Ulster epic, See also:

• WORKS

works of originality composed between r000 and 1600 are with one or two exceptions conspicuously absent . At the convention of Drumcet the status of the Dalriadic See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement in Argyll was also regulated . The ardri desired to make the colony an Irish state tributary to the high-king; but on the special See also:

• PLEADING (Fr. plaider, plaidoyer)

pleading of St Columba it was allowed to remain independent . Aed lost his life in endeavouring to exact the boroma tribute from Brandub, king of Leinster, who defeated him at Dunbolg in 598 . After several short reigns the See also:

• THRONE

throne was occupied by Aed's son Domnall (627–641) . His predecessor, Suibne Menn, had been slain by the king of Dalaraide, Congal Claen . The latter was driven out of the country by Domnall, whereupon Congal collected an See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army of foreign adventurers made up of See also:

• SAXONS

Saxons, Dalriadic Scots, Britons and Picts to regain his lands and to avenge himself on the high-king . In a sanguinary encounter at Mag Raith (Moira in Co . Down), which forms the subject of a celebrated romance, Congal was slain and the power of the settlement in Kintyre weakened for a considerable period . A curious feature of Hy Neill See also:

• RULE

rule about this time was See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint kingship .

From 563 to 656 there were no less than five such pairs . In . 681 St Moling of Ferns prevailed upon the ardri Finnachta (674–690) to renounce for ever the boroma, tribute, which had always been a source of See also:

• FRICTION (from Lat. fricare, to rub)

friction between the supreme king and the ruler of Leinster . This was, however, unfortunately . not the last of the boroma . Fergal (711–722), in trying to enforce it again, was slain in a famous battle at See also:

• ALLEN, BOG OF
• ALLEN, ETHAN (1739–1789)
• ALLEN, GRANT CHARLES GRANT BLAIRFINDIEI, (1848–1899)
• ALLEN, JAMES LANE (1850– )
• ALLEN, JOHN (1476–1534)
• ALLEN, or ALLEYN, THOMAS (1542-1632)
• ALLEN, WILLIAM (1532-1594)
• ALLEN, WILLIAM FRANCIS (183o-1889)

Allen in Kildare . As a sequel Fergal's son, Aed See also:

• ALLAN, DAVID (1744–1796)
• ALLAN, SIR HUGH (1810–1882)
• ALLAN, SIR WILLIAM (1782–1850)

Allan (734–743), defeated the men of Leinster with great slaughter at See also:

• BALLYSHANNON

Ballyshannon (Co . Kildare) in 737 . If there was so little cohesion among the various proiinces it is small wonder that Ireland See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell such an easy See also:

• PREY (0. Fr. preie, mod. proie, Lat. praeda, booty, from prae and the root hed—seen in prehendere, prendere, to grasp)

prey to the Vikings in the next century . In 697 an See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly was helcj at Tara in which a law known as See also:

• CAIN

Cain Adamndin was passed, at the instance of Adamnan, prohibiting women from taking part in battle; a decision that shows how far Ireland with its tribal system lagged behind See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic and Latin countries in See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization . A similar; enactment exempting the clergy, known as Cain Pairaic, was agreed to in 803 . The story goes that the ardri Aed Oirdnigthe (797--819) made a hostile incursion into Leinster and forced the See also:

• PRIMATE (from Low Lat. primas=one who held the first place, primas partes)

primate of Armagh and all his clergy to attend him . When representations were made to the king as to the impropriety of his conduct, he referred the See also:

• MATTER

matter to his adviser, Fothud, who was also a cleric .

Fothud pronounced that of Tara had come to be recognized as suzerains of the whole island all political development ceases . The annals contain nothing See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save a See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of intertribal warfare, which the high-king was rarely powerful enough to stay . The wonderful achievements of the Irish monks did not affect the body politic as a whole, and it may be doubted if there was any distinct advance in civilization in Ireland from the time of Niall Nbigiallach to the Anglo-See also:

• NORMAN
• NORMAN, SIR HENRY WYLIE (1826-1904)

Norman invasion . Niall's posterity held the position of ardri uninterruptedly until See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root . Four of his sons, Loigaire, Conall Crimthand, Fiacc and Maine, settled in Meath and adjoining territories, and their posterity were called the southern Hy Neill . The other four, Eogan, Enna Find, Cairpre and Conall Gulban, occupied the northern part of Ulster . Their descendants were known as the northern Hy Neill.' The descendants of Eogan were the O'Neills and their numerous kindred septs; the posterity of Conall Gulban were the O'Donnells and their kindred septs . Niall died in 406 in the English Channel whilst engaged in a marauding expedition . He was succeeded by his nephew Dathi, son of Fiachra, son of Eochaid Muigmed6in, who is stated to have been struck by See also:

• LIGHTNING

lightning at the foot of the Alps in 428 . Loigaire, son of Niall (428-463), is identified with the story of St Patrick . According to tradition it was during his reign that the codification of the Senchus Mbr took place . A well-known story represents him as constantly at war with the men of Leinster .

His successor, Ailill Molt (463–483), son of Dathi, is remarkable as being the last high-king for 500 years who was not a See also:

• DIRECT

direct descendant of Niall . In 503 a body of colonists under Fergus, son of Ere, moved from Dalriada to Argyll and effected settlements there . The circumstances which enabled the Scots to succeed in occupying Kintyre and Islay cannot now be ascertained . The little kingdom had great difficulty to maintain itself, and its varying fortunes are very obscure . Neither is it clear that bodies of Scots had not already migrated to Argyll . Diarmait, son of Fergus Cerbaill (544-565), of the southern Hy Neill, undoubtedly professed Christianity though he still clung to many pagan practices, such as See also:

• POLYGAMY, (Gr. nabs, many, and yayos, marriage)

polygamy and the use of druidical incantations in battle . The annals represent him as getting into trouble with the Church on account of his violation of the right of sanctuary . At an assembly held at Tara in 554 Curnan, son of the king of Connaught, slew a nobleman, a See also:

• CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime punishable with death . The author of the See also:

• DEED (in O. Eng. dead, from the stem of the verb " to do ")

deed fled for sanctuary to St Columba . But Diarmait pursued him, and disregarding the opposition of the saint seized Curnan and hanged him . St Columba's kinsmen, the northern Hy Neill, took up the See also:

• QUARREL

quarrel, and attacked and defeated the king at Culdreimne in 561 . In this battle Diarmait is stated to have employed druids to form an airbe druad (fence of See also:

• PROTECTION

protection?) See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round his See also:

• HOST

host .

A few years later Diarmait seized by force the chief of Hy Maine, who had slain his See also:

• HERALD (O. Fr. heraut, herault; the origin is uncertain, but O.H.G. heren, to call, or hariwald, leader of an army, have been proposed; the Gr. equivalent is Kddpvi : Lat. praeco, caduceator, fetialis)

herald and had taken refuge with St Ruadan of Lothra . According to the legend the saint, accompanied by St Brendan of See also:

• BIRR, or PARSONSTOWN

Birr, followed the king to Tara and solemnly cursed it, from which time it was deserted . It has been suggested that Tara was abandoned during the plague of 548-549 . Others have surmised that it was abandoned as a regular place of residence long before this, soon after the northern and southern branches of the Hy Neill had consolidated their power at Ailech and in Westmeath . Whatever truth there may be in the legend, it demonstrates conclusively the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of a rallying point where the idea of a central government might have taken root . Aed, son of Ainmire (572–598) of the northern Hy Neill, figures prominently in the story of St Columba . It was during his reign that the famous assembly of Drumcet (near Newtownlimavaddy in Co . Derry) was held . The story goes that the filid had increased in number to such an extent that they included one-third of the freemen . There was thus quite an army of impudent swaggering idlers roaming about the country and ' The O'Neills who played such an important part in later Irish history do not take their name from Niall N6igiallach, though theyy are descended from him . They take their name from Niall Glundub (d . 919) .

the clergy should be exempted, and three verses purporting to be his decision are still extant . Invasion of the Northmen.—The first incursion of the Northmen took place in A.D . X95, when they plundered and burnt the church of Rechru, now Lambay, an island north of Dublin Bay . When this event occurred, the power of the over-king was a mere See also:

• SHADOW (0. Eng. Schadewe, sceadu; a form of " shade "; connected with Gr. 6-Ore's, darkness)

shadow . The provincial kingdoms had split up into more or less independent principalities, almost constantly at war with each other . The oscillation of the centre of power between Meath and Tfr Eogain, according as the ardri belonged to the southern or northern Hy Neill, produced corresponding perturbations in the See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance of parties among the See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor kings . The army consisted of a number of tribes, each commanded by its own chief, and acting as so many independent See also:

• UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF
• UNITS, PHYSICAL

units without cohesion . The tribesmen owed fealty only to their chiefs, who in turn owed a kind of conditional allegiance to the over-king, depending a good See also:

• DEAL

deal upon the ability of the latter to enforce it . A chief might through pique or other causes withdraw his tribe even on the See also:

• EVE

eve of a battle without such defection being deemed dishonourable . What the tribe was to the nation or the province, the See also:

• FINE

fine or sept was to the tribe itself . The head of a sept had a See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice not only in the question of war or peace, for that was determined by the whole tribe, but in all subsequent operations . However brave the individual soldiers of such an army might be, the army itself was unreliable against a well-organized and disciplined enemy .

Again, such tribal forces were only levies gathered together for a few See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks at most, unprovided with military stores or the means of transport, and consequently generally unprepared to attack fortifications of any kind, and liable to melt away as quickly as they were gathered together . Admirably adapted for a sudden attack, such an army was wholly unfit to carry on a regular See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign or take See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of a victory . These defects of the Irish military system were abundantly shown throughout the Viking period and also in Anglo-Norman times . The first invaders were probably Norwegians' from HSrdaland in See also:

• SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH

search of See also:

• PLUNDER

plunder and captives . Their attacks were not confined to the sea-coasts; they were able to ascend the See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers in their See also:

• SHIPS

ships, and already in 8os they are found on the tipper See also:

• SHANNON
• SHANNON, CHARLES HAZELWOOD (1865- )
• SHANNON, JAMES JEBUSA (1862- )

Shannon . At the outset the invaders arrived in small bodies, but as these met with considerable resistance large fleets commanded by powerful Vikings followed . With such forces it was possible to put fleets of boats on the inland lakes . See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

Rude earthen or stockaded forts, serving as magazines and places of See also:

• RETREAT (O. Fr. retrete, mod. retraite, from Lat. retrahere, to draw back)

retreat, were erected; or in some cases use was made of strong-holds already existing, such as Dun Almain in Kildare, Dunlavin in Wicklow and See also:

• FERMOY

Fermoy in Cork . Some of these military posts in course of time became trading stations or grew into towns . During the first half of the gth century attacks were incessant in most parts of the island . In 8o1 we find Norwegians on the upper Shannon; in 8m the whole of Ireland was harried; and five years later we hear of Vikings in Co . Dublin, Meath, Kildare, Wicklow, Queen's Co., See also:

• KILKENNY
• KILKENNY, STATUTE OF

Kilkenny and Tipperary .

However, the invaders do not appear to have acted in See also:

• CONCERT (through the French from Lat. con-, with, and certare, to strive)

concert until 83o . About this time a powerful See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader, named Turgeis (Turgesius), accompanied by two nobles, Saxolb and Domrair (Thorir), arrived with a " royal See also:

• FLEET

fleet." Sailing up the Shannon they built strongholds on Lough Ree and devastated Connaught and Meath . Eventually Turgeis established himself in . Armagh, whilst his wife Ota settled at Clonmacnoise and profaned the monastery church with pagan rites . Indeed, the numerous ecclesiastical establishments appear to have been quite as much the See also:

• OBJECT

object of the invaders' fury as the civil authorities . The monastery of Armagh was rebuilt ten times, and as often destroyed . It was sacked three times in one See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month . Turgeis himself is reported to have usurped the abbacy of Armagh . To escape from the continuous attacks on the. monasteries, Irish monks and scholars fled in large See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers to the continent carrying with them their See also:

• PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium)

precious books . Among them were ' At this period it is extremely difficult to distinguish between Norwegians and Danes on account of the close connexion between the ruling families of both countries.many of the greatest See also:

• LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF

lights in the world of letters of the time, such as See also:

• SEDULIUS, COELIUS

Sedulius Scottus and Johannes Scottus See also:

• ERIGENA, JOHANNES SCOTUS (c. 800-c. 877)

Erigena . The figure of Turgeis has given rise to considerable discussion, as there is no mention of him in Scandinavian sources . It seems probable that his See also:

• NORWEGIAN

Norwegian name was Thorgils and he was possibly related to Godfred, father of See also:

• OLAF
• OLAF (II.)
• OLAF, or ANLAF (d. 981)

Olaf the See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

White, who figures prominently in Irish history a little later .

Turgeis apparently See also:

• UNITED

united the Viking forces, as he is styled the first king of the Norsemen in Ireland . A permanent sovereignty over the whole of Ireland, such as Turgeis seems to have aimed at, was then as in later times impossible because of the state of society . During his lifetime various cities were founded—the first on Irish soil . Dublin came into existence in 84o, and Waterford and See also:

• LIMERICK

Limerick appear in history about the same time . Although the Norsemen were constantly engaged in conflict with the Irish, these cities soon became important commercial centres trading with England, France and See also:

• NORWAY
• NORWAY (Norge)

Norway . Turgeis was captured and drowned by the ardri Maelsechlainn in 844, and two years later Domrair was slain . However cruel and rapacious the Vikings may have been, the work of disorder and ruin was not all theirs . The See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the country afforded full See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope for the jealousy, hatred, cupidity and vanity which characterize the tribal state of political society . For instance, Fedilmid, king of Munster and See also:

• ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

archbishop of Cashel, took the opportunity of the misfortunes of the country to revive the claims of the Munster dynasty to be kings of Ireland . To enforce this claim he ravaged and plundered a large part of the country, took hostages from Niall Caille the over-king (833-845), drove out the comarba of St Patrick, or archbishop of Armagh, and for a whole year occupied his place as bishop . On his return he plundered the termon lands of Clonmacnoise " up to the church See also:

• DOOR (corresponding to the Gr. Bbpa,. Lat. fores or valvae; the English word, with other forms common in allied languages, comes from the same Indo-European stem as the Gr. Obpa and Lat. fares)

door," an exploit which was repeated the following year . There is no mention of his having helped to drive out the foreigners .

For some years after the death of Turgeis the Norsemen appear to have lacked a leader and to have been hard pressed . It was during this period that Dublin was chosen as the point of concentration for their forces . In 848 a Danish fleet from the south of England arrived in Dublin Bay . - The Danes are called in Irish Dubgaill, or See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black foreigners, as distinguished from the Findgaill,2 or white foreigners, i.e . Norwegians . The origin of these terms, as also of the Irish name for Norway (Lochlann), is obscure . At first the Danes and Norwegians appear to have made See also:

• COMMON

common cause, but two years later the new See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of Dublin was stormed by the Danes . In 851 the Dublin Vikings succeeded in vanquishing the Danes after a three days' battle at Snaim Aignech (See also:

• CARLINGFORD
• CARLINGFORD, CHICHESTER SAMUEL FORTESCUE, BARON (1823–1898)

Carlingford Lough), whereupon the defeated party under their leader Horm took service with Cerball, king of Ossory . Even in the first half of the 9th century there must have been a great deal of inter-marriage between the invaders and the native population, due in part at any rate to the number of captive women who were carried off . A mixed race grew up, recruited by many Irish of pure blood, whom a love of See also:

• ADVENTURE (from Lat. res adventura, a thing about to happen)

adventure and a lawless spirit led away . This heterogeneous population was called Gallgoidel or foreign Irish (whence the modern name Galloway), and like their northern kinsmen they betook themselves to the sea and practised piracy . The Christian See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element in this mixed society soon lapsed to a large extent, if not entirely, into paganism .

The Scandinavian settlements were almost wholly confined to the seaport towns, and except Dublin included none of the surrounding territory . Owing to its position and the character - of the country about it, especially the coast-land to the north of the Liffey which formed a kind of border-land between the territories of the kings of Meath and Leinster, a considerable tract passed into the possession of so powerful a city as Dublin . The social and political condition of Ireland, and the See also:

• PASTORAL (from Lat. pastor, a shepherd)

pastoral occupation of the inhabitants, were unfavourable to the development of foreign commerce, and the absence of coined See also:

• MONEY

money among them shows that it did not exist on an extensive See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale . i This name survives in FingalI, the name of a district north of Dublin city . Dubgall is contained in the proper names MacDougall, See also:

• MACDOWELL, EDWARD ALEXANDER (1861–1908)

MacDowell . The foreign articles of luxury (See also:

• DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

dress, ornaments, wine, &c.) its power to such an extent that in 9o1 Dublin and Waterford required by them were brought to the great oenachs or fairs held periodically in various parts of the country . A. flourishing commerce, however, soon grew up in the Scandinavian towns; mints were established, and many foreign traders—Flemings, Italians and others—settled there . It was through these Scandinavian trading communities that Ireland came into contact with the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries . If evidence were needed it is only necessary to point to the names of three of the Irish provinces, Ulster, Leinster, Munster, which are formed from the native names (Ulaid, Laigin, Muma-n) with the addition of Norse sta&; and the very name by which the island is now generally known is Scandinavian in form (Ira-land, the land of the Irish) . The settlers in the Scandinavian towns early came to be looked upon by the native Irish as so many septs of a tribe added to the system of petty states forming the Irish political system . They soon mixed in the domestic quarrels of neighbouring tribes, at first selling their protection, but afterwards as vassals, sometimes as See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies, like the septs and tribes of the Goidel among themselves . The latter in turn acted in similar capacities with the Irish-Norwegian chiefs, Irish tribes often forming part of the Scandinavian armies in Britain .

This intercourse led to frequent intermarriage between the chiefs and See also:

• NOBILITY

nobility of the two peoples . As an instance, the case of Cerball, king of Oasory (d . 887), may be cited Eyvindr, surnamed Austma6r, "the east-man," son of Bjorn, agreed to defend Cerball's territory on condition of receiving his daughter Raforta in marriage . Among the children of this marriage were Helgi Magri, one of the early settlers in Iceland, and Thurida, wife of Thorstein the Red . Three other daughters of Cerball married Scandinavians: Gormflaith (Korml61) married Grimolf, who settled in Iceland, Fridgerda married Thorir Hyrna, and Ethne (Edna) married H165ver, father of See also:

• EARL

Earl See also:

• SIGURD (Sigur6r)

Sigurd Digri who fell at Clontarf . Cerball's son Domnall (Dufnialr) was the founder of an Icelandic family, whilst the names Raudi and Baugr occur in the same family . Hence the occurrence of such essentially Irish names as Konall, Kjaran, Njall, Kormakr, Brigit, Ka5lin, &c., among Icelanders and Norwegians cannot be a matter for surprise; nor that a number of Norse words were introduced into Irish, notably terms connected with trade and the sea . The obscure contest between the Norwegians and Danes for supremacy in Dublin appears to have made the former feel the need of a powerful leader . At any rate, in 851-852 the king of Lochlann (Norway) sent his son Amlaib (Olaf the White) to assume sovereignty over the Norsemen in Ireland and to receive tribute and vassals . From this time it is possible to speak of a Scandinavian kingdom of Dublin, a kingdom which lasted almost without interruption until the Norman Conquest . The king of Dublin exercised overlordship over the other Viking communities in the island, and thus became the most dangerous opponent of the ardri, with whom he was constantly at variance, Amlaib was accompanied by Ivar, who is stated in one source to have been his brother . Some writers wish to identify this prince with the famous Ivar Beinlaus, son of Ragnar Lodbrok .

Amlaib was opposed to the ardri Maelsechlainn I . (846-863) who had overcome Turgeis . This brave ruler gained a number of victories over the Norsemen, but in true Irish See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion they were never followed up . Although his successor Aed Finnliath (863-879) gave his daughter in marriage to Amlaib, no better relations were established . The king of Dublin was certainly the most commanding figure in Ireland in his day, and during his lifetime the Viking power was greatly extended . In 870 he captured the strongholds of See also:

• DUMBARTON

Dumbarton and Dunseverick (Co . Antrim) . He disappears from the scene in 873 . One source represents him as dying in Ireland, but the circumstances are quite obscure . Ivar only survived Olaf two or three years, and it is stated that he died a Christian . During the ensuing period Dublin .was the scene of constant family feuds, which weakened ' In Anglo-Norman times the Scandinavians of Dublin and other cities are always called Ostmen, i.e . Eastmen; hence the name Ostmanstown, now Oxmanstown. a part of the city of Dublin .

were captured by the Irish and were obliged to acknowledge the supremacy of the high-king . The Irish Annals state that there were no fresh invasions of the Northmen for about See also:

• FORTY

forty years dating from 877 . During this period Ireland enjoyed See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative rest notwithstanding the intertribal feuds in which the Norse settlers shared, including the See also:

• CAMPAIGNS

campaigns of Comae, son of Cuilennan, the scholarly king-bishop of Cashel . Towards the end of this See also:

• INTERVAL

interval of repose a certain Sigtrygg, who was probably a great-grandson of the Ivar mentioned above, addressed himself to the task of winning back the kingdom of his ancestor . Waterford was retaken in 914 by See also:

• IVAN (JOHN)

Ivan, grandson of Ragnall and Earl Ottir, and Sigtrygg won a See also:

• SIGNAL

signal victory over the king of Leinster at Cenn Fuait (Co . Kilkenny?) two years later . Dublin was captured, and the high-king Niall Glilndub (910-919) prepared to oppose the invaders . A battle of prime importance was gained by Sigtrygg over the ardri, who fell fighting gallantly at Kilmashogue near Dublin in 919 . Between 920 and 970 the Scandinavian power in Ireland reached its See also:

• ZENITH (from the Arabic)

zenith . The country was desolated and plundered by natives and foreigners alike . The See also:

• LOWER

lower Shannon was more thoroughly occupied by the Norsemen, with which fact the rise of Limerick is associated . See also:

• CARLOW

Carlow, Kilkenny and the territory round Lough See also:

• NEAGH, LOUGH

Neagh were settled, and after the See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of Lough Erne in 932 much of Longford was colonized .

The most prominent figures at this time were Muirchertach " of the See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather cloaks," son of Niall Glfndub, Cellachan of Cashel and Amlaib (Olaf) Cuaran . The first-named waged constant warfare against the foreigners and was the most formidable opponent the Scandinavians had yet met . In his famous See also:

• CIRCUIT (Lat. circuitus, from circum, round, and ire, to go)

circuit of Ireland (941) he took all the provincial kings, as well as the king of Dublin, as hostages, and after keeping them for five months at Ailech he handed them over to the feeble titular ardri, showing that his See also:

• LOYALTY

loyalty was greater than his ambition . Unlike Muirchertach, Cellachan of Cashel, the See also:

• HERO (Gr. open)
• HERO, THE YOUNGER

hero of a late romance, was not particular whether he fought for or against the Norsemen . In 920 Sigtrygg (d..927) was driven .out of Dublin by his brother Godfred (d . 934) and retired to See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York, where he became king of See also:

• NORTHUMBRIA (regnum Northanhymbrorum)

Northumbria . His sons Olaf and Godfred were expelled by IEthelstan . The former, better known as Amlaib (Olaf) Cuaran, married the daughter of See also:

• CONSTANTINE

Constantine, king of Scotland, and fought at Brunanburh (938) . Born about 920, he perhaps became king of York in 941 . Expelled in 944-945 he went to Dublin and drove out his See also:

• COUSIN (Fr. cousin, Ital. cugino, Late Lat. cosinus, perhaps a popular and familiar abbreviation of consobrinus, which has the same sense in classical Latin)
• COUSIN, JEAN (1500-1590)
• COUSIN, VICTOR (1792–1867)

cousin Blakare, son of Godfred . At the same time he held. sway over the kingdom of Man and the Isles . We find this romantic character constantly engaged on expeditions in England, Ireland and Scotland .

In 956 Congalach, the high-king, was defeated and slain by the Norse of Dublin . In 973 his son Domnall, in See also:

• ALLIANCE

alliance with Amlaib, defeated the high-king Domnall O'Neill at See also:

• CELL (from Lat. cella, probably from an Indo-European kal —seen in Lat. celare, to hide; another suggestion connects the word with Lat. cera, wax, taking the original meaning to refer to the honeycomb)

Cell See also:

• MONA

Mona (Kilmoon in Co . Meath) . This Domnall O'Neill, son of Muirchertach, son of Niall Glfundub, was the first to adopt the name O'Neill (Ir. ua, 6=" grandson ") . The tanists or heirs of the northern and southern Hy Neill having died, the throne fell to Maelsechlainn II., of the Cland Colmain, the last of the Hy Neill who was undisputed king of Ireland . Maelsechlainn, who succeeded in q8o, had already distinguished himself as king of Meath in war with the Norsemen . In the first year of his reign as high-king he defeated them in a bloody battle at Tara, in which Amlaib's son, Ragnall, fell . This victory, won over the combined forces of the Scandinavians of Dublin, Man and the Isles, compelled Amlaib to deliver up all his captives and. hostages,—among whom were Domnall Claen, king of Leinster, and several notables—to forgo the tribute which he had imposed upon the southern Hy Neill and to pay a large contribution of See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle and money . Amlaib's spirit was so broken by this defeat that he retired to the monastery of HI, where he died the same year . The Dalcais Dynasty.—We have already seen that the dominant race in Munster traced descent from Ailill Aulom . The Cashel dynasty claimed to descend from his eldest son Eogan, whilst the Dalcassians of See also:

• CLARE
• CLARE, JOHN (1793-1864)
• CLARE, JOHN FITZGIBBON, 1ST EARL OF (1749-1802)

Clare derived their origin from a younger son Cormac Cas . Ailill Aulom is said to have ordained that the succession to the throne should alternate between the two lines, Dunlavin (Co .

Wicklow) . He was attacked by the allied forces, who were repulsed with great slaughter . Maelmorda, king of Leinster, was taken prisoner, and Sigtrygg fled for protection to Ailech . The See also:

• VICTOR
• VICTOR, GAIUS JULIUS (4th cent. A.D.)
• VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS

victor gave See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof at once that he was not only a See also:

• CLEVER

clever general but also a skilful diplomatist . Maelmorda was restored to his kingdom, Sigtrygg received Brian's daughter in marriage, whilst Brian took to himself the Dublin king's See also:

• MOTHER

mother, the notorious Gormflaith, who had already been divorced by Maelsechlainn . After thus establishing peace and consolidating his power, Brian returned to his residence Cenn Corad and matured his See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan of obtaining the high-kingship for himself . When everything was ready he entered Mag Breg with an army consisting of his own troops, those of Ossory, his South Connaught vassals and the Norsemen of Munster . The king of Dublin also sent a small force to his assistance . Maelsechlainn, taken by surprise and feeling himself unequal to the contest, endeavoured to gain time . An See also:

• ARMISTICE (from Lat. arma, arms, and sistere, to stop)

armistice was concluded, during which he was to decide whether he would give Brian hostages (i.e. abdicate) or not . He applied to the northern Hy Neill to come to his assistance, and even offered to abdicate in favour of the chief of the Cinel Eogain, but the latter refused unless Maelsechlainn undertook to cede to them half the territory of his own tribe, the Cland Colmain . The See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to unite the whole of the Eremonian against the Eberian race and preserve a dynasty that had ruled Ireland for 60o years, having failed, Maelsechlainn submitted to Brian, and without any formal See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of cession the latter became ardri .

During a reign of twelve years (roo2—1o14) he is said to have effected much improvement in the country by the erection and repair of churches and schools, and the construction of See also:

• BRIDGES
• BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844– )

bridges, causeways, roads and fortresses . We are also told that he administered rigid and impartial See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice and dispensed royal hospitality . As he was liberal to the bards, they did not forget his merits . Towards the end of Brian's reign a See also:

• CONSPIRACY (from Lat. conspirare, literally to breathe together, to agree, combine, and especially to form a secret plot)

conspiracy was entered into between Maelmorda, king of Leinster, and his nephew Sigtrygg of Dublin . The ultimate cause of this movement was an insult offered by Murchad, Brian's son, to the king of Leinster, who was egged on by his See also:

• SISTER

sister Gormflaith . Sigtrygg secured promises of assistance from Sigurd, earl of See also:

• ORKNEY, EARL OF
• ORKNEY, ELIZABETH HAMILTON, COUNTESS OF
• ORKNEY, GEORGE HAMILTON, EARL OF (1666–1737)

Orkney, and Brodir of Man . In the spring of r0r4 Maelmorda and Sigtrygg had collected a considerable army in Dublin, consisting of contingents from all the Scandinavian settlements in the west in addition to Maelmorda's own Leinster forces, the whole being commanded by Sigurd, earl of Orkney . This powerful prince, whose mother was a daughter of Cerball of Ossory (d . 887), appears to have aimed at the supreme command of all the Scandinavian settlements of the west, and in the course of a few years conquered the kingdom of the Isles, See also:

• SUTHERLAND, EARLS AND DUKES OF

Sutherland, See also:

• ROSS
• ROSS, ALEXANDER (1699-1784)
• ROSS, GEORGE WILLIAM (1841- )
• ROSS, JOHN, or KOOESKOOWE (179o-1866)
• ROSS, ROBERT (1766-1814)
• ROSS, SIR HEW DALRYMPLE (1779-1868)
• ROSS, SIR JAMES CLARK (1800-1862)
• ROSS, SIR JOHN (1777-1856)

Ross, See also:

• MORAY

Moray and Argyll . To meet such formidable opponents, Brian, now an old man unable to lead in person, mustered all the forces of Munster and Connaught, and was joined by Maelsechlainn in command of the forces of Meath . The northern Hy Neill and the Ulaid took no part in the struggle . Brian advanced into the plain of Fingall, north of Dublin, where a See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council of war was held .

The longest account of the battle that followed occurs in a source very partial to Brian and the deeds of Munster-men, in which Maelsechlainn is accused of treachery, and of holding his troops in reserve . The battle, generally known as the battle of Clontarf, though the chief fighting took place close to Dublin, about the small river Tolka, was fought on Good See also:

• FRIDAY (A.S. frige-dreg, fr. frige, gen. of frigu, love, or the goddess of love—the Norse Frigg,—the dreg, day; cf. Icelandic frjddagr, O.H. Ger. friatag, frigatag, mod. Ger. Freitag)

Friday 1014 . After a stout and protracted resistance the Norse-forces were routed . Maelsechlainn with his Meathmen came down on the fugitives as they tried to See also:

• CROSS

cross the See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge leading to Dublin or to reach their ships . On both sides the slaughter was terrible, and most of the leaders lost their lives . Brian himself perished along with his son Murchad and Maelmorda . This great struggle finally disposed of the possibility of Scandinavian supremacy in Ireland, but in spite of this it can only be regarded as a national misfortune . The power of the kingdom of Dublin had been already broken by the defeat of Amlaib Cuaran at Tara in 980, and the main result of the battle of Clontarf. was to weaken the central power and to throw the as in the case of the Hy Neill . This, however, is perhaps a fiction of later poets who wished to give lustre to the ancestry of Brian Boruma, as very few of the Dalcais princes appear in the list of the kings of Cashel . The Dalcassians play no prominent part in history until, in the middle of the loth century, they were ruled by See also:

• KENNEDY
• KENNEDY, BENJAMIN HALL (1804-1889)
• KENNEDY, THOMAS FRANCIS (1788-1879)
• KENNEDY, WALTER (c. 1460–c. 1508)

Kennedy (Cennetig), son of Lorcan, king of See also:

• THOMOND, EARL AND MARQUESS OF

Thomond (d . 954), by whom their power was greatly extended . He left two sons, Mathgamain (Mahon) and Brian, called Brian Boruma, probably from a See also:

• VILLAGE

village near See also:

• KILLALOE

Killaloe.' About the year 92o a Viking named Tomrair, son of Elgi, had seized the lower Shannon and established himself in Limerick, from which point constant incursions were made into all parts of Munster .

After a period of See also:

• GUERRILLA (erroneously written " guerilla," being the diminutive of the Span. guerra, war)

guerrilla warfare in the See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods of Thomond, Mathgamain concluded a truce with the foreigners, in which Brian refused to join . Thereupon Mathgamain crossed the Shannon and gained possession of the kingdom of Cashel, as Dunchad, the representative of the older line, had just died . Receiving the support of several of the native tribes, he See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt himself in a position to attack the settlements of the foreigners in Munster . This aroused the ruler of Limerick, Ivar, who determined to carry the war into Thomond . He was supported by Maelmuad, king of See also:

• DESMOND (Des-Mumha)
• DESMOND, GERALD FITZGERALD, 15TH EARL OF (d. 1583)7

Desmond, and Donoban, king of Hy Fidgeinte, and Hy Cairpri . Their army was met by Mathgamain at Sulchoit near Tipperary, where the Norsemen were defeated with great slaughter (968) . This decisive victory gave the Dalcais Limerick, which they sacked and burnt, and Mathgamain then took hostages of all the chiefs of Munster . Ivar escaped to Britain, but returned after a year and entrenched himself at Inis Cathaig'(Scattery Island in the lower Shannon) . A conspiracy was formed between Ivar and his son Dubcenn and the two Munster chieftains Donoban and Maelmuad . Donoban was married to the daughter of a Scandinavian king of Waterford, and his own daughter was married to Ivar of Waterford.2 In 976 Inis Cathaig was attacked and plundered by the Dalcais and the See also:

• GARRISON
• GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879)

garrison, including Ivar and Dubcenn, slain . Shortly before this Mathgamain had been murdered by Donoban, and Brian thus became king of Thomond, whilst Maelmuad succeeded to Cashel . In 977 Brian made a sudden and rapid inroad into Donoban's territory, captured his fortress and slew the prince himself with a vast number of his followers .

Maelmuad, the other conspirator, met with a like See also:

• FATE

fate at Belach Lechta in Barnaderg (near Ballyorgan) . After this battle Brian was acknowledged king of all Munster (978) . After reducing the Desi, who were in alliance with the Northmen of Waterford and Limerick, in 984 he subdued Ossory and took hostages from the kings of East and West Leinster . In this manner he became virtually king of Leth Moga . This rapid rise of the Dalcassian leader was See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound to bring him into conflict with the ardri . Already in 982 Maelsechlainn had invaded Thomond and uprooted the See also:

• VENERABLE (Lat. venerabilis, worthy of reverence, venerari, to reverence, to worship, allied to Venus, love; the Indo-Germ. root is wen-, to desire, whence Eng. " win, properly to struggle for, hence to gain)

venerable tree under which the Dalcais rulers were inaugurated . After the battle of Tara he had placed his half-brother Gluniarind, son of Amlaib Cuaran, in Dublin . This prince was murdered in 989 and was succeeded by Sigtrygg Silkiskeggi, son of Amlaib and Gormflaith, sister of Maelmorda, king of Leinster . In the same year Maelsechlainn took Dublin and imposed an See also:

• ANNUAL

annual tribute on the city . During these years there were frequent trials of strength between the ardri and the king of Munster . In 992 Brian invaded Meath, and four years later Maelsechlainn defeated Brian in Munster . In 998 Brian ascended the Shannon with a large force, intending to attack Connaught, and Maelsechlainn, who received no support from the northern Hy Neill, came to terms with him .

All hostages held by the over-king from the Northmen and Irish of Leth Moga were to be given up to Brian, which was a virtual surrender of all his rights over the southern half of Ireland; while Brian on his part recognized Maelsechlainn as See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole king of Leth Cuinn . In moo Leinster revolted against Brian and entered into an alliance with the king of Dublin . Brian advanced towards the city, halting at a place called Glen Mama near ' On the name see K . See also:

• MEYER, CHRISTIAN ERICH HERMANN VON (18or-1869)
• MEYER, HEINRICH AUGUST WILHELM (1800-1873)
• MEYER, JULIUS LOTHAR (183o-1895)
• MEYER, KONRAD FERDINAND (1825-1898)
• MEYER, VICTOR (1848-1897)
• MEYER, [MARIE] PAUL HYACINTHE (184o- )

Meyer See also:

• ERIN

Erin, iv. pp . 71-73 . s Donaban, the son of this Ivar of Waterford, is the ancestor of the O'Donavans, Donoban that of the O'Donovans . IRELAND 767 to the next See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section, and it now remains for us to state the condition of the church and society in the century preceding the Anglo-Norman invasion . Although the Irish Church conformed to Roman usage in the matter of Easter celebration and tonsure in the 7th century, the bond between Ireland and Rome was only slight until several centuries later . Whatever co-ordination may have existed in the church of the 8th century was doubtless destroyed during the troubled period of the Viking invasions . It is probable that St Patrick established Armagh as a metropolitan see, but the history of the primacy, which during a long period can only have been a shadow, is involved in obscurity . Its supremacy was undoubtedly recognized by Brian Boruma in 1004, when he laid 20 OZ. of gold upon the high See also:

• ALTAR (Lat. altare, from alias, high; some ancient etymological guesses are recorded by St Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae xv. 4)

altar . In the 11th century a competitor arose in the see of Dublin .

The Norse rulers were bound to come under the influence of Christianity at an early date . For instance, Amlaib Cuaran was formally converted in England in 942 and was baptized by Wulfhelm of See also:

• CANTERBURY
• CANTERBURY, CHARLES

Canterbury . The antithesis between the king of Dublin and the ardr£ seems to have had the effect of linking the Dublin Christian community rather with Canterbury than Armagh . King Sigtrygg founded the bishopric of Dublin in 1035, and the early bishops of Dublin, Waterford and Limerick were all consecrated by the English primate . As See also:

• LANFRANC (d. 1089)

Lanfranc and See also:

• ANSELM
• ANSELM (c. 1033-1109)

Anselm were both anxious to extend their jurisdiction over the whole of Ireland, the submission of Dublin opened the way for Norman and Roman influences . At the beginning of the 12th century See also:

• GILBERT
• GILBERT (KINGSMILL) ISLANDS
• GILBERT (or GYLBERDE), WILLIAM (1544-1603)
• GILBERT, ALFRED (1854– )
• GILBERT, ANN (1821-1904)
• GILBERT, GROVE KARL (1843– )
• GILBERT, J
• GILBERT, JOHN (1810-1889)
• GILBERT, MARIE DOLORES ELIZA ROSANNA [" LOLA MONTEZ "] (1818-1861)
• GILBERT, NICOLAS JOSEPH LAURENT (1751–1780)
• GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY (c. 1539-1583)
• GILBERT, SIR JOSEPH HENRY (1817-1901)
• GILBERT, SIR WILLIAM SCHWENK (1836– )

Gilbert, bishop of Limerick and papal legate, succeeded in winning over See also:

• CELSUS (c. A.D. 178)

Celsus, bishop of Armagh (d . 1129), to the reform movement . Celsus belonged to a family which had held the see for 200 years; he was grandson of a previous primate and is said to have been himself a married man . Yet he became, in the skilful hands of Gilbert and Maelmaed6c O'Morgair, the See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument of overthrowing the hereditary succession to the primatial see . In 1118 the important synod of Rathbressil was held, at which Ireland was divided into dioceses, this being the first formal attempt at getting rid of that anarchical state of church government which had hitherto prevailed . The work begun under Celsus was completed by his successor Maelmaed6c (See also:

• MALACHY, ST (c. 1094-1148)

Malachy) . At a national synod held about 1134 Maelmaed6c, in his capacity as bishop of Armagh, was solemnly elected to the primacy; and armed with full power of church and state he was able to overcome all opposition .

Under his successor See also:

• GELASIUS

Gelasius, See also:

• CARDINAL (Lat. cardinalis)

Cardinal Paparo was despatched as supreme papal legate . At the synod of Kells (1152) there was established that diocesan system which has ever since continued without material alteration . Armagh was constituted the seat of the primacy, and Cashel, See also:

• TUAM

Tuam and Dublin were raised to the rank of archbishoprics . It was also ordained that See also:

• TITHES

tithes should be levied for the support of the clergy . Social Conditions.—In the middle ages there were considerable forests in Ireland encompassing broad expanses of upland pastures and marshy meadows . It is traditionally stated that fences first came into general use in the 7th century . There were no cities or large towns before the arrival of the Norsemen; no stone bridges spanned the rivers; stepping stones or See also:

• HURDLE (O. Eng. hyrdel, cognate with such Teutonic forms as Ger. Hilrde, Dutch horde, Eng. " hoarding "; in pre-Teutonic languages the word appears in Gr. Kvprla, wickerwork, e(pT77, Lat. cratis, basket, cf. " crate," " grate ")

hurdle bridges at the fords or shallows offered the only mode of See also:

• CROSSING

crossing the broadest streams, and connecting the unpaved roads or bridle paths which crossed the country over See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill and See also:

• DALE, ROBERT WILLIAM (1829-1895)
• DALE, SIR THOMAS (d. 1619)

dale from the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• DUNS

duns . The forests abounded in See also:

• GAME

game, the red See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer and See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild See also:

• BOAR (0. Eng. bar; the word is found only in W. Ger. languages, cf. Dutch beer, Ger. Eber)

boar were common, whilst wolves ravaged the flocks . Scattered over the country were numerous small halglets, composed mainly of wicker cabins, among which were some which might be called houses; other hamlets were composed of huts of the rudest kind . Here and there were large villages that had grown up about groups of houses surrounded by an earthen See also:

• MOUND

mound or rampart; similar groups enclosed in this manner were also to be found without any annexed See also:

• HAMLET

hamlet . Sometimes there were two or three circumvallations or even more, and where See also:

• WATER

water was plentiful the ditch between was flooded . The See also:

• SIMPLE

simple rampart enclosed a space called lis 1 which contained 1 The See also:

• TERM

term rath was perhaps applied to the rampart, but both Us and rash are used to denote the whole structure .

whole island into a state of anarchy . Although beaten on the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field of battle the Norsemen still retained possession of their fortified cities, and gradually they assumed the position of native tribes . The Dalcassian forces had been so much weakened by the great struggle that Maelsechlainn was again recognized as king of Ireland . However, the effects of Brian's revolution were permanent; the prescriptive rights of the Hy Neill were disputed, and from the battle of Clontarf until the coming of the See also:

• NORMANS

Normans the history of Ireland consisted of a struggle for ascendancy between the O'Brians of Munster, the O'Neills of Ulster and the O'Connors of Connaught . From the Battle of Clontarf to the Anglo-Norman Invasion.—The death of Maelsechlainn in 1022 afforded an opportunity for an able and ambitious man to subdue Ireland, establish a strong central government, break up the tribal system and further the See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual See also:

• FUSION

fusion of factions into a homogeneous nation . Such a man did not arise; those who afterwards claimed to be ardr£ lacked the qualities of founders of strong dynasties, and are termed by the annalists " kings with opposition." Brian was survived by two sons, Tadg and Donnchad, the See also:

• ELDER (0. Eng. ellarn; Ger. Holunder; Fr. sureau)
• ELDER (Gr. 1rpev(3iTepos)

elder of whom was slain in 1023 . Donnchad (d. ro64) was certainly the most distinguished figure in Ireland in his day . He subdued more than half of Ireland, and almost reached the position once held by his father . His strongest opponent was his son-in-law Diarmait Mael-na-mB6, king of Leinster, who was also the foster-father of his brother Tadg's son, Tordelbach (Turlough) O'Brian . On the death of Diarmait in 1072 Tordelbach (d . 1086) reigned supreme in Leth Moga; Meath and Connaught also submitted to him, but he failed to secure the allegiance of the northern Hy Neill . He was succeeded by his son Muirchertach (d .

1119), who spent most of his life contending against his formidable opponent Domnall O'Lochlainn, king of Tfr Eogain (d . 1121) . The struggle for the sovereignty between these two rivals continued, with intervals of truce negotiated by the clergy, without any decisive advantage on either side . In 1102 See also:

• MAGNUS, HEINRICH GUSTAV (1802-1870)

Magnus Barefoot made his third and last expedition to the west with the See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design of conquering Ireland . Muirchertach opposed him with a large force, and a See also:

• CONFERENCE

conference was arranged at which a son of Magnus was betrothed to Biadmuin, daughter of the Irish prince . He was also mixed up in English affairs, and as a rule maintained cordial relations with See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry I . After the death of Domnall O'Lochlainn there was an See also:

• INTERREGNUM (Lat. inter, between, and regnum, reign)

interregnum of about fifteen years with no ardr£, until Tordelbach (Turlough) O'Connor, king of Connaught, resolved to reduce the other provinces . Munster and Meath were repeatedly ravaged, and in 1151 he crushed Tordelbach (Turlough) O'Brian, king of Thomond, at Moanmor . O'Connor's most stubborn opponent was Muirchertach O'Lochlainn, with whom he wrestled for supremacy until the day of his death (1156) . Tordelbach, who enjoyed a great reputation even after his death, was remembered as having thrown bridges over the Shannon, and as a patron of the arts . However, war was so constant in Ireland at this time that under the year 1145 the Four Masters describe the island as a " trembling sod." Tordelbach was succeeded by his son Ruadri (Roderick, q.v.), who after some resistance had to acknowledge Muirchertach O'Lochlainn's supremacy . The latter, however, was slain in 1166 in See also:

• CON

con-sequence of having wantonly blinded the king of Dal Araide .

Ruadri O'Connor, now without a serious See also:

• RIVAL

rival, was inaugurated with great pomp at Dublin . Diarmait MacMurchada (Dermod MacMurrough), great-grandson of Diarmait Mael-na-mB6, as king of Leinster was by descent and position much mixed up with foreigners, and generally in a state of latent if not open hostility to the high-kings of the Hy Neill and Dalcais dynasties . He was a See also:

• TYRANT (Gr. r6pavvos, master, ruler)

tyrant and a See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad character . In 1152 Tigernan O'Rourke, prince of Breifne; had been dispossessed of his territory by Tordelbach O'Connor, aided by Diarmait, and the latter is accused also of carrying off Derbforgaill, wife of O'Rourke . On learning that O'Rourke was leading an army against him with the support of Ruadri, he burnt his See also:

• CASTLE
• CASTLE (Lat. castellum, a fort, diminutive of castra, a camp; Fr. chateau and chdtel)

castle of Ferns and went to Henry II. to seek assistance . The momentous consequences of this step belong the agricultural buildings and the groups of houses of the owners . The enclosed houses belonged to the See also:

• FREE

free men (See also:

• AIRE

aire, p1. airig) . The See also:

• SIZE

size of the houses and of the enclosing mound and ditch marked the See also:

• WEALTH

wealth and rank of the aire . If his wealth consisted of chattels only, he was a be-aire (cow-aire) . When he possessed ancestral land he was a flailh or See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

lord, and was entitled to let his lands for grazing, to have a hamlet in which lived labourers and to keep slaves . The larger fort with several ramparts was a dun, where the ri (chieftain) lived and kept his hostages if he had subreguli . The houses of all classes were of See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood, chiefly wattles and wicker-work plastered with clay .

In shape they were most frequently cylindrical, having conical See also:

• ROOFS

roofs thatched with rushes or straw . The oratories were of the same form and material, but the larger churches and kingly banqueting halls were rectangular and made of sawn boards . See also:

• BEDE, BEDA, or B
• BEDE, CUTHBERT

Bede, speaking of a church built by Finan at Lindisfarne, says, " nevertheless, after the manner of the Scots, he made it not of stone but of hewn See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak and covered it with reeds." When St Maelmaedbc in the first half of the See also:

• LATH (0. Eng. laett, Mid. Eng. lappe, a form possibly due to the Welsh llath; the word appears in many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch lat, Ger. Latte, and has passed into Romanic, cf. Ital. latta, Fr. latte)

lath century thought of See also:

• BUILDING

building a stone See also:

• ORATORY (Lat. oratorio, sc. ors; from orare, to speak or pray)

oratory at Bangor it was deemed a novelty by the people, who exclaimed, " we are Scotti not Galli." Long before this, however, stone churches had been built in other parts of Ireland, and many round towers . In some of the stone-forts of the south-west (Ir. cathir) the houses within the rampart were made of stone in the form of a See also:

• BEE (Sanskrit blza, AS. ben, Lat. apis)

bee-hive, and similar cloghans, as they are called, are found in the western isles of Scotland . Here and there in the neighbourhood of the hamlets were patches of corn grown upon allotments which were gavelled, or redistributed, every two or three years . Around the duns and raths, where the corn land was the fixed See also:

• PROPERTY

property of the lord, the cultivation was better . Oats was the chief corn See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

crop, but See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat, See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley and See also:

• RYE

rye were also grown . Much See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention was paid to bee-keeping and See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market-gardening, which had probably been introduced by the church . The only See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial See also:

• PLANTS

plants were See also:

• FLAX

flax and the dye-plants, chief among which were See also:

• WOAD

woad and rud, roid (a kind of See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed-straw?) . Portions of the pasture lands were reserved as meadows; the tilled land was manured . There are native names for the plough, so it may be assumed that some form of that See also:

• IMPLEMENT (Lat. implementum, a filling up, from implere, to fill)

implement, worked by oxen, yoked together with a simple straight yoke, was in use in early times . Wheeled carts were also known; the wheels were often probably only solid disks, though spoked wheels were used for chariots .

Droves of See also:

• SWINE

swine under the See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of swineherds wandered through the forests; some belonged to the ri, others to lords (flaith) and others again to village communities . The See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house-fed See also:

• PIG
• PIG (a word of obscure origin, connected with the Low Ger. and Dut. word of the same meaning, bigge)

pig was then as now an important object of domestic See also:

• ECONOMY

economy, and its flesh was much prized . Indeed, fresh pork was one of the inducements held out to visitors to the Irish See also:

• ELYSIUM

Elysium . Horned cattle constituted the chief wealth of the country, and were the standard for estimating the See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth of anything, for the Irish had no coined money and carried on all commerce by See also:

• BARTER (from Fr. barater, to truck, to exchange)

barter . The unit of value was called a set, a word denoting a See also:

• JEWEL, JOHN (1522-1571)

jewel or precious object of any kind . The normal set was an See also:

• AVERAGE

average milch-cow . Gold, silver, bronze, See also:

• TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

tin, clothes and all other kinds of property were estimated in sets . Three sets were equal to a cumal (See also:

• FEMALE

female slave) . See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

Sheep were kept everywhere for their flesh and their See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

wool, and goats were numerous . Horses were extensively employed for See also:

• RIDING

riding, working in the See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields and carrying loads . Irish horsemen rode without See also:

• SADDLE (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Sattel, Dut. zadel, also in Russ. siedlo and Lat. sella, for sedla; it is not derived directly from Lat. sedile, which means a chair, but all the words are to be referred to the root sad-, which gives

saddle or stirrups . So important a place did bee-culture hold in the rural economy of the ancient Irish that a lengthy section is devoted to the subject in the Brehon Laws .

The honey was used both in cooking and for making See also:

• MEAD
• MEAD, LARKIN GOLDSMITH (1835— )
• MEAD, RICHARD (1673—1754)

mead, as well as for eating . The ancient Irish were in the main a pastoral people . When they had sown their corn, they drove their herds and flocks to the mountains, where such existed, and spent the summer there, returning in autumn to reap their corn and take up their abode in their more sheltered winter residences: This custom of " booleying " (Ir. buaile, " shieling ") is not originally Irish, according to some writers, but was borrowed from the Scandinavians . Where the tribe had land on the sea-coast they also appear to have migrated thither in summer . The See also:

• CHASE
• CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND (1808-1873)
• CHASE, SAMUEL (1741–1811)
• CHASE, WILLIAM MERRITT (1849– )

chase in thesummer occupied the freemen, not only as a source of enjoyment but also as a matter of necessity, for wolves were very numerous . For this purpose they bred See also:

• DOGS, ISLE OF

dogs of great swiftness, strength and sagacity, which were much admired by the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans . The residences within enclosing ramparts did not consist of one house with several apartments, but every See also:

• ROOM

room was a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate house . Thus the buildings forming the residence of a well-to-do See also:

• FARMER, RICHARD (1735–1787)

farmer of the be-aire class as described in the Laws, consisted of a living-house in which he slept and took his meals, a cooking-house, a See also:

• KILN (0. E. cylene, from the Lat. culina, a kitchen, cooking-stove)

kiln for drying corn, a See also:

• BARN

barn, a byre for calves, a sheep-See also:

• FOLD

fold and a pigsty . In the better classes the women had a separate house known as grianfin (sun-chamber) . The round houses were constructed in the following manner . The See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall was formed of long stout poles placed in a circle close to one another, with their ends fixed firmly in the ground . The spaces between were closed in with rods (usually See also:

• HAZEL (0. Eng. hresell; cf. Ger. Hasel, Swed. and Dan. Kassel, &c.,; Fr. noiselier, coudrier)

hazel) firmly interwoven .

The poles were peeled and polished smooth . The whole See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the wicker-work was plastered on the outside and made brilliantly white with See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime, or occasionally striped in various See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours, leaving the white poles exposed to view . There was no See also:

• CHIMNEY (through the Fr. cheminee, from caminata, sc. camera, a Lat. derivative of caminus, an oven or furnace)

chimney; the fire was made in the centre of the house and the See also:

• SMOKE (from O. Eng. smeocan, to smoke, reek, cf. Dutch meek, Ger. Schmauch, probably allied to Gr. vol9caiv)

smoke escaped through a hole in the roof, or through the door as in Hebridean houses of the present day . Near the fire, fixed in a kind of holder, was a See also:

• CANDLE (Lat. candela, from candere, to glow)

candle of See also:

• TALLOW (M.E. talugh, talg, cf. Du. talk, L. Ger. talg ; the connexion with O.E. taelg, dye, or Goth, tulgus, firm, is doubtful)

tallow or raw beeswax . Around the wall in the houses of the wealthy were arranged the bedsteads, or rather compartments, with testers and fronts, sometimes made of carved yew . At the foot of each compartment, and projecting into the main room, there was a See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low fixed seat, often stuffed with some soft material, for use during the day . Besides these there were on the See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor of the main apartment a number of detached movable couches or seats, all low, with one or more low tables of some sort . In the halls of the kings the position of each person's bed and seat, and the portion of See also:

• MEAT

meat which he was entitled to receive from the distributor, were regulated according to a rigid rule of See also:

• PRECEDENCE (from Lat. praecedere, to go before, precede)

precedence . Each person who had a seat in the king's house had his See also:

• SHIELD (0. Eng. scild, cf. Du. and Ger. Schild, Dan. Skjold; the origin is doubtful, but may be referred to the root seen in " shell " or " scale "; another suggestion connects it with Icel. skjalla, to clash, rattle; it is not connected with the Indo-Ger
• SHIELD, WILLIAM (1748—1829)

shield suspended over him . Every king had hostages for the fealty of his vassals; they sat unarmed in the See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

hall, and those who had become forfeited by a See also:

• BREACH (Mid. Eng. breche, derived from the common Teutonic root brec, which appears in " break," Ger. brechen, &c.)

breach of treaty or allegiance were placed along the wall in fetters . There were places in the king's hall for the judge, the poet, the harper, the various craftsmen, the See also:

• JUGGLER (Lat. joculator, jester)

juggler and the See also:

• FOOL (O. Fr. fol, modern fou, foolish, from a Late Latin use of follis, bellows, a ball filled with air, for a stupid person, a jester, a wind-bag)

fool . The king had his bodyguard of four men always around him; these were commonly men whom he had saved from See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution or redeemed from slavery .

Among the See also:

• MISCELLANEOUS

miscellaneous body of attendants about the house of a king or See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble were many Saxon slaves, in whom there was a regular trade until it was abolished by the See also:

• ACTION

action of the church in 1171 . The slaves slept on the ground in the See also:

• KITCHEN (O.E. cycene; this and other cognate forms, such as Dutch keuken, Ger. Kiuche, Dan. kokken, Fr. cuisine, are formed from the Low Lat. cucina, Lat. coquina, coquere, to cook)

kitchen or in cabins outside the fort . The children of the upper classes in Ireland, both boys and girls, were not reared at See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home but were sent elsewhere to be fostered . It was usual for a chief to send his child to one of his own sub-chiefs, but the parents often See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose a chief of their own rank . For instance, the ollarn fill, or chief poet, who ranked in some respects with a tribe-king, sent his sons to be fostered by the king of his own territory . Fosterage might be undertaken out of 'See also:

• AFFECTION (Lat. ad, and facere, to do something to, sc. a person)

affection or for See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment . In the latter case the See also:

• FEE

fee varied according to rank, and there are numerous laws extant fixing the cost and regulating the food and dress of the child according to his position . Sometimes a chief acted as foster-father to a large number of children . The cost of the fosterage of boys seems to have been See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne by the mother's property, that of the daughters by the father's . The ties created by fosterage were nearly as close and as binding on children as those of blood . There is ample evidence that great laxity prevailed with regard to the marriage tie even after the introduction of Christianity, as marrying within the forbidden degrees and repudiation continued to be very frequent in spite of the efforts of the church . Marriage by See also:

• PURCHASE

purchase was universal, and the wealth of the contracting parties constituted the See also:

• PRIMARY

primary element of a legitimate See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union: The See also:

• BRIDE (a common Teutonic word, e.g..Goth. bruths, O. Eng. bryd, O. H. Ger. prs2t, Mod. Ger. Bract, Dut. bruid, possibly derived from the root bru-, cook, brew; from the med. latinized form bruta, in the sense of daughter-in-law, is derived the Fr. bru)

bride and bridegroom should be provided with a joint See also:

• FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-188o)

fortune proportionate to their rank .

When they were of equal rank, and the family of each contributed an equal share to the marriage portion, the marriage was legal in the full sense and the wife was a wife of equal rank . The church endeavoured to make the wife of a first marriage the only true wife; but See also:

• CONCUBINAGE
• CONCUBINAGE (Lat. concubina, a concubine; from con-, with, and cubare, to lie)

concubinage was known as an Irish institution until long after the Anglo-Norman invasion, and it is recognized in the Laws . If a concubine had sons her position did not differ materially in some respects from that of a chief wife . As the tie of the sept was blood, all the acknowledged children of a man, whether legitimate or illegitimate, belonged equally to his sept . Even adulterine bastardy was no See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

bar to a man becoming chief of his tribe, as in the case of See also:

• HUGH
• HUGH, ST

Hugh O'Neill, earl of Tyrone . (See O'NEILL.) The food of the Irish was very simple, consisting in the main of oaten cakes, See also:

• CHEESE (Lat. caseus)

cheese, curds, milk, See also:

• BUTTER (Lat. butyrum, Gr. 0obrvpov, apparently connected with $ous, cow, and rvpbs, cheese, but, according to the New English Dictionary, perhaps of Scythian origin)

butter, and the flesh of domestic animals both fresh and salted . The better classes were acquainted with wheaten See also:

• BREAD

bread also . The food of the inhabitants of the Land of Promise consisted of fresh pork, new milk and See also:

• ALE

ale . See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

Fish, especially salmon, and game should of course be added to the list . The chief drinks were ale and mead . The dress of the upper classes was similar to that of a Scottish Highlander before it degenerated into the present conventional garb of a highland See also:

• REGIMENT (from Late Latin regimentum, rule, regere, to rule, govern, direct)

regiment . Next she skin came a See also:

• SHIRT

shirt (line) of fine texture often richly embroidered .

Over this was a tightly fitting See also:

• TUNIC (0. Eng. tunice, tunical, taken, before the Norman con-quest, directly from Lat. tunica, of which the origin is unknown)

tunic (inar, lend) reaching below the hips with a See also:

• GIRDLE (O. Eng. gyrdel, from gyrdan, to gird; cf. Ger. Gurtel, Dutch gordel, from giirten and gorden; "gird" and its doublet " girth " together with the other Teutonic cognates have been referred by some to the root ghar—to seize, enclose, seen in Gr. )(s

girdle at the See also:

• WAIST

waist . In the case of women the inar fell to the feet . Over the left See also:

• SHOULDER (in O.E. sculder, cognate with Ger. Schulter, Dutch schouder, Swed. skuldra, &c; the root is unknown)

shoulder and fastened with a See also:

• BROOCH, or BROACH (from the Fr. broths, originally an awl or bodkin; a spit is sometimes called a broach, and hence the phrase " to broach a barrel "; see BROKER)

brooch hung the loose cloak (hrat), to which the Scottish See also:

• PLAID (Gael. plaide, Ir. ploid, usually taken to be derived from Gael. peall, sheepskin, Lat. pellis, skin)

plaid corresponds . The See also:

• KILT

kilt seems to have been commonly worn, especially by soldiers, whose legs were usually See also:

• BARE

bare, but we also hear of tight-fitting See also:

• TROUSERS

trousers extending below the ankles . The feet were either entirely naked or encased in shoes of raw hide fastened with thongs . Sandals and shoes of bronze are mentioned in Irish literature, and quite a number are to be seen in museums . A loose flowing garment, intermediate between the brat and lend, usually of See also:

• LINEN

linen dyed See also:

• SAFFRON (Arab. za'faran)

saffron, was commonly worn in outdoor life, and was still used in the Hebrides about 1700 . A modified form of this over-tunic with loose sleeves and made of See also:

• FRIEZE

frieze formed probably the general covering of the peasantry . Among the upper classes the garments were very costly and variously coloured . It would seem that the number of colours in the dress indicated the rank of the wearer . The See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair was generally worn long by men as well as women, and ringlets were greatly admired . Women braided their hair into tresses, which they confined with a See also:

• PIN (a doublet with " pen " from Lat. pinna, feather, pinnacle, which is said to contain the same root as irirvs, pine tree, and properly to mean a sharp point or end)

pin .

The See also:

• BEARD (A.S. beard, O. H. and Mod. Ger. Bart, Dan. beard, Icel. bar, rim, edge, beak of a ship, &c., O. Slay. barda, Russ. barodd. Cf. Welsh barf, Lat.. barba, though, according to the New English Dictionary, the connexion is for phonetic reasons doubtful)
• BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK (1825-1900)

beard was also worn long . Like all ancient and semi-barbarous people, the Irish were fond of ornaments . Indeed the profusion of articles of gold which have been found is remark-able; in the Dublin Museum may be seen bracelets, armlets, See also:

• FINGER

finger-rings, torques, crescents, gorgets, necklets, fibulae and diadems, all of solid gold and most exquisite workmanship . The principal weapons of the Irish soldiers were a See also:

• LANCE

lance, a sword and a shield; though prior to the Anglo-Norman invasion they had adopted the battle-See also:

• AXE (0. Eng. aex; a word common, in different forms, in the Teutonic languages, and akin to the Greek 41v17; the New English Dictionary prefers the spelling " ax ")

axe from the Scandinavians . The See also:

• SHIELDS, JAMES (181b-1879)

shields were of two kinds . One was the sciath, See also:

• OVAL (Lat. ovum, egg)

oval or oblong in shape, made of wicker-work covered with hide, and often large enough to See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover the whole body . This was doubtless the form introduced by the Brythonic invaders . But round shields, smaller in size, were also commonly employed . These were made of bronze backed with wood, or of yew covered with hide . This latter type scarcely goes back to the round shield of the Bronze age . See also:

• ARMOUR, PHILIP DANFORTH (1832-1901)

Armour and helmets were not generally employed at the time of the Anglo-Norman invasion . In the Brehon Laws the land belongs in theory to the tribe, but this did not by any means correspond to the state of affairs .

We find that the power of the petty king has made a very considerable advance, and that all the elements of See also:

• FEUDALISM
• FEUDALISM (from Late Lat. feodum or feudum, a fee or fiel; see FEE)

feudalism are present, save that there was no central authority strong enough to organize the whole of Irish society on a feudal basis . The tuath or territory of a ri (represented roughly by a modern barony) was divided among the septs . The lands of a sept consisted of the estates in severalty of the lords Valhi), and of the ferand duthaig, or common lands of the Sept . The dwellers on each of these kinds of land differed materially from each other . 'ay . 2{On the former lived a See also:

• MOTLEY
• MOTLEY, JOHN LOTHROP (1814–1897)

motley population of slaves, See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse-boys, and mercenaries composed of broken men of other clans, many of whom were fugitives from justice, possessing no rights either in the sept or tribe and entirely dependent on the See also:

• BOUNTY (through O. Fr. bontet, from Lat. bonitas, goodness)

bounty of the lord, and consequently living about his fortified residence . The poorer servile classes or cottiers, wood-cutters, swine-herds, &c., who had a right of See also:

• DOMICILE (Lat. domicilium, from domus, home)

domicile (acquired after three generations), lived here and there in small hamlets on the mountains and poorer lands of the See also:

• ESTATE (through O. Fr. estat, mod. flat, from Lat. status, state, condition, position, stare, to stand)

estate . The good lands were let to a class of tenants called fuidirs, of whom there were several kinds, some grazing the land with their own cattle, others receiving both land and cattle from the lord . Fuidirs had no rights in the sept; some were true serfs, others tenants-at-will; they lived in scattered homesteads like the.farmers of the present time . The lord was responsible before the law for the acts of all the servile classes on his estates, both new-comers and senchleithe, i.e. descendants of fuidirs, slaves, &c., whose families had lived on the estate during the time of three lords . He paid their blood-fines and received See also:

• COMPENSATION (from Lat. compensare, to weigh one thing against another)

compensation for their slaughter, See also:

• MAIMING

maiming or plunder . The fuidirs were the chief source of a lord's wealth, and he was consequently always anxious to increase them .

The freemen were divided into freemen pure and simple, freemen possessing a quantity of stock, and nobles (flathi) having vassals . Wealth consisted in cattle . Those possessed of large herds of kine See also:

• LENT (0. Eng. lenclen, " spring," M. Eng. lenten, lente, lent; cf. Dut. lente, Ger. Lenz, " spring," 0. H. Ger. lenzin, lengizin, lenzo, probably from the same root as " long " and referring to " the lengthening days ")

lent out stock under various conditions . In the case of a chief such an offer could not be refused . In return, a certain customary tribute was paid . Such a transaction might be of two kinds . By the one the freemen took saer-stock and retained his status . But if he accepted daer-stock he at once descended to the rank of a See also:

• VASSAL (Fr. vassal, vassaut, vassault, &c,)

vassal . In this way it was possible for the chief to extend his power enormously . Rent was commonly paid in kind . As a consequence of this, in place of receiving the See also:

• FARM

farm produce at his own home the chief or noble reserved to himself the right of quartering himself and a certain number of followers in the house of his vassal, a practice which must have been ruinous to the small farmers . Freemen who possessed twenty-one cows and upwards were called airig (sing. aire), or, as we should say, had the See also:

• FRANCHISE (from 0. Fr. franchise, freedom, franc, free)

franchise, and might fulfil the functions of See also:

• BAIL

bail, See also:

• WITNESS
• WITNESS (from O. Eng. witan, to know)

witness, &c .

As the chief sought to extend his power in the tuath, he also endeavoured to aggrandize his position at the expense of other tuatha by compelling them to pay tribute to him . Such an aggregate of tuatha acknowledging one rf was termed a morthuath . The ruler of a morthuath paid tribute to the provincial king, who in his turn acknowledged at any rate in theory the overlordship of the ardrf . The privileges and tributes of the provincial kings are ,preserved in a remarkable loth century document, the Book of Rights . The rules of succession were extraordinarily complicated . Theoretically the members of a sept claimed common descent from the same ancestor, and the land belonged to the freemen . The chief and nobles, however, from various causes had come to occupy much of the territory as private property; the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder consisted of tribe-land and See also:

• COMMONS

commons-land . The portions of the tribe-land were not occupied for a fixed term, as the land of the sept was liable to See also:

• GAVELKIND

gavelkind or redistribution from time to time . In some cases, however, land which belonged originally to a flaith was owned by a family; and after a number of generations such property presented a great similarity to the gavelled land . A remarkable development of family ownership was the geilfine system, under which four groups of persons, all nearly related to each other, held four adjacent tracts of land-as a sort of common property, subject to regulations now very difficult to understand.' The king's mensal land, as also that of the tanist or successor to the royal office appointed during the king's lifetime, was not divided up but passed on in its entirety to the next individual elected to the position . When the family of an aire remained in possession of his estate in a corporate capacity, they formed a " joint and undivided family," the head of which was an aire, and thus kept up the rank of the family . Three or four poor members of a sept might combine their property and agree to form a " joint family," one of whom 1 See D'Arbois de Jubainville, Revue celtique, See also:

• XXV

xxv .

I if., 181 if . TT as the head would be an aire . In consequence of this organization the homesteads of airig commonly included several families, those of his brothers, sons, &c . (see BREHON LAWS) . The ancient Irish never got beyond very primitive notions of justice . See also:

• RETALIATION

Retaliation for See also:

• MURDER

murder and other injuries was a common method of redress, although the church had endeavoured to introduce various reforms . Hence we find in the Brehon Laws a highly complicated system of compensatory payment; but there was no authority except public See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion to enforce the payment of the fines determined by the brehon in cases submitted to him . There were many kinds of popular assemblies in ancient Ireland . The sept had its special meeting summoned by its chief for purposes such as the See also:

• ASSESSMENT, (from Lat. assessare, to sit beside, to judge)

assessment of blood-fines due from the sept, and the distribution of those due to it . At larger gatherings the question of peace and war would be deliberated . But the most important of all such assemblies was the See also:

• FAIR

fair (oenach), which was summoned by a king, those summoned by the kings of provinces having the character of national assemblies . The most famous places of meeting were Tara, Telltown and Carman .

The oenach had many See also:

• OBJECTS

objects . The laws were publicly promulgated or rehearsed; there were See also:

• COUNCILS

councils to deal with disputes and matters of See also:

• LOCAL

local See also:

• INTEREST

interest; popular See also:

• SPORTS
• SPORTS, THE BOOK OF

sports such as horse-racing, See also:

• RUNNING

running and See also:

• WRESTLING (O. Eng. wrcestlian)

wrestling were held; poems and tales were recited, and prizes were awarded to the best performers of every din or art; while at the same time foreign traders came with their wares, which they exchanged for native produce, chiefly skins, wool and frieze . At some of these assemblies match-making played a prominent part . Tradition connects the better known of these fairs with pagan rites performed round the tombs of the heroes of the race; thus the assembly of Tell-See also:

• TOWN

town was stated to have been instituted by Lugaid Lamfada . Crimes committed at an oenach could not be commuted by payment of fines . Women and men assembled for deliberation in separate airechta or gatherings, and no man durst enter the women's airechl under See also:

• PAIN (from Lat. poena, Gr. robin, penalty, that which must be paid: O. Fr. peine)
• PAIN, BARRY (1867– )

pain of death . The noble professions almost invariably ran in families, so that members of the same See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household devoted themselves for generations to one particular See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science or art, such as See also:

• POETRY

poetry, history, See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine, law . The heads of the various professions in the tuath received the title of ollam . It was the rule for them to have paying apprentices living with them . The literary ollam or fili was a person of great distinction . He was provided with mensal land for the support of himself and his scholars, and he was further entitled to free quarters for himself and his See also:

• RETINUE (O. Fr. retenue, from retenir, Lat. retenere, hold back, retain)

retinue . The harper, the metal-worker (cerd), and the See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

smith were also provided with mensal land, in return for which they gave to the chief their skill and the product of their labour as customary tribute (bestigi) .

An ra0RITIEs.–The Annals of the Four Masters, ed . J . O'Donovan (7 vols., Dublin, 1856); Annals of Ulster (4 vols., London, 1887–1892); Keating's Forus Feasa ar Eirinn (3 vols., ed . D . See also:

• COMYN, JOHN (d. c. 1300)

Comyn and P . Dinneen, London, 1902–1908); E . Windisch, See also:

• TAIN

Tain Bo Ciiainge (See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, 1905), with a valuable introduction; P . W . Joyce, A Social History of Ancient Ireland (2 vols., London, 1903), also A Short History of Ireland from the Earliest Times to 16o8 (London, 1895); A . G . Richey, A Short History of the Irish People (Dublin, 1887) ; W . F .

See also:

• SKENE, WILLIAM FORBES (1809–1892)

Skene, Celtic Scotland (3 vols., See also:

• EDINBURGH

Edinburgh, 1876-188o) ; J . Rhys, " Studies in Early Irish History," in Proceedings of the British Academy, vol. i.; John MacNeill, papers in New Ireland Review (March 1906–See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 1907); Leabhar na gCeart, ed . O'Donovan (Dublin, 1847); E . O'Curry, The See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish, ed . W . K . See also:

• SULLIVAN, JOHN (1740–1795)
• SULLIVAN, SIR ARTHUR SEYMOUR (1842—1900)
• SULLIVAN, THOMAS BARRY (1824-1891)

Sullivan (3 vols., London, 1873); G . T . See also:

• STOKES, SIR G
• STOKES, SIR GEORGE GABRIEL, BART
• STOKES, WHITLEY (1830-1909)

Stokes, Ireland and the Celtic Church, revised by H . J . Lawlor (London e 1907) ; J . See also:

• HEALY, GEORGE PETER ALEXANDER (1808-1894)

Healy, Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars (Dublin', 1897); H .

Zimmer, See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article Keltische Kirche" in Hauck's Realencyklopadie See also:

• FUR (connected with O. Fr. forre, a sheath or case; so " an outer covering ")

fur otestantische Theologie and Kirche (trans . A . Meyer, London, 1902), cf . H . See also:

• WILLIAMS
• WILLIAMS, JOHN (1582-1650)
• WILLIAMS, JOHN (1796-1839)
• WILLIAMS, ROGER (c. 1604–1684)
• WILLIAMS, ROWLAND (1817-1870)
• WILLIAMS, SIR WILLIAM FENWICK

Williams, " H . Zimmer on the History of the Celtic Church," Zeitschr. f. cell . Phil. iv . 527-574; H . Zimmer, " See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die Bedeutung See also:

• DES

des irischen Elements in der mittelalterlichen Kultur," Preussische Jahrbucher, vol. lix., trans . J . L . Edmands, The Irish Element in Medieval Culture (New York, 1891); J .

H . Todd, St Patrick, the Apostle of Ireland (Dublin, 1864); J . B . Bury, Life of St Patrick (London, 1905); W . See also:

• REEVES, JOHN SIMS (1818-1900)

Reeves, Adamnan's Life of Columba (Dublin, 1857; also ed. with introd. by J . T . See also:

• FOWLER, CHARLES (1792-1867)
• FOWLER, EDWARD (1632-1714)
• FOWLER, JOHN (1826-1864)
• FOWLER, SIR JOHN (1817-1898)
• FOWLER, WILLIAM (c. 156o-1614)

Fowler, See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford, 1894) ; M . See also:

• ROGER (d. 1139)
• ROGER (d. 1181)

Roger, L'Enseignement des lettres classiques d'Ausone a Akuin (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1905); J . H . Todd, The War of the Geedhil with the Gall (London, 1867) ; L . J . See also:

• VOGT, KARL CHRISTOPH (1817-1895)

Vogt, Dublin som Norsk By (See also:

• CHRISTIANIA (officially KRISTIANIA)

Christiania, 1897) ; J .

Steenstrup, Normannerne, vols. ii., iii . (See also:

• COPENHAGEN (Danish Kjobenhavn)

Copenhagen, 1878–1882); W . G . See also:

• COLLINGWOOD
• COLLINGWOOD, CUTHBERT COLLINGWOOD, BARON (1750-,8,o)

Collingwood, Scandinavian Britain (London, 1908) . (E . C . Q.) History from the Anglo-Norman Invasion . According to the Metalogus of John of See also:

• SALISBURY
• SALISBURY, EARLS OF
• SALISBURY, ROBERT ARTHUR TALBOT GASCOYNECECIL, 3RD MARQUESS OF (1830-1903)
• SALISBURY, ROBERT CECIL, 1ST EARL OF (c. 1565-1612)
• SALISBURY, THOMAS DE MONTACUTE, 4TH EARL OF (1388-1428)
• SALISBURY, WILLIAM LONGSWORD (or LONGESPEE), EARL OF (d. 1226)

Salisbury, who in 1155 went on a mission from King Henry II. to Pope See also:

• ADRIAN
• ADRIAN, SAINT

Adrian IV., the only Englishman who has ever occupied the papal See also:

• CHAIR (in. Mid. Eng. chcere, through O. Fr. chaire or chaiere, from Lat. cathedra, later caledra, Gr. xaOi3pa, seat, cf. "cathedral"; the modern Fr. form chaise, a chair, has been adopted in English with a particular meaning as a form of carriage; chaire

chair, the pope in response to the See also:

• ENVOY (Fr. envoye, " sent ")

envoy's .See also:

• ADRIA (anc. Atria; the form Adria or Hadria is less correct: Hatria was a town in Picenum, the modern Atri)

Adria~~ of Adrlsa lV . prayers granted to the king of the English the hereditary lordship of Ireland, sending a See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter, with a See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring as the See also:

• SYMBOL (Gr. o-uµ(3oXov, a sign)

symbol of See also:

• INVESTITURE (Late Lat. investitura)

investiture . Giraldus Cambrensis, in his Expugnatio Hibernica, gives what purports to be the text of this letter, known as " the See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

Bull Laudabiliter," and adds further a Privilegium of Pope See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander III. confirming Adrian's See also:

• GRANT (from A.-Fr. graunter, O. Fr. greanter for creanter, popular Lat. creantare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to believe, trust)
• GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838)
• GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823)
• GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835–1902)
• GRANT, JAMES (1822–1887)
• GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827–1892)
• GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892)
• GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
• GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878)
• GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808–1895)
• GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895)
• GRANT, U
• GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885)

grant . The Privilegium is undoubtedly See also:

• SPURIOUS

spurious, a fact which lends See also:

• WEIGHT

weight to the arguments of those who from the 19th century onwards have attacked the genuineness of the " Bull." This latter, indeed, appears to have been concocted by Gerald, an ardent See also:

• CHAMPION (Fr. champion, Late Lat. campio from campus; a field or open space, i.e. one " who takes the field " or fights; cf. Ger. Kampf, battle, and Kampfer, fighter)

champion of the English cause in Ireland, from genuine letters of Pope Alexander III., still preserved in the Black Book of the See also:

• EXCHEQUER

Exchequer, which do no more than commend King Henry for reducing the Irish to order and extirpating tantae abominationis spurcitiam, and exhort the Irish bishops and chiefs to be faithful to the king to whom they had sworn allegiance.' Henry was, indeed, at the outset in a position to dispense with the moral aid of a papal concession, of which even if it existed he certainly made no use . In 1156 Dermod MacMurrough (Diarmait MacMurchada), deposed for his tyranny from the kingdom of Leinster, repaired to Henry in Aquitaine (see Early History above) .

The king was busy with the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French, but gladly seized the opportunity, and gave Dermod a letter authorizing him to raise forces in England . Thus armed, and provided with gold extorted from his former subjects in Leinster, Dermod went to See also:

• BRISTOL
• BRISTOL, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF
• BRISTOL, GEORGE DIGBY, 2ND EARL OF1 (1612-1677)
• BRISTOL, JOHN DIGBY, 1ST EARL OF 6 (1580-1653)

Bristol and sought the acquaintance of See also:

• RICHARD
• RICHARD (d. 1184)
• RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (18,9-1908)
• RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888)
• RICHARD, ST

Richard de Clare, earl of See also:

• PEMBROKE
• PEMBROKE (Penfro)
• PEMBROKE, EARLS OF

Pembroke, a Norman noble of great ability but broken fortunes . Earl Richard, whom later usage has named Strongbow, agreed to reconquer Dermod's kingdom for him . The stipulated See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration was the hand of Eva his only child, and according to feudal law his sole heiress, to whose issue lands and kingdoms would naturally pass . But Irish customs admitted no estates of See also:

• INHERITANCE

inheritance, and Eva had no more right to the reversion of Leinster than she had to that of See also:

• JAPAN

Japan . It is likely that Strong-See also:

• BOW (pronounced " bo ")

bow had no conception of this, and that his first collision with the tribal system was an unpleasant surprise . Passing through Wales, Dermod agreed with See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

Robert Fitzstephen and See also:

• MAURICE (1521–1553)
• MAURICE (MAURICIUS FLAVIUS TIBERIUS) (c. 539–602)
• MAURICE [or MAURITIUS], ST (d. c. 286)
• MAURICE, JOHN FREDERICK DENISON (1805-1872)

Maurice See also:

• FITZGERALD
• FITZGERALD, EDWARD (1809–1883)
• FITZGERALD, LORD E
• FITZGERALD, LORD EDWARD (1763-1798)
• FITZGERALD, LORD THOMAS (loth earl of Kildare), (1513-1537)
• FITZGERALD, RAYMOND, or REDMOND (d. ca. 1182)

Fitzgerald to invade Ireland in the ensuing spring . About the 1st of May 1169 Fitzstephen landed on the Wexford shore with a small force, and next day Maurice de Prendergast brought another band nearly to the same spot . The inva-Dermod joined them, and the Danes of Wexford soon See also:

• SION [Ger. Sitten]

sion of submitted . According to agreement Dermod granted strong-the territory of Wexford, which had never belonged to bow. him, to Robert and Maurice and their heirs for ever; and here begins the conflict between feudal and tribal law which was destined to deluge Ireland in blood . Maurice Fitzgerald soon followed with a fresh detachment . About a year after the first landing See also:

• RAYMOND, HENRY JARVIS (1820-1869)

Raymond Le See also:

• GROS, ANTOINE JEAN, BARON (1771–1835)

Gros was sent over by Earl Richard with his advanced guard, and Strongbow himself landed near Water-See also:

• FORD, EDWARD ONSLOW
• FORD, JOHN (r586–c.1640)
• FORD, RICHARD (1796-1858)
• FORD, THOMAS (b. c. 158o)

ford on the 23rd of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 1170 with 200 knights and about Iwo other troops .

The natives did not understand that this invasion was quite different from those of the Danes . They made alliances with the strangers to aid them in their See also:

• INTESTINE (Lat. intestinus, internal, usually in neuter plural intestina. from intus, within)

intestine See also:

• WARS

wars, and the annalist writing in later years (Annals of Lough Ce) describes with pathetic brevity the change wrought in Ireland:—" Earl Strongbow came into Erin with Dermod MacMurrough to avenge his See also:

• EXPULSION (Lat. expulsio, from expellere)

expulsion by Roderick, son of Turlough O'Connor; and Dermod gave 1 The whole question is discussed by Mr J . H . Round in his article on " The Pope and the Conquest of Ireland " (See also:

• COMMUNE (Med. Lat. communia, Lat. communis, common)
• COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL

Commune of London . 1899, pp . 171-200), where further references will be found . him his own daughter and a part of his patrimony, and Saxon foreigners have been in Erin since then." Most of the Norman leaders were near relations, many being descended from Nesta, daughter of Rhys Ap Tudor, prince of South Wales, the most beautiful woman of her time, and See also:

• MISTRESS

mistress of Henry I . Her children by that king were called Fitzhenry . She afterwards married Gerald de See also:

• WINDSOR
• WINDSOR (properly NEw WINDSOR)

Windsor, by whom she had three sons—Maurice, ancestor of all the Geraldines; See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William, from whom sprang the families of Fitzmaurice, See also:

• CAREW, GEORGE (d. about 1613)
• CAREW, RICHARD (1555–1620)
• CAREW, THOMAS (1595–1645?)

Carew, See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

Grace and See also:

• GERARD (c. 1040-1120)
• GERARD (d. I1o8)
• GERARD, ETIENNE MAURICE, COUNT (1773–1852)
• GERARD, FRANCOIS, BARON (1770-1837)
• GERARD, JEAN IGNACE ISIDORE (1803-1847)
• GERARD, JOHN (1545-1612)
• GERARD, or GIRARD, AUDRAN

Gerard; and David, who became bishop of St David's . Nesta's daughter, Angareth, married to William de Barri, See also:

• BORE

bore the chronicler Giraldus Cambrensis, and was ancestress of the Irish See also:

• BARNES, ALBERT (1798–1870)
• BARNES, BARNABE (1569 ?–16o9)
• BARNES, JOSHUA (1654-1712)
• BARNES, ROBERT (1495-1540)
• BARNES, SIR EDWARD (1776-1838)
• BARNES, THOMAS (1785-1841)
• BARNES, W
• BARNES, WILLIAM (1800-1886)

Barnes . Raymond le Gros, See also:

• HERVEY, JAMES (1714–1758)

Hervey de See also:

• MONTMORENCY
• MONTMORENCY, ANNE
• MONTMORENCY, MATHIEU JEAN FELICITE DE

Montmorency, and the Cogans were also descendants of Nesta, who, by her second husband, See also:

• STEPHEN
• STEPHEN (1097?-1154)
• STEPHEN (ISTVAN) BATHORY (1533-1586)
• STEPHEN, SIR JAMES (1789-1859)
• STEPHEN, SIR JAMES FITZJAMES, BART
• STEPHEN, SIR LESLIE (1832-1904)

Stephen the Castellan, was mother of Robert Fitzstephen . - While waiting for Strongbow's arrival, Raymond and Hervey were attacked by the Danes of Waterford, whom they overthrew .

Strongbow himself took Waterford and Dublin, and the Danish inhabitants of both readily combined with their French-speaking kinsfolk, and became firm supporters of_the Anglo-Normans against the native Irish . Alarmed at the principality forming near him, Henry invaded Ireland in person, landing near Waterford on the 18th of See also:

• OCTOBER

October 1172 . Giraldus says he had 500 knights and many other soldiers; Regan, the metrical chronicler, says he had 4000 men, of whom 400 were knights; the Annals of Lough Ce that he had 240 ships . The Irish writers tell little about these great !events, except that the king of the Saxons took the hostages of Munster at Waterford, and of Leinster, Ulster, Thomond and Meath at Dublin . They did not take in the grave significance of doing See also:

• HOMAGE (from homo, through the Low Lat. hominaticum, which occurs in a document of 1035)

homage to a Norman king, and becoming his "man." . Henry's farthest point westward was Cashel, where he received the homage of Donald O'Brien, king of Thomond, but he does not appear to have been present at the famous synod . Christian O'Conarchy, bishop of See also:

• LISMORE

Lismore and papal legate, presided, and the archbishops of Dublin, Cashel and Tuam attended with their suffragans, as did many abbots and other dignitaries . The primate of Armagh, the saintly Gelasius, was absent, and presumably his suffragans also, but Giraldus says he afterwards came to the king at Dublin, and favoured him in all things . Henry's sovereignty was acknowledged, and constitutions made which See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew Ireland closer to Rome . In spite of the "enormities and filthinesses," which Giraldus says defiled the Irish Church, nothing worse could be found to condemn than marriages within the prohibited degrees and trifling irregularities about See also:

• BAPTISM

baptism . Most of the details rest on the authority of Giraldus only, but the main facts are clear . The synod is not mentioned by the Irish annalists, nor by Regan, but it is by Hoveden and See also:

• RALPH (d. 1122)

Ralph de See also:

• DICETO, RALPH DE (d. c. 1202)

Diceto .

The latter says it was held at Lismore, an See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error arising from the See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president having been bishop of Lismore . Tradition says the members met in Cormac's See also:

• CHAPEL

chapel . Henry at first tried to be suzerain without displacing the natives, and received the homage of Roderick O'Connor, the high king . But the adventurers were uncontrollable, and he had to let them conquer what they could, exercising a See also:

• PRECARIOUS

precarious authority over the Normans only through a See also:

• VICEROY (from O. Fr. viceroy, mod. viceroi, i.e. Lat. vice, in place of, and roy or roi, king)

viceroy . The early See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors seemingly had orders to deal as fairly as possible with the natives, and this involved them in quarrels with the "conquerors," whose object was to carve out principalities for themselves, and who only nominally respected the See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign's wishes . The See also:

• MAIL

mail-clad knights were not uniformly successful against the natives, but they generally managed to occupy the open plains and fertile valleys . See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

Geographical configuration preserved centres of resistance—the O'Neills in Tyrone and Armagh, the O'Donnells in Donegal, and the Macarthies in Cork being the largest tribes that remained practically unbroken . On the coast from See also:

• BRAY
• BRAY, SIR REGINALD (d. 1503)
• BRAY, THOMAS (1656-1730)

Bray to See also:

• DUNDALK

Dundalk, and by the navigable rivers of the east and south coasts, the Norman put his iron foot firmly down . Prince John landed at Waterford in 1185, and the neighbouringchiefs hastened to pay their respects to the king's son . Prince and followers alike soon earned hatred, the former showing the incurable vices of his character, and pulling the beards of the chieftains . After eight disgraceful months he left the government to John de See also:

• COURCI, JOHN DE (d. 1219?)

Courci, but retained the title "See also:

• DOMINUS (from an Indo-European root dam-, cf. Gr. Sapav, to subdue, and Eng. " tame ")

Dominus Hiberniae." It was even intended to See also:

• CROWN

crown him; and See also:

• URBAN
• URBAN (Urbanus)

Urban III. sent a See also:

• LICENCE (through the French from Lat. licentia, licere, to be lawful)

licence and a crown of See also:

• PEACOCK (Lat. Pavo, O. Eng. Pawe, Du. pauuw, Ger. Pfau, Fr. Paon)
• PEACOCK, GEORGE (1791–1858)
• PEACOCK, SIR BARNES (1810-189o)
• PEACOCK, THOMAS LOVE (1785-1866)

peacock's feathers, which was never placed on his head . Had Richard I. had children Ireland might have become a separate kingdom .

Henry II. had granted Meath, about 800,000 acres, to Hugh de See also:

• LACY, FRANZ MORITZ, COUNT (1725-1801)
• LACY, HARRIETTE DEBORAH (1807-1874)
• LACY, MICHAEL ROPHINO (1795–1867)

Lacy (d . 1186), reserving scarcely any See also:

• PREROGATIVE

prerogative to the crown, and making his vassal almost independent . De Lacy sublet the land among kinsmen and retainers, and to his grants the families of See also:

• NUGENT

Nugent, Tyrell, Nangle, Tuyt, See also:

• FLEMING, PAUL (1609-1640)
• FLEMING, RICHARD (d. 1431)
• FLEMING, SIR SANDFORD (1827- )
• FLEMING, SIR THOMAS (1S44-1613)

Fleming and others owe their importance in Irish history . It is not surprising that the Irish bordering on Meath should have thought De Lacy the real king of Ireland . During his brother Richard I.'s reign, John's viceroy was William See also:

• MARSHAL (med. Lat. marescalcus, from O.H.Ger. marah, horse, and scalc, servant)

Marshal, earl of Pembroke, who married Strongbow's daughter, and thus succeeded to his claims in Leinster . John's reputation was no better in Ireland than in /sing John . England . He thwarted or encouraged the Anglo-Normans as best suited him, but on the whole they increased their possessions . In 1210 John, now king, visited Ireland again, and being joined by Cathal Crovderg O'Connor, king of Con-naught, marched from Waterford by Dublin to See also:

• CARRICKFERGUS

Carrickfergus without encountering any serious resistance from Hugh de Lacy (second son of the Hugh de Lacy mentioned above), who had been made earl of Ulster in 1205 . John did not venture farther west than See also:

• TRIM

Trim, but most of the Anglo-Norman lords swore fealty to him, and he divided the partially obedient districts into twelve counties—Dublin (with Wicklow), Meath (with Westmeath), Louth, Carlow, Kilkenny, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, Limerick, _Kerry and Tipperary . John's resignation of his kingdom to the pope in 1213 included Ireland, and thus for the second time was the papal claim to Ireland formally recorded . During Henry III.'s long reign the Anglo-Norman power increased, but underwent great modifications .

Richard Marshal, grandson of Strongbow, and to a great extent heir of his power, was foully murdered by his own feudatories Henry/// . (121b- -men of his own race; and the colony never quite 1272). recovered this See also:

• BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

blow . On the other hand, the De Burghs, partly by alliance with the Irish, partly by sheer hard fighting, made good their claims to the lordship of Connaught, and the western O'Connors henceforth play a very subordinate part in Irish history . See also:

• TALLAGE (med. Lat. tallagium, Fr. lailage, from late Lat. talare, taleare, Fr. tallier, to cut, classical Lat. talea, a cutting, slip; cf. " tally " and the French taille, q.v.)

Tallage was first imposed on the colony in the first year of this reign, but yielded little, and tithes were not much better paid . On the 14th of See also:

• JANUARY

January 1217 the king wrote from Oxford to his See also:

• JUSTICIARY, HIGH COURT OF

justiciary, Geoffrey de Marisco, directing that no Irishman should be elected or preferred in any See also:

• CATHEDRAL

cathedral in Ireland, Objections "since by that means our land might be disturbed, to Irish which is to be deprecated." This order was annulled clergy. in 1224 by See also:

• HONORIUS
• HONORIUS, FLAVIUS (384-423)

Honorius III., who declared it "destitute of all See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour of right and honesty." The pope's efforts failed, for in the 14th century several Cistercian abbeys excluded Irishmen, and as late as 1436 the monks of See also:

• ABINGDON

Abingdon complained bitterly that an Irish abbot had been imposed on them by lay violence . See also:

• PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

Parliament was not more liberal, for the See also:

• STATUTE

statute of Kilkenny, passed in 1366, ordained that "no Irishman be admitted into any cathedral or collegiate church, nor to any See also:

• BENEFICE (Lat. beneficium, benefit)

benefice among the English of the land," and also "that no religious house situated among the English shall henceforth receive an Irishman to their profession." This was confirmed by the English parliament in 1416, and an Irish act of Richard III. enabled the archbishop of Dublin to collate Irish clerks for two years, an exception proving the rule . Many Irish monasteries admitted no Englishmen, and at least one attempt was made, in 1250, to apply the same rule to cathedrals . The races remained nearly separate, the Irish simply staying outside the feudal system . If an Englishman Henry H . In Ireland . Separa- tion of the two races . slew an Irishman (except one of the five See also:

• REGAL

regal and privileged bloods) he was not to be tried for murder, for Irish law admitted See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition (See also:

• ERIC

eric) for murder .

In Magna Charta there is a proviso that foreign merchants shall be treated as English merchants are treated in the country whence the travellers came . Yet some enlightened men strove to fuse the two nations together, and the native Irish, or that section which bordered on the settlements and suffered great oppression, offered 8000 marks to See also:

• EDWARD

Edward I. for the See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege of living under English law . The justiciary supported their See also:

• PETITION (Lat. for " seeking " or " praying ")

petition, but the prelates and nobles refused to consent . There is a vague tradition that Edward I. visited Ireland about 1256, when his father ordained that the prince's seal should have regal authority in that country . A vast number of documents remain to prove that he did not neglect Irish business . Yet this, great king cannot be credited with any specially enlightened views as to Ireland . See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

Hearing with anger of enormities committed in his name, he summoned the viceroy, Robert de Ufford (d . 1298), to explain, who coolly said that he thought it expedient to wink at one See also:

• KNAVE (O.E. cnafa, cognate with Ger. Knabe, boy)

knave cutting off another, " whereat the king smiled and bade him return into Ireland." The colonists were strong enough to send large forces to the king in his Scottish wars, but as there was no corresponding See also:

• IMMIGRATION (from Lat. in, into, and tnigrare, to depart)

immigration this really weakened the English, whose best hopes lay in See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture and the arts of peace, while the Celtic race waxed proportionally numerous . Outwardly all seemed fair . The De Burghs were. supreme in Connaught, and English families occupied eastern Ulster . The fertile southern and central lands were dominated by strong castles . But Tyrone and Tyrconnel, and the mountains everywhere, sheltered the Celtic race, which, having reached its lowest point under Edward I., began to recover under his son .

In 1315, the year after See also:

• BANNOCKBURN

Bannockburn, Edward See also:

• BRUCE
• BRUCE, ALEXANDER BALMAIN (1831-1899)
• BRUCE, JAMES (1930-1794)
• BRUCE, MICHAEL (1746-1767)

Bruce landed near Larne with 6000 men, including some of the best knights in Scotland . Supported by O'Neill and other chiefs, Edward'''. and for a time assisted by his famous brother, Bruce 1327)). gained many victories . There was no general effort of the natives in their favour; perhaps the Irish thought one Norman no better than another, and their See also:

• TOTAL

total incapacity for national organization forbade the idea of a native sovereign . The family quarrels of the O'Connors at this time, and their alliances with the Burkes, or De Burghs, and the Berminghams, may be traced in great detail in the annalists—the general result being fatal to the royal tribe of Connaught, which is said to have lost 1o,00o warriorsin the battle of Templetogher . In other places the English were less successful, the Butlers being beaten by the O'Carrolls in 1318, and Richard de Clare falling about the same time in the decisive battle of Dysert O'Dea . The O'Briens re-established their sway in Thomond and the illustrious name of Clare disappears from Irish history . Edward Bruce fell in battle near Dundalk, and most of his army recrossed the channel, leaving behind a reputation for See also:

• CRUELTY (through the O. Fr. crualte, mod. cruaute, from the Lat. crudelitas)

cruelty and rapacity . The colonists were victorious, but their organization was undermined, and the authority of the crown, which had never been able to keep the peace, grew rapidly weaker . Within twenty years after the great victory of Dundalk, the quarrels of the barons allowed the Irish to recover much of the land they had lost . John de Bermingham, earl of Louth, the conqueror of Bruce, was murdered in 1329 by the Gernons, Cusacks, Everards and other English of that county, who disliked his firm government . They were never brought to justice . See also:

• TALBOT (FAMILY)
• TALBOT, MARY ANNE (1778-1808)
• TALBOT, WILLIAM HENRY FOX (1800–1877)

Talbot of Malahide and two hundred of Bermingham's relations and adherents were massacred at the same time .

In 1333, William de See also:

• BURGH [BOURKE, BURKE]
• BURGH, HUBERT DE (d. 1243)

Burgh, the See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young earl of Ulster, was murdered by the Mandevilles and others; in this case signal vengeance was taken, but the feudal dominion never recovered the blow, and on the north-east coast the English laws and language were soon confined to See also:

• DROGHEDA

Drogheda and Dundalk . The earl left one daughter, See also:

• ELIZABETH
• ELIZABETH (1533-1603)
• ELIZABETH (1596-1662)
• ELIZABETH (1635–1650)
• ELIZABETH [ AMELIE EUGENIE ] (1837—1898)
• ELIZABETH [1lisabeth Philippine Marie Helene of France] (1764—1794)
• ELIZABETH [PAULINE ELIZABETH OTTILIE LOUISE] (1843– )
• ELIZABETH [PETROVNA] (1709-1762), EMPRESS
• ELIZABETH, SAINT (1207-1231)

Elizabeth, who was of course a royal See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

ward . She married Lionel, See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of See also:

• CLARENCE, DUKES OF

Clarence, and from her springs the royal line of England from Edward IV., as well as See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James V. of Scotland and his descendants . The two chief• men among the De Burghs were loth to hold their lands of a little absentee girl . Having no grounds for opposing the royal title to the wardship of the heiress, they abjured English law and became Irish chieftains . As such they were obeyed, for the king's See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm was short in Ireland . The one appropriated Mayo as the Lower (Oughter) M'William, and the earldom of Mayo perpetuates the memory of the event . The other as the Upper (Eighter) MWilliam took Galway, and from him the earls of See also:

• CLANRICARDE, ULICK DE BURGH (BOURKE or BURKE)
• CLANRICARDE, ULICK DE BURGH (BOURKE or BURKE), MARQUESS OF (1604-1657 or 1658)

Clanricarde afterwards sprung . Edward III. being busy with foreign wars had little time to spare for Ireland, and the native chiefs everywhere seized their opportunity . Perhaps the most remarkable of these aggressive chiefs was Lysaght O'More, who reconquered Leix . Clyn the Franciscan annalist, whose Latinity is so far above the medieval level as almost to recall See also:

• TACITUS, CORNELIUS (c. 55-120)
• TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS

Tacitus, sums up Lysaght's career epigrammatically: " He was a slave, he became a master; he was a subject, he became a prince (de servo dominus, de subjecto princeps effectus)." The two great earldoms whose contests form a large part of the history of the south of Ireland were created by Edward III . James See also:

• BUTLER
• BUTLER (or BOTELER), SAMUEL (1612–168o)
• BUTLER (through the O. Fr. bouteillier, from the Late Lat. buticularius, buticula, a bottle)
• BUTLER, ALBAN (1710-1773)
• BUTLER, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1818-1893)
• BUTLER, CHARLES (1750–1832)
• BUTLER, GEORGE (1774-1853)
• BUTLER, JOSEPH (1692-1752)
• BUTLER, NICHOLAS MURRAY (1862– )
• BUTLER, SAMUEL (1774-1839)
• BUTLER, SAMUEL (1835-1902)
• BUTLER, SIR WILLIAM FRANCIS (1838– )
• BUTLER, WILLIAM ARCHER (1814-1848)

Butler, eldest son of See also:

• EDMUND
• EDMUND, or EADMUND (c. 980-1016)
• EDMUND, SAINT [EDMUND RICE] (d. 1240)

Edmund, earl of Carrick, became earl of See also:

• ORMONDE, EARL AND MARQUESS OF
• ORMONDE, JAMES BUTLER, 1ST DUKE
• ORMONDE, JAMES BUTLER, 2ND DUKE OF (1665-1745)

Ormonde and See also:

• PALATINE (from Lat. palatium, a palace,)

palatine of Tipperary in 1328 .

Next year IVIaurice Fitzgerald was made earl of Desmond, and from his three brethren descended the historic houses of the White See also:

• KNIGHT, CHARLES (1791-1873)
• KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY (1845– )
• KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON (1843–1908)

Knight, the knight of Glin, and the knight of Kerry . The earldom of Kildare dates from 1316 . In this reign too was passed the statute of Kilkenny (q.v.), a confession by the crown that obedient subjects were the minority . The enactments against Irish dress and customs, and against marriage and fostering proved a dead letter . In two expeditions to Ireland Richard II. at first overcame all opposition, but neither had any permanent effect . Art MacMurrough, the great hero of the Leinster Celts, practically had the best of the contest . The king in f .cum. his despatches divided the population into Irish 1399). enemies, Irish rebels and English subjects . As he found them so he left them, lingering in Dublin long enough to lose his own crown . But for MacMurrough and his allies the house of See also:

• LANCASTER
• LANCASTER, HOUSE OF
• LANCASTER, JOHN OF GAUNT
• LANCASTER, JOSEPH (1778-1838)
• LANCASTER, SIR JAMES (f1. 1591—1618)
• LANCASTER, THOMAS, EARL OF (c. 1277-1322)

Lancaster might never have reigned . No English king again visited Ireland until James II., declared by his English subjects to have abdicated, and by the more outspoken Scots to have forfeited the crown, appealed to the loyalty or piety of the See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic Irish . Henry IV. had a bad title, and his necessities were conducive to the growth of the English constitution, but fatal to the Anglo-Irish . His son See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas, duke of Clarence, was viceroy in 1401, but did very little .

"Your son," wrote the H(1399- enryly . Irish council to Henry, "is so destitute of money that 1413). he has not a See also:

• PENNY (Mid. Eng. peni or peny, from O. Eng. form penig, earlier penning and pending; the word appears in Ger. Pfennig and Du. penning; it has been connected with Du. pand, Ger. Pfand, and Eng. " pawn,". the word meaning a little pledge or token, or with G
• PENNY, GIANFRANCESCO (1488–1528)

penny in the world, nor can See also:

• BORROW, GEORGE HENRY (18o3-1881)

borrow a single penny, because all his jewels and his See also:

• PLATE

plate that he can spare, and those which he must of necessity keep, are pledged to See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie in See also:

• PAWN

pawn." The nobles waged private war unrestrained, and the game of playing off one chieftain against another was carried on with varying success . The provisions of the statute of Kilkenny against trading with the Irish failed, for markets cannot exist without buyers . The brilliant reign of Henry V. was a time of extreme misery to the colony in Ireland . Half the English-speaking people fled to England, where they were not welcome . The - disastrous reign of the third Lancastrian completed . Henry v. the discomfiture of the original colony in Ireland . 1422) . Quarrels between the Ormonde and Talbot parties paralysed the government, and a "Pale" of 3o in. by 20 was all that remained . Even the walled towns, Kilkenny, Ross, Wexford, See also:

• KINSALE

Kinsale, See also:

• YOUGHAL (pronounced Yawl)

Youghal, See also:

• CLONMEL

Clonmel, See also:

• KILMALLOCK

Kilmallock, Thomastown, Fethard and Cashel, were almost starved Henry VL out; Waterford itself was half ruined and half deserted . 11422 1464 .. Only one parliament was held for thirty years, but See also:

• TAXATION
• TAXATION (from " tax," derived, through the French, from Lat. taxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same root as tangere, to touch)

taxation was not remitted on that account .

No viceroy even pretended to reside continuously . The north and west.were still Edward L (1272-1307) . Edward 111 . (1327• 1377) . worse off than the south . Some thoughtful men saw clearly the danger of leaving Ireland to ne seized by the first See also:

• CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

chance corner, and the See also:

• LIBEL

Libel of English Policy, written about 1436, contains a long and interesting passage declaring England's interests in protecti- g Ireland as " a boterasse and a poste " of her own power . Sir John Talbot, immortalized by See also:

• SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM (1564-1616)

Shakespeare, was several times viceroy; he was almost uniformly successful in the field, but feeble in council . He held a parliament at Trim which made one law against men of English race wearing moustaches, lest they should be mistaken for Irishmen, and another obliging the sons of agricultural labourers to follow their father's vocation under pain of fine and imprisonment . The earls of See also:

• SHREWSBURY
• SHREWSBURY, CHARLES TALBOT, DUKE OF (166o-1718)
• SHREWSBURY, DUKE
• SHREWSBURY, EARLS OF
• SHREWSBURY, ELIZABETH TALBOT, COUNTESS OF (1518–16o8)
• SHREWSBURY, JOHN TALBOT, 1ST EARL OF (d. 1453)

Shrewsbury are still earls of Waterford, and retain the right to carry the white See also:

• STAFF (O. Eng. staef, cf. Du. staf, Ger. Stab, &c.; Icel. stafr meant also a written letter, and O. Eng. stafas, the letters of the alphabet; " stave," one of the thin pieces of wood of which a cask is made, is a doublet)

staff as hereditary stewards, but the See also:

• PALATINATE (Ger. Pfalz)

palatinate jurisdiction over Wexford was taken away by Henry VIII . The Ulster annalists give a very different estimate of the great Talbot from that of Shakespeare: "A son of curses for his venom and a See also:

• DEVIL (Gr. &a,3oXos, " slanderer," from &ctflisXX sty, to slander)

devil for his evils; and the learned say of him that there came not from the time of See also:

• HEROD
• HEROD (surnamed THE GREAT)

Herod, by whom Christ was crucified, any one so wicked in evil deeds " (O'Donovan's Four Masters) . In 1449 Richard, duke of York, right heir by blood to the throne of Edward III., was forced to yield the regency of France to his rival Somerset, and to accept the Irish See also:

• VICE

vice-See also:

• ROYALTY (0. Fr. realte, reialte, royaulte, from Med. Lat. regalitas, the substantive of regalis, of or belonging to a king, rex)

royalty . He landed at See also:

• HOWTH

Howth with his wife See also:

• CICELY

Cicely See also:

• NEVILLE, GEORGE (c. 1432-1476)
• NEVILLE, or NEVILL
• NEVILLE, RALPH (d. 1244)

Neville, and See also:

• MARGARET
• MARGARET (1283–1290)
• MARGARET (1353-1412)
• MARGARET (1489–1541)
• MARGARET, ST (c. 1045–1093)
• MARGARET, ST (SANCTA MARGARITA)

Margaret of See also:

• ANJOU

Anjou hoped thus to get rid of one who was too great for a subject .

The Irish government was given to him for ten years on unusually liberal terms . He ingratiated himself with both races, taking care to avoid See also:

• IDENTIFICATION (Lat. idem, the same)

identification with any particular family . At the baptism of his son See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George—" false, fleeting, perjured Clarence "—who was born in Dublin Castle, Desmond and Ormonde stood sponsors together . In legislation Richard fared no better than others . The See also:

• REBELLION

rebellion of See also:

• JACK

Jack See also:

• CADE, JOHN (d. 1450)

Cade, claiming to be a See also:

• MORTIMER (Family)

Mortimer and cousin to the duke of York, took place at this time . This adventurer, at once ludicrous and formidable, was a native of Ireland, and was thought to be put forward by Richard to test the popularity of the Yorkist cause . Returning suddenly to England in 1450, Richard left the government to James, earl of Ormonde and See also:

• WILTSHIRE [WILTS]

Wiltshire, who later married Eleanor, daughter of Edmund See also:

• BEAUFORT
• BEAUFORT, FRANCOIS DE VENDOME
• BEAUFORT, HENRY (c. 1377–1447)
• BEAUFORT, LOUIS DE (d. 1795)

Beaufort, duke of Somerset, and was deeply engaged on the Lancastrian side . This earl began the deadly See also:

• FEUD

feud with the house of Kildare, which lasted for generations . After Blore See also:

• HEATH
• HEATH, BENJAMIN (1704-1766)
• HEATH, WILLIAM (1737—1814)

Heath Richard was attainted by the Lancastrian parliament, and returned to Dublin, where the colonial parliament acknowledged him and assumed virtual independence . A separate coinage was established, and the authority of the English parliament was repudiated . William Overy, a bold See also:

• SQUIRE

squire of Ormonde's, offered to See also:

• ARREST (Fr. arrester, arreeter, to stop or stay)

arrest Richard as an attainted traitor, but was seized, tried before the man whom he had come to take, and hanged, See also:

• DRAWN

drawn and quartered . The duke only maintained his separate kingdom about a year .

His party triumphed in England, but he himself fell at See also:

• WAKEFIELD
• WAKEFIELD, GILBERT (1756-1801)

Wakefield . Among the few prisoners taken on the bloody field of See also:

• TOWTON

Towton was Ormonde, whose head long adorned London Bridge . He and his brothers were attainted in England and by Edward the Yorkist parliament in Ireland, but the importance 144ir . of the family was hardly diminished by this . For the first six years of Edward's reign the two Geraldine earls engrossed See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official power . The influence of Queen Elizabeth Woodville, whom Desmond had offended, then made itself felt . Tiptoft, earl of See also:

• WORCESTER
• WORCESTER, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF
• WORCESTER, JOHN TIPTOFT, EARL OF (1427—1470)
• WORCESTER, WILLIAM (c. 1415-c. 1482)

Worcester, became See also:

• DEPUTY (through the Fr. from a Late Lat. use of deputare, to cut off, allot; putare having the original sense of to trim, prune)

deputy . He was an accomplished Oxonian, who made a speech at Rome in such good Latin as to draw tears from the eyes of that great patron of letters Pope See also:

• PIUS

Pius II . (See also:

• AENEAS

Aeneas Sylvius) . But his Latinity did not soften his manners, and he was thought cruel even in that age . Desmond was beheaded, ostensibly for using Irish exactions, really, as the partisans of his family hold, to please Elizabeth . The remarkable lawlessness of this reign was in-creased by the practice of coining . Several mints had been established since Richard of York's time; the See also:

• STANDARDS

standards varied and See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

imitation was easy .

During Richard III.'s short reign the earl of Kildare, head of the Irish Yorkists, was the strongest man in Ireland . He espoused the cause of See also:

• LAMBERT [alias NICHOLSON], JOHN (d. 1538)
• LAMBERT, DANIEL (1770-1809)
• LAMBERT, FRANCIS (c 1486-153o)
• LAMBERT, JOHANN HEINRICH (1728–1777)
• LAMBERT, JOHN (1619-1694)

Lambert See also:

• SIMNEL, LAMBERT

Simnel (1487), whom the Irish in general seem always to have thought a Richard lIi true See also:

• PLANTAGENET

Plantagenet . The See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian primate, Octavian de Palatio, knew better, and incurred the wrath of Kildare by refusing to officiate at the impostor's See also:

• CORONATION (Lat. corona, crown)

coronation . The local magnates and several distinguished visitors attended, and Lambert was shown to the people borne aloft He VII. on " great D'Arcy of Platten's " shoulders . His 1509) . nry enterprise ended in the battle of Stoke, near See also:

• NEWARK
• NEWARK (NEWARK-UPON-TRENT)
• NEWARK, DAVID LESLIE, LORD (1601-1682)

Newark, where the See also:

• FLOWER (Lat. flos, floris; Fr. fleur)
• FLOWER, SIB

flower of the Anglo-Irish soldiery fell . " The Irish," says See also:

• BACON
• BACON (through the O. Fr. bacon, Low Lat. baco, from a Teutonic word cognate with " back," e.g. O. H. Ger. pacho, M. H. Ger. backe, buttock, flitch of bacon)
• BACON, FRANCIS (BARON VERULAM, VISCOUNT ST ALBANS) (1561-1626)
• BACON, JOHN (1740–1799)
• BACON, LEONARD (1802–1881)
• BACON, ROGER (c. 1214-c. 1294)
• BACON, SIR NICHOLAS (1509-1579)

Bacon, " did not fail in courage or fierceness, but, being almost naked men, only armed with darts and skeins, it was rather an execution than a fight upon them." Conspicuous among Henry VII.'s adherents in Ireland were the citizens of Waterford, who, with the men of Clonmel, Callan, Fethard and the Butler connexion generally, were prepared to take the field in his favour . Waterford was equally conspicuous some years later in resisting See also:

• PERKIN, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1838-1907)

Perkin See also