See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

ELECTION (from See also:

• LAT

Lat. eligere, to pick out)  , the method by which a choice or selection is made by a constituent See also:

• BODY

body (the See also:

• ELECTORS (Ger. Kurfursten, from Kilren, O.H.G. kiosan, choose, elect, and Furst, prince)

electors or electorate) of some See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person to fill a certain See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office or dignity . The See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure itself is called an See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election . Election, as a See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of selection, is naturally a loose See also:

• TERM

term covering many subjects; but except in the theological sense (the See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of election), as employed by See also:

• CALVIN, JOHN (1509-1564)

Calvin and others, for the choice by See also:

• GOD

God of His " elect," the legal sense (see ELECTION, in See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, below), and occasionally as a synonym for See also:

• PERSONAL

personal choice (one's own " election "), it is confined to the selection by the preponderating See also:

• VOTE

vote of some properly constituted body of electorsof one of two or more candidates, sometimes for See also:

• ADMISSION

admission only to some private social position (as in a See also:

• CLUB (connected with " clump ")

club), butmoreparticularly in connexion with public representative positions in See also:

• POLITICAL

political See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government . It is thus distinguished from arbitrary methods of See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment, either where the right of nominating rests in an individual, or where pure See also:

• CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

chance (such as selection by See also:

• LOT
• LOT (Lat. Oltis)

lot) dictates the result . The See also:

• PART

part played by different forms of election in See also:

• HISTORY

history is alluded to in numerous articles in this See also:

• WORK

work, dealing with various countries and various subjects . It is only necessary here to consider certain important features in the elections, as ordinarily understood, namely, the exercise of the right of voting for political and municipal offices in the See also:

• UNITED

United See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom and See also:

• AMERICA

America . See also the articles See also:

• PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

PARLIAMENT; See also:

• REPRESENTATION

REPRESENTATION; VOTING; See also:

• BALLOT (from Ital. ballotta, dim. of balla, a ball)

BALLOT, &C., and UNITED STATES: Political Institutions . For See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical details as to the conduct of political elections in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England reference must be made to the various See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text-books on the subject; the See also:

• CANDIDATE

candidate and his election See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent require to be on their guard against any false step which might invalidate his return . Law in the United Kingdom.—Considerable alterations have been made in See also:

• RECENT

recent years in the law of See also:

• GREAT

Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain and See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland See also:

• RELATING

relating to the procedure at See also:

• PARLIAMENTARY

parliamentary and municipal elections, and to election petitions . As regards parliamentary elections (which may be either the " See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general election," after a See also:

• DISSOLUTION (from Lat. dissolvere, to break up into parts)

dissolution of parliament, or " by-elections," when casual vacancies occur during its continuance), the most important of the amending statutes is the Corrupt and Illegal Practices See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

Act 1883 . This act, and the Parliamentary Elections Act 1868, as amended by it, and other enactments dealing with corrupt practices, are . temporary acts requiring See also:

• ANNUAL

annual renewal . As regards municipal elections, the Corrupt Practices (Municipal Elections) Act 1872 has been repealed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1882 for England, and by the See also:

• LOCAL

Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898 for Ireland .

The governing enactments for England are now the Municipal Corporations Act 1882, part iv., and the Municipal Elections (Corrupt and Illegal Practices) Act 1884, the latter annually renewable . The provisions of these enactments have been applied with necessary modifications to municipal and other local government elections in Ireland by orders of the Irish Local Government See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

Board made under See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers conferred by the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898 . In See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland the law regulating municipal and other local government elections is now to be found in the Elections (Scotland) (Corrupt and Illegal Practices) Act 189o . The alterations in the law have been in the direction of greater strictness in regard to the conduct of elections, and increased See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control in the public See also:

• INTEREST

interest over the proceedings on election petitions . Various acts and payments which were previously lawful in the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of any corrupt bargain or See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive are now altogether forbidden under the name of " illegal practices " as distinguished from " corrupt practices." Failure on the part of a parliamentary candidate or his election agent to comply with the requirements of the law in any particular is sufficient to invalidate the return (see the articles See also:

• BRIBERY (from the O. Fr. briberie, begging or vagrancy, bribe, Mid. Lat. briba, signifying a piece of bread given to beggars; the Eng. " bribe " has passed through the meanings of alms, blackmail and extortion, to gifts received or given in order to influ

BRIBERY and CORRUPT PRACTICES) . Certain relaxations are, however, allowed in See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of the difficulty of absolutely avoiding all deviation from the strict rules laid down . Thus, where the See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges who try an election See also:

• PETITION (Lat. for " seeking " or " praying ")

petition See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report that there has been treating, undue See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence, or any illegal practice by the candidate or his election agent, but that it was trivial, unimportant and of a limited See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, and contrary to the orders and without the See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

sanction or connivance of the candidate or his election agent, and that the candidate and his election agent took all reasonable means for preventing corrupt and illegal practices, and that the election was otherwise See also:

• FREE

free from such practices on their part, the election will not be avoided . The See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court has also the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power to relieve from the consequences of certain See also:

• INNOCENT (INNOCENTIUS)
• INNOCENT (POPES)

innocent contraventions of the law caused by inadvertence or miscalculation . The inquiry into a disputed parliamentary election was formerly conducted before a See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

committee of the See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

House of See also:

• COMMONS

Commons, chosen as nearly as possible from both sides of the House for that particular business . The decisions of these tribunals laboured under the suspicion of being prompted by party feeling, and by an act of 1868 the See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction was finally transferred to judges of the High Court, notwithstanding the general unwillingness of the See also:

• BENCH (an O.E. and Eng. form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Bank, Dan. baenk and the Eng. doublet " bank ")

bench to accept a class of business which they feared might bring their integrity into dispute . See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

Section 11 of the act ordered, inter alia, that the trial of every election petition shall be conducted before a See also:

• PUISNE (from O. Fr. puisne, modern puine, later born, inferior; Lat. postea, afterwards, and natus, born)

puisne See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge of one of the See also:

• COMMON

common law courts at See also:

• WESTMINSTER
• WESTMINSTER, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF
• WESTMINSTER, STATUTES OF
• WESTMINSTER, SYNODS OF

Westminster and See also:

• DUBLIN

Dublin; that the said courts shall each select a judge to be placed on the See also:

• ROTA, COURT OF

rota for the trial of election petitions; that the said judges shall try petitions See also:

• STANDING

standing for trial according to seniority or otherwise, as they may agree; that the trial shall take See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in the See also:

• COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. comae, cf. O. Fr. cunte, conk', Mod. Fr. comae, from Lat. comitatus, cf. Ital. comitato, Prov. comtat; see COUNT)

county or See also:

• BOROUGH (A.S. nominative burh, dative byrig, which produces some of the place-names ending in bury, a sheltered or fortified place, the camp of refuge of a tribe, the stronghold of a chieftain; cf. Ger. Burg, Fr. bor, bore, bourg)
• BOROUGH [BURROUGH, BURROWE, BORROWS], STEVEN (1525–1584)

borough to which the petition refers, unless the court should think it desirable to hold it elsewhere . The judge shall determine " whether the member whose return is complained of, or any and what other person, was duly returned and elected, or whether the election was void," and shall certify his determination to the See also:

• SPEAKER

speaker .

When corrupt practices have been charged the judge shall also report (1) whether any such practice has been committed by or with the knowledge or consent of any candidate, and the nature thereof; (2) the names of persons proved to have been guilty of any corrupt practice; and (3) whether corrupt practices have extensively prevailed at the election . Questions of law were to be referred to the decision of the court of common pleas . On the abolition of that court by the Judicature Act 1873, the jurisdiction was transferred to the common pleas See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division, and again on the abolition of that Election division was transferred to the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king's bench division, petitions. in whom it is now vested . The rota of judges for the trial of election petitions is also supplied by the king's bench division . The trial now takes place before two judges instead of one; and, when necessary, the number of judges on the rota may be increased . Both the judges who try a petition are to sign the certificates to be made to the speaker . If they differ as to the validity of a return, they are to See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state such difference in their certificate, and the return is to be held See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good; if they differ as to a report on any other See also:

• MATTER

matter, they are to certify their difference and make no report on such matter . The director of public prosecutions attends the trial personally or by representative . It is his See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty to See also:

• WATCH (in O. Eng. wcecce, a keeping guard or watching, from wacian, to guard, watch, wacan, to wake)

watch the proceedings in the public interest, to issue summonses to witnesses whose See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence is desired by the court, and to prosecute before the election court or elsewhere those persons whom he thinks to have been guilty of corrupt or illegal practices at the election in question . If an application is made for leave to withdraw a petition, copies of the affidavits in support are to be delivered to him; and he is entitled to be heard and to See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call evidence in opposition to such application . Witnesses are not excused from answering criminating questions; but their evidence cannot be used against them in any proceedings except criminal proceedings for See also:

• PERJURY (through the Anglo-Fr. perjurie, modern parjure, Lat. perjurium, a false oath, perjurare, to swear falsely)

perjury in respect of that evidence . If a See also:

• WITNESS
• WITNESS (from O. Eng. witan, to know)

witness answers truly all questions which he is required by the court to See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer, he is entitled to receive a certificate of See also:

• INDEMNITY (through Fr. indemnite, Lat. indemnis, free from damage or loss; in-, negative, and damnum, loss)

indemnity, which will See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save him from all proceedings for any offence under the Corrupt Practices Acts committed by him before the date of the certificate at or in relation to the election, except proceedings to enforce any incapacity incurred by such offence .

An application for leave to withdraw a petition must be supported by affidavits from all the parties to the petition and their solicitors, and by the election agents of all of the parties who were candidates at the election . Each of these affidavits is to state that to the best of the deponent's knowledge and belief there has been no agreement and no terms or undertaking made or entered into as to the withdrawal, or, if any agreement has been made, shall state its terms . The applicant and his See also:

• SOLICITOR

solicitor are also to state in their affidavits the grounds on which the petition is sought to be withdrawn . If any person makes an agreement for the withdrawal of a petition in consideration of a See also:

• MONEY

money See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment, or of the promise that the seat shall be vacated or another petition withdrawn, or omits to state in his See also:

• AFFIDAVIT (Med. Lat. for " he has declared upon oath," from afftdare, fides, faith)

affidavit that he has made an agreement, lawful or unlawful, for the withdrawal, he is guilty of an indictable See also:

• MISDEMEANOUR (from O. Fr. mes- and demener, to conduct oneself ill)

misdemeanour . The report of the judges to the speaker is to contain particulars as to illegal practices similar to thosepreviously required as to corrupt practices; and they are to report further whether any candidate has been guilty by his agents of an illegal practice, and whether certificates of indemnity have been given to persons reported guilty of corrupt or illegal practices . The Corrupt Practices Acts apply, with necessary See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations in details, to parliamentary elections in Scotland and Ireland . The amendments in the law as to municipal elections are generally similar to those which have been made in parliamentary election law . The procedure on trial of petitions is substantially the same, and wherever no other See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision is made by the acts or rules the procedure on the trial of parliamentary election petitions is to be followed . Petitions against municipal elections were dealt with in 35 & 36 Viet . C . 6o . The election judges appoint a number of barristers, not exceeding five, as commissioners to try such petitions .

No See also:

• BARRISTER

barrister can be appointed who is of less than fifteen years' standing, or a member of parliament, or holder of any office of profit (other than that of See also:

• RECORDER
• RECORDER, FIPPLE FLUTE

recorder) under the See also:

• CROWN

crown; nor can any barrister try a petition in any borough in which he is recorder or in which he resides, or which is included in his See also:

• CIRCUIT (Lat. circuitus, from circum, round, and ire, to go)

circuit . The barrister sits without a See also:

• JURY

jury . The provisions are generally similar to those relating to parliamentary elections . The petition may allege that the election was avoided as to the borough or See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

ward on the ground of general bribery, &c., or that the election of the person petitioned against was avoided by corrupt practices, or by personal disqualification, or that he had not the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of lawful votes . The See also:

• COMMISSIONER

commissioner who tries a petition sends to the High Court a certificate of the result, together with reports as to corrupt and illegal practices, &c., similar to those made to the speaker by the judges who try a parliamentary election petition . The Municipal Elections (Corrupt and Illegal Practices) Act 1884 applied to school board elections subject to certain variations, and has been extended by the Local Government Act 1888 to county See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council elections, and by the Local Government Act 1894 to elections by parochial electors . The law in Scotland is on the same lines, and extends to all non-parliamentary elections, and, as has been stated, the See also:

• ENGLISH

English statutes have been applied with adaptations to all municipal and local government elections in Ireland . United States.—Elections are much more frequent in the United States than they are in Great Britain, and they are also more complicated . The terms of elective See also:

• OFFICERS

officers are shorter; and as there are also more offices to be filled, the number of persons to be voted for is necessarily much greater . In the See also:

• YEAR

year of a presidential election the See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen may be called upon to vote at one See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time for all of the following: (1) See also:

• NATIONAL

National candidates—See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president and See also:

• VICE

vice-president (indirectly through the electoral See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college) and members of the House of Representatives; (2) state candidates —See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor, members of the state legislature, See also:

• ATTORNEY (from O. Fr. atorne, a person appointed to act for another, from atourner, legal Lat. attornare, attorn, literally to turn over to another or commit business to another)

attorney-general, treasurer, &c.; (3) county candidates—See also:

• SHERIFF

sheriff, county judges, See also:

• DISTRICT

district attorney, &c.; (4) municipal or See also:

• TOWN

town candidates—See also:

• MAYOR (Lat. major, greater)
• MAYOR, JOHN EYTON BICKERSTETH (1825– )

mayor, aldermen, selectmen, &c . The number of persons actually voted for may therefore be ten or a dozen, or it may be many more . In addition, the citizen is often called upon to vote yea or See also:

• NAY, or NEY

nay on questions such as amendments to the state constitutions, granting of licences, and approval or disapproval of new municipal undertakings .

As there may be, and generally is, more than one candidate for each office, and as all elections are now, and have been for many years, conducted by ballot, the See also:

• TOTAL

total number of names to appear on the ballot may be one See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred or may be several hundred . These names are arranged in different ways, according to the See also:

• LAWS

laws of the different states . Under the See also:

• MASSACHUSETTS (an Indian name, originally applied to a tribe of Indians)

Massachusetts law, which is considered the best by reformers, the names of candidates for each office are arranged alphabetically on a " blanket " ballot, as it is called from its See also:

• SIZE

size, and the elector places a See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark opposite the names of such candidates as he may wish to vote for . Other states, New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York for example, have the blanket See also:

• SYSTEM

system, but the names of the candidates are arranged in party columns . Still other states allow the grouping on one ballot of all the candidates of a single party, and there would be therefore as many See also:

• SEPARATE

separate ballots in such states as there were parties in the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field . The qualifications for voting, while varying in the different states in details, are in their See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main features the same throughout the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

Union . A See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence in the state is required of from three months to two years . Residence is also necessary, but for a shorter See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period, in the county, See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city or town, or voting See also:

• PRECINCT (from Lat. praecingere, to encircle, enclose, surround, prae and cingere, to gird)

precinct . A few states require the payment of a See also:

• POLL

poll tax . Some require that the voter shall be able to read and understand the Constitution . This latter qualification has been introduced into several of the See also:

• SOUTHERN

Southern states, partly at least to disqualify the ignorant coloured voters . In all, or practically all, the states idiots, convicts and the insane are disqualified; in some states paupers; in some of the Western states the See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese .

In some states See also:

• WOMEN

women are allowed to vote on certain questions, or for the candidates for certain offices, especially school officials; and in four of the Western states women have the same rights of See also:

• SUFFRAGE (Lat. suffragium)

suffrage as men . The number of those who are qualified to vote, but do not avail themselves of the right, varier greatly in the different states and according to the interest taken in the election . As a general See also:

• RULE

rule, but subject to exceptions, the national elections call out the largest number, the state elections next, and the local elections the smallest number of voters . In an exciting national election between 8o and 90% of the qualified voters actually vote, a proportion considerably greater than in Great Britain or See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany . The tendency of recent years has been towards a decrease both in the number and in the frequency of elections . A president and vice-president are voted for every See also:

• FOURTH

fourth year, in the years divisible by four, on the first Tuesday following the first See also:

• MONDAY (in O.E. Monandaeg, the moon's day, a translation of the Late Lat. Lunae dies, from which the French lundi is taken)

Monday of See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November . Members of the national House of Representatives are chosen for two years on the even-numbered years . State and local elections take place in accordance with state laws, and may or may not be on the same See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day as the national elections . Originally the rule was for the states to hold annual elections; in fact, so strongly did the feeling prevail of the need in a democratic See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country for frequent elections, that the See also:

• MAXIM, SIR HIRAM STEVENS (184o- )

maxim " where annual elections end, tyranny begins," became a political See also:

• PROVERB (Lat. proverbium, from pro, forth, publicly, verbum, word; the Greek equivalent is irapolµia, from 7rapa, alongside, and oiµos, way, road, i.e. a wayside saying; Ger. Sprichwort)

proverb . But See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion gradually changed even in the older or Eastern states, and in 1909 Massachusetts and Rhode See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

Island were the only states in the Union holding annual elections for governor and both houses of the state legislature . In the Western states especially state officers are chosen for longer terms—in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of the governor often for four years—and the number of elections has correspondingly decreased . Another cause of the decrease in the number of elections is the growing practice of holding all the elections of any year on one and the same day .

Before the See also:

• CIVIL

Civil See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War See also:

• PENNSYLVANIA
• PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF

Pennsylvania held its state elections several months before the national elections . See also:

• OHIO

Ohio and See also:

• INDIANA

Indiana, until 1885 and 1881 respectively, held their state elections See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early in See also:

• OCTOBER

October . See also:

• MAINE
• MAINE, ANNE LOUISE BENEDICTE DE BOURBON
• MAINE, SIR HENRY JAMES SUMNER (1822–1888)

Maine, See also:

• VERMONT

Vermont and See also:

• ARKANSAS

Arkansas keep to See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September . The selection of one day in the year for all elections held in that year has resulted in a considerable decrease in the total number . Another tendency of recent years, but not so pronounced, is to hold local elections in what is known as the " off " year; that is, on the See also:

• ODD (in middle English odde, from old Norwegian oddi, an angle of a triangle; the old Norwegian oddamann is used of the third man who gives a casting vote in a dispute)

odd-numbered year, when no national election is held . The See also:

• OBJECT

object of this reform is to encourage See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent voting . The See also:

• AVERAGE

average See also:

• AMERICAN

American citizen is only too prone to carry his national political predilections into local elections, and to vote for the local nominees of his party, without regard to the question of fitness of candidates and the fundamental difference of issues involved . This tendency to vote the entire party See also:

• TICKET (O. Fr. esliquet, also estiquette, mod. etiquette, from Ger. sleeken, to stick up)

ticket is the more pronounced because under the system of voting in use in many of the states all the candidates of the party are arranged on one ticket, and it is much easier to vote a straight or unaltered ticket than to See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change or " scratch " it . Again, the voter, especially the ignorant one, refrains from scratching his ticket, lest in some way he should fail to comply with the technicalities of the law and his vote be lost . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, if local elections are held on the " off " or odd year, and there be no national or state candidates, the voter feels much more free to select only those candidates whom he considers best qualified for the various offices . On the important question of the purity of elections it isdifficult to speak with precision . In many of the states, especially those with an enlightened public spirit, such as most of the New England states and many of the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North-Western, the elections are fairly conducted, there being no intimidation at all, little or no bribery, and an honest See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

count .

It can safely be said that through the Union as a whole the tendency of recent years has been decidedly towards greater honesty of elections . This is owing to a number of causes: (I) The selection of a single day for all elections, and the consequent immense number voting on that day . Some years ago, when for instance the Ohio and Indiana elections were held a few See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks before the general election, each party strained every See also:

• NERVE (Lat. nervus, Gr. vevpov, a bowstring)

nerve to carry them, for the See also:

• SAKE

sake of See also:

• PRESTIGE

prestige and the influence on other states . In fact, presidential elections were often See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt to turn on the result in these early voting states, and the party managers were none too scrupulous in the means employed to carry them . Bribery has decreased in such states since the change of election day to that of the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the country . (2) The enactment in most of the states of the Australian or See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret ballot (q.v.) laws . These have led to the secrecy of the ballot, and hence to a greater or less extent have prevented intimidation and bribery . (3) Educational or other such test, more particularly in the Southern states, the object of which is to exclude the coloured, and especially the ignorant coloured, voters from the polls . In those southern states in which the coloured vote was large, and still more in those in which it was the majority, it was felt among the whites that intimidation or ballot-See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

box stuffing was justified by the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity of See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white supremacy . With the elimination of the coloured vote by educational or other tests the honesty of elections has increased . (4) The enactment of new and more stringent See also:

• REGISTRATION

registration laws . Under these laws only those persons are allowed to vote whose names have been placed on the rolls a certain number of days or months before election .

These rolls are open to public inspection, and the names may be challenged at the polls, and " colonization " or repeating is therefore almost impossible . (5) The reform of the civil service and the See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual elimination of the vicious principle of " to the victors belong the spoils." With the reform of the civil service elections become less a scramble for office and more a contest of political or economic principle . They bring into the field, therefore, a better class of candidates . (6) The enactment in a number of states of various other laws for the prevention of corrupt practices, for the publication of See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign expenses, and for the See also:

• PROHIBITION (Lat. prohibere, to prevent)

prohibition of party workers from coming within a certain specified distance of the polls . In the state of Massachusetts, for instance, an act passed in 1892, and subsequently amended, provides that political committees shall See also:

• FILE

file a full statement, duly sworn to, of all campaign expenditures made by them . The act applies to all public elections except that of town officers, and also covers nominations by caucuses and conventions as well . Apart from his personal expenses such as See also:

• POSTAGE

postage, travelling expenses, &c., a candidate is prohibited from spending anything himself to promote either his nomination or his election, but he is allowed to contribute to the See also:

• TREASURY

treasury of the political committee . The law places no limit on the amount that these committees may spend . The reform sought by the law is thorough publicity, and not only are details of receipts and expenditures to be published, but the names of contributors and the amount of their contributions . In the state of New York the act which seeks to prevent corrupt practices relies in like manner on the efficacy of publicity, but it is less effective than the Massachusetts law in that it provides simply for the filing by the candidates themselves of sworn statements of their own expenses . There is nothing to prevent their contributing to political committees and the See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial methods and the amounts expended by such committees are not made public . But behind all these causes that have led to more honest elections lies the still greater one of a healthier public spirit .

In the reaction following the Civil War all reforms halted . In recent years, however, a new and healthier interest has sprung up in things political; and one result of this improved civic spirit is seen in the various laws for See also:

• PURIFICATION

purification of elections . It may now be safely affirmed that in the majority of states the elections are honestly conducted; that intimidation, bribery, stuffing of the ballot boxes or other forms of corruption, when they exist, are owing in large measure to temporary or local causes; and that the tendency of recent years has been towards a decrease in all forms of corruption . The expenses connected with elections, such as the renting and preparing the polling-places, the payment of the clerks and other officers who conduct the elections and count the vote, are See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne by the community . A candidate therefore is not, as far as the law is concerned, liable to any expense whatever . As a matter of fact he does commonly contribute to the party treasury, though in the case of certain candidates, particularly those for the See also:

• PRESIDENCY

presidency and for judicial offices, financial contributions are not general . The amount of a candidate's contribution varies greatly, according to the office sought, the state in which he lives, and his private See also:

• WEALTH

wealth . On one occasion, in a district in New York, a candidate for See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

Congress is credibly believed to have spent at one election $50,000 . On the other hand, in a Congressional election in a certain district in Massachusetts, the only See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure of one of the candidates was for the two-cent See also:

• STAMP (from " to stamp," to strike or tread heavily, hence to impress, O. Eng. stempen, Du. stampen, Ger. stampfen, whence, O. Fr. estamper, mod. etamper)

stamp placed on his See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter of See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance . No estimate of the average amount expended can be made . It is, however, the conclusion of Mr See also:

• BRYCE, JAMES (1838- )

Bryce, in his American See also:

• COMMONWEALTH

Commonwealth, that as a rule a seat in Congress See also:

• COSTS

costs the candidate less than a seat for a county division in the House of Commons .