See also:

• ENGLISH

ENGLISH See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

LANGUAGE  . In its See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical sense, the name See also:

• ENGLISH

English is now conveniently used to comprehend the See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language of the English See also:

• PEOPLE

people from their See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement in See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain to the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, the various stages through which it has passed being distinguished as Old, See also:

• MIDDLE

Middle, and New or See also:

• MODERN

Modern English . In See also:

• WORKS

works yet See also:

• RECENT

recent, and even in some still current, the See also:

• TERM

term is confined to the third, or at most extended' to the second and third of these stages, since the language assumed in the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main the vocabulary and grammatical forms which it now presents, the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest or inflected See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage being treated as a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate language, under the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of Anglo-Saxon, while the transition See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period which connects the two has been called Semi-Saxon . This view had the See also:

• JUSTIFICATION

justification that, looked upon by themselves, either as vehicles of thought or as See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of study and See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis, Old English or Anglo-Saxon and Modern English are, for all See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical ends, distinct See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages,—as much so, for example, as Latin and See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish . No amount of familiarity with Modern English, including its See also:

• LOCAL

local dialects, would enable the student to read Anglo-Saxon, three-fourths of the vocabulary of which have perished and been reconstructed within 900 years; i nor would a knowledge even of these lost words give him the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power, since the grammatical See also:

• SYSTEM

system, alike in See also:

• ACCIDENCE (a mis-spelling of " accidents," from the Latin neuter plural accidentia, casual events)

accidence and syntax, would be entirely See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange to him . Indeed, it is probable that a modern Englishman would acquire the power of See also:

• READING

reading and See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French in less See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time than it would cost him to attain to the same proficiency in Old English; so that if the test of distinct languages be their degree of practical difference from each other, it cannot be denied that " Anglo-Saxon " is a distinct language from Modern English . But when we view the subject historically, recognizing the fact that living speech is subject to continuous See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change in certain definite directions, determined by the constitution and circumstances of mankind, as an See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution or development of which we can trace the steps, and that, owing to the abundance of written materials, this evolution appears so See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual in English that we can nowhere draw distinct lines separating its successive stages, we recognize these stages as merely temporary phases of an individual whole, and speak of the English language as used alike by See also:

• CYNEWULF
• CYNEWULF (d. 785)

Cynewulf, by See also:

• CHAUCER, GEOFFREY (? 1340-1400)

Chaucer; by See also:

• SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM (1564-1616)

Shakespeare and by See also:

• TENNYSON, ALFRED TENNYSON

Tennyson ? It must not be forgotten, however, that in this wide sense the English language includes, not only the See also:

• LITERARY

literary or courtly forms of speech used at successive periods, but also the popular and, it may be, altogether unwritten dialects that exist by their See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side . Only on this basis, indeed, can we speak of Old, Middle and Modern English as the same language, since in actual fact the precise See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect which is now the cultivated language, or " See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

Standard English," is not the descendant of that dialect which was the cultivated language or "Englisc " of See also:

• ALFRED

Alfred, but of a See also:

• SISTER

sister dialect then sunk in See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative obscurity,—even as the See also:

• DIRECT

direct descendant of Alfred's Englisc is now to be found in the non-literary rustic speech of See also:

• WILTSHIRE [WILTS]

Wiltshire and See also:

• SOMERSETSHIRE

Somersetshire . Causes which, linguistically i A careful examination of several Ietters of See also:

• BOSWORTH, JOSEPH (1789–1876)

Bosworth's Anglo-Saxon See also:

• DICTIONARY

dictionary gives in 2000 words (including derivatives and compounds, but excluding orthographic variants) 535 which still exist as modern English words . 2 The practical convenience of having one name for what was the same thing in various stages of development is not affected by the See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability that (E . A .

See also:

• FREEMAN
• FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1823-1892)

Freeman notwithstanding) Engle and Englisc were, at an See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early period, not applied to the whole of the inhabitants of See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic Britain, but only to a See also:

• PART

part of them . The dialects of Engle and Seaxan were alike old forms of what was afterwards English speech, and so, viewed in relation to it, Old English, whatever their contemporary names might be . considered, are See also:

• EXTERNAL

external and accidental, have shifted the See also:

• POLITICAL

political and intellectual centre of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, and along with it transferred literary and See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official patronage from one See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of English to another ; if the centre of See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence had happened to be fixed at See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York or on the See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks of the Forth, both would probably have been neglected for a third . The English language, thus defined, is not " native " to Britain, that is, it was not found there at the See also:

• DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " Jawing " or " dawning," from an old verb " daw," O. Eng. dagian, to become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen)

dawn of See also:

• HISTORY

history, but was introduced by See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign immigrants at a date many centuries later . At the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• CONQUEST

Conquest of the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island the languages spoken by the natives belonged all (so far as is known) to the See also:

• CELTIC

Celtic See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the Indo-See also:

• EUROPEAN

European or Indio-Germanic See also:

• FAMILY

family, modern forms of which still survive in See also:

• WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria)

Wales, See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland, the Scottish See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

Highlands, Isle of See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

Man and See also:

• BRITTANY

Brittany, while one has at no distant date become See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct in See also:

• CORNWALL

Cornwall (see See also:

• CELT
• CELT, or KELT

CELT: Language) . Brythonic dialects, allied to Welsh and Cornish, were apparently spokeq over the greater part of Britain, as far See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north as the firths of Forth and See also:

• CLYDE (Welsh, Clwyd, " far heard," " strong," the Glotta of Tacitus)
• CLYDE, COLIN CAMPBELL, BARON (1792-1863)

Clyde; beyond these estuaries and in the isles to the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west, including Ireland and Man, Goidelic dialects, akin to Irish and Scottish Gaelic, prevailed . The See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long occupation of See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south Britain by the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans (A.D . 43–400—a period, it must not be forgotten, equal to that from the See also:

• REFORMATION
• REFORMATION, THE

Reformation to the present day, or nearly as long as the whole duration of modern English—familiarized the provincial inhabitants with Latin, which was probably the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary speech of the towns . See also:

• GILDAS, or GILDUS (c. 516–J70)

Gildas, writing nearly a See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century and a See also:

• HALF

half after the renunciation of See also:

• HONORIUS
• HONORIUS, FLAVIUS (384-423)

Honorius in 410, addressed the See also:

• BRITISH

British princes in that language;' and the linguistic history of Britain might have been not different from that of See also:

• GAUL
• GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855— )

Gaul, See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain and the other provinces of the Western See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire, in which a local type of Latin, giving See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth to a neo-Latinic language, finally superseded the native See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue except in remote and mountainous districts,' had not the course of events been entirely changed by the Teutonic conquests of the 5th and 6th centuries . The Angles, See also:

• SAXONS

Saxons, and their See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies came of the Teutonic stock, and spoke a tongue belonging to the Teutonic or Germanic branch of the Indo-Germanic (Indo-European) family, the same See also:

• RACE

race and form of speech being represented in modern times by the people and languages of See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland, See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, See also:

• DENMARK
• DENMARK (Danmark)

Denmark, the Scandinavian See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula and See also:

• ICELAND (Dan. Island)

Iceland, as well as by those of England and her colonies . Of the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home of the so-called See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• ARYAN

Aryan race (q.v.), whose language was the See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent Indo-European, nothing is certainly known, though the subject has called forth many conjectures; the present tendency is to seek it in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe itself . The tribe can hardly have occupied an extensive See also:

• AREA

area at first, but its language came by degrees to be diffused over the greater part of Europe and some portion of See also:

• ASIA

Asia .

Among those whose Aryan descent is generally recognized as beyond dispute are the Teutons, to whom the Angles and Saxons belonged . The Teutonic or Germanic people, after dwelling together in a See also:

• BODY

body, appear to have scattered in various directions, their language gradually breaking up into three main See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups, which can be already clearly distinguished in the 4th century A.D., North Germanic or Scandinavian, West Germanic or See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

Low and High See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German, and See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East Germanic, of which the only important representative is See also:

• GOTHIC

Gothic . Gothic, often called Mbeso-Gothic, was the language of a people of the Teutonic stock, who, passing down the See also:

• DANUBE (Ger. Donau, Hungarian Duna, Rumanian Dunarea, Lat. Danubius or Danuvius, and in the lower part of its course Ister)

Danube, invaded the See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders of the Empire, and obtained settlements in the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of See also:

• MOESIA (Gr. Muck and Mveia i)

Moesia, where their language was committed to writing in the 4th century; its literary remains are of See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar value as the oldest specimens, by several centuries, of Germanic speech . The dialects of the invaders of Britain belonged to the West Germanic branch, and within this to the Low German See also:

• GROUP

group, represented at the present 1 The works of Gildas in the original Latin were edited by Mr See also:

• STEVENSON, ADLA1 EWING (1835- )
• STEVENSON, ROBERT (1772-1850)
• STEVENSON, ROBERT LEWIS BALFOUR (1850-1894)

Stevenson for the English Historical Society . There is an English See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation in Six Old English See also:

• CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF

Chronicles in See also:

• BOHN, HENRY GEORGE (1796-1884)

Bohn's Antiquarian library . ' ' As to the continued existence of Latin in Britain, see further in Rhys's Lectures on Welsh See also:

• PHILOLOGY

Philology, pp . 226-227; also Dogatschar, Lautlehre d, gr., See also:

• LAT

lat. u. roman . Lehnworte See also:

• IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

im Altengl . (See also:

• STRASSBURG, or STRASBURG (French Strasbourg)

Strassburg, [888).day by Dutch, Frisian, and the various "See also:

• PLATT, THOMAS COLLIER (1833-191o)

Platt-See also:

• DEUTSCH, IMMANUEL OSCAR MENAHEM (1829-1873)

Deutsch" dialects of North Germany . At the dawn of history the fore-fathers of the English appear to have been dwelling between and about the estuaries and See also:

• LOWER

lower courses of the See also:

• RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijn)

Rhine and the See also:

• WESER (O. Ger. Visuracha, Wisura, Lat. Visurgis)

Weser, and the adjacent coasts and isles; at the present day the most English or See also:

• ANGLI, ANGLII

Angli-form dialects of the European See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent are held to be those of the North Frisian islands of See also:

• AMRUM, or AMROM

Amrum and See also:

• SYLT (probably from the O. Fris. Silendi, i.e. sealand)

Sylt, on the west See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of See also:

• SCHLESWIG (Dan. Slesvig)

Schleswig . It is well known that the greater part of the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• FRIESLAND, or VRIESLAND

Friesland has been swept away by the encroachments of the North See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea, and the disjecta membra of the Frisian race, pressed by the sea in front and more powerful nationalities behind, are found only in isolated fragments from the Zuider Zee to the coasts of Denmark . Many See also:

• FRISIANS (Lat. Frisii; in Med. Lat. Frisones, Frisiones, Fresones; in their own tongue Frsasa, FrPsen)

Frisians accompanied the Angles and Saxons to Britain, and Old English was in many respects more closely connected with Old Frisian than with any other Low German dialect .

Of the Geatas, Eotas or " kites," who, according to See also:

• BEDE, BEDA, or B
• BEDE, CUTHBERT

Bede, occupied See also:

• KENT
• KENT, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• KENT, JAMES (1763-1847)
• KENT, WILLIAM (1685-1748)

Kent and the Isle of See also:

• WIGHT, ISLE OF

Wight, and formed a third tribe along with the Angles and Saxons, it is difficult to speak linguistically . The speech of Kent certainly formed a distinct dialect in both the Old English and the Middle English periods, but it has tended to be assimilated more and more to neighbouring See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern dialects, and is at the present day identical with that of See also:

• SUSSEX
• SUSSEX, EARLS OF
• SUSSEX, KINGDOM OF (SO Seaxe, i.e. the South Saxons)
• SUSSEX, THOMAS RADCLYFFE [or RATCLYFFE], 3RD EARL OF (c. 1525-1583)

Sussex, one of the old Saxon kingdoms . Whether the speech of the Isle of Wight ever showed the same characteristic See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences as that of Kent cannot now be ascertained, but its modern dialect differs in no respect from that of See also:

• HAMPSHIRE (or COUNTY OF SOUTHAMPTON, abbreviated HANTS)

Hampshire, and shows no See also:

• SPECIAL

special connexion with that of Kent . It is at least entirely doubtful whether Bede's Geatas came from See also:

• JUTLAND (Danish Jylland)

Jutland; on linguistic grounds we should expect that they occupied a See also:

• DISTRICT

district lying not to the north of the Angles, but between these and the old Saxons . The "earliest specimens of the language of the Germanic invaders of Britain that exist point to three well-marked dialect groups: the Anglian (in which a further distinction may be made between the Northumbrian and the Mercian, or South-Humbrian); the Saxon, generally called West-Saxon from the almost See also:

• TOTAL

total lack of See also:

• SOURCES

sources outside the West-Saxon domain; and the Kentish . The Kentish and West-Saxon are sometimes, especially in later times, grouped together as southern dialects as opposed to midland and See also:

• NORTHERN

northern . These three groups were distinguished from each other by characteristic points of phonology and inflection . Speaking generally, the Anglian dialects may be distinguished by the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of certain normal West-Saxon vowel-changes, and the presence of others not found in West-Saxon, and also by a strong tendency to confuse and simplify inflections, in all which points, moreover, Northumbrian tended to deviate more widely than Mercian . Kentish, on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, occupied a position intermediate between Anglian and West-Saxon, early Kentish approaching more nearly to Mercian, owing perhaps to early historical connexion between the two, and See also:

• LATE

late Kentish tending to conform to West-Saxon characteristics, while retaining several points in See also:

• COMMON

common with Anglian . Though we cannot be certain that these dialectal divergences date from a period previous to the occupation of Britain, such See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence as can be deduced points to the existence of differences already on the continent, the three dialects corresponding in all likelihood to Bede's three tribes, the Angles, Saxons and Geatas . As it was amongst the Engle or Angles of See also:

• NORTHUMBRIA (regnum Northanhymbrorum)

Northumbria that literary culture first appeared, and as an See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

Angle or Englisc dialect was the first to be used for See also:

• VERNACULAR (Lat. verna, dim. vernaculus, a slave horn in his master's house)

vernacular literature, Englisc came eventually to be a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general name for all forms of the vernacular as opposed to Latin, &c.; and even when the West-Saxon of Alfred became in its turn the literary or classical form of speech, it was still called Englisc or English . The origin of the name A ngul-Seaxan(Anglo-Saxons) has been disputed, some maintaining that it means a See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union of Angles and Saxons, others (with better See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation) that it meant English Saxons, or Saxons of England or of the See also:

• ANGEL

Angel-cynn as distinguished from Saxons of the Continent (see New English Dictionary, s.v.) .

Its modern use is mainly due to the little See also:

• BAND

band of scholars who in the 16th and 17th centuries turned their See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to the long-forgotten language of Alfred and PElfric,, which, as it differed so greatly from the English of their own day, they found it convenient to distinguish by a name which was applied to themselves by those who spoke it.1 To these scholars " Anglo-Saxon " and English " were separated by a gulf which it was reserved for later See also:

• SCHOLAR, SCHOLARSHIP

scholar-See also:

• SHIP

ship to See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge across, and show the historical continuity of the English of all ages . As already hinted, the English language, in the wide sense, presents three main stages of development—Old, Middle and Modern—distinguished by their inflectional characteristics . The latter can be best summarized in the words of Dr See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry Sweet in his History of English Sounds:2 "Old English is the period of full inflections (nama, gifan, caru), Middle English of levelled inflections (naame, given, caare), and Modern English of lost inflections (name, give, care = ndm, giv, See also:

• CAR (Late Lat. carra)

car) . We have besides two periods of transition, one in which nama and name exist side by side, and another in which final e [with other endings] is beginning to drop." By lost inflections it is meant that only very few remain, and those mostly non-syllabic, as the -s in stones and loves,,the -ed in loved, the -r in their, as contrasted with the Old English stan-as, lufah, luf-od-e and luf-od-on, pa-ra . Each of these periods may also be divided into two or three; but from the want of materials it is difficult to make any such See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division for all dialects alike in the first . As to the See also:

• CHRONOLOGY (Gr. xpovo?oyfa, computation of time, xp6vos)

chronology of the successive stages, it is of course impossible to See also:

• LAY

lay down any exclusive . See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of See also:

• DATES

dates, since the linguistic changes were inevitably gradual, and also made them-selves See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt in some parts of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country much earlier than in others, the north being always in advance of the midland, and the south much later in its changes . It is easy to point to periods at which Old, Middle and Modern English were fully See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed, but much less easy to draw lines separating these stages; and even if we recognize between each part a " transition " period or stage, the determination of the beginning and end of this will to a certain extent be a See also:

• MATTER

matter of See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion . But bearing these considerations in mind, and having special reference to the midland dialect from which literary English is mainly descended, the following may be given as approximate dates, which if they do not demarcate the successive stages, at least include them: Old English or Anglo-Saxon to 'too Transition Old English (" Semi-Saxon ") . Imo to 1150 Early Middle English 1150 to 1250 (Normal) Middle English 1250 to 1400 Late and Transition Middle English . 1400 to 1485 Early Modern or Tudor English 1485 to 1611 Seventeenth century transition 1611 to 1688 Modern or current English . . . 1689 onward Dr Sweet has reckoned Transition Old English (Old Transition) from 1050 to 1150, Middle English thence to 1450, and Late or Transition Middle English (Middle Transition) 1450 to 1500 .

As to the Old Transition see further below . The OLD ENGLISH or Anglo-Saxon tongue, as introduced into Britain, was highly inflectional, though its inflections at the date when it becomes known to us were not so full as those of the earlier Gothic, and considerably less so than those of See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek and Latin during their classical periods . They corresponded more closely to those of modern literary German, though both in nouns and verbs the forms were more numerous and distinct; for example, the German guten answers to three Old English forms,—gbdne, godum, Wan; guter to two—gOdre, Odra; liebten to two,—lufodon and lufeden . Nouns had four cases, Nominative, See also:

• ACCUSATIVE (Lat. accusativus, sc. casus, a translation of the Gr. aletartKI vrrwves, the case concerned with cause and effect, from atria, a cause)

Accusative (only sometimes distinct), Genitive, 1 tEthelstan in 934 calls himself in a See also:

• CHARTER (Lat. charta, carta, from Gr. Xap-rns, originally for papyrus, material for writing, thence transferred to paper and from this material to the document, in O. Eng. boc, book)

charter " Ongol-Saxna cyning and Brytaenwalda eallaes thyses iglandes "; Eadred in 956 is " Angul-seaxna cyning and casere totius Britanniae," and the name is of frequent occurrence in documents written inLatin . These facts ought to be remembered in the See also:

• INTEREST

interest of the scholars of the 17th century, who have been blamed for the use of the term Anglo-Saxon, as if they had invented it . By Anglo-Saxon " language they meant the language of the people who sometimes at least called themselves " Anglo-Saxons." Even now the name is practically useful, when we are dealing with the subject per se, as is Old English, on the other hand, when we are treating it historically or in connexion with English as a whole . ' Transactions of the Philological Society (1873-1874), p . 620; new and much enlarged edition, 1888 . See also:

• DATIVE (Lat. dativus, giving or given, from dare, to give)

Dative, the latter used also with prepositions to See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express locative, instrumental, and most See also:

• ABLATIVE (Lat. ablativus, sc. cases, from ablatum, taken away)

ablative relations; of a distinct instrumental See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case only vestiges occur . There were several declensions of nouns, the main division being that known in Germanic languages generally as strong and weak,—a distinction also extending to adjectives in such See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise that every See also:

• ADJECTIVE (from the Lat. adjectives, added)

adjective assumed either the strong or the weak inflection as determined by associated grammatical forms . The first and second See also:

• PERSONAL

personal pronouns possessed a'dual number =we two, ye two; the third See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person had a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete declension of the See also:

• STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stain, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to " staff ")

stem he, instead of being made up as now of the three stems seen in he, she, they . The verb distinguished the subjunctive from the indicative See also:

• MOOD

mood, but had only two inflected tenses, present and past (more accurately, that of• incomplete and that of completed or " perfect " See also:

• ACTION

action)—the former also used for the future, the latter for all the shades of past time .

The See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of the See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence corresponded generally to that of German . Thus from See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King Alfred's additions to his translation of See also:

• OROSIUS, PAULUS (fl. 415)

Orosius: " See also:

• DONNE, JOHN (1573–1631)

Donne py ylcan See also:

• DOGE

doge hi hine to pum ade beran wylla6 J'onne todu1a6hi his feoh j'aet J'See also:

• AER

aer to lafe bib aefter pum gedrynce and J'um plegan, on fif o66e syx, hwilum on ma, swa swa J'aes feos andefn bib " ("Then on the same day [that] they him to the See also:

• PILE

pile See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear will, then See also:

• DIVIDE

divide they his See also:

• PROPERTY

property that there to See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder shall be after the drinking and the See also:

• SPORTS
• SPORTS, THE BOOK OF

sports, into five or six, at times into more, according as the property's value is") . The See also:

• POETRY

poetry was distinguished by See also:

• ALLITERATION (from Lat. ad, to, and littera, letter)

alliteration, and the abundant use of figurative and metaphorical expressions, of bold compounds and archaic words never found in See also:

• PROSE

prose . Thus in the following lines from See also:

• BEOWULF

Beowulf (ed . See also:

• THORPE [or TnoRP], JOHN (/l. 1570-1618)
• THORPE, BENJAMIN (1782-1870)

Thorpe, 1 . 645, Zupitza 320): Strut wus stan-fah, stig wisode Gumum utga dere. g66-byrne scan 1 Heard hond-locen. hring-iren stir See also:

• SONG

Song in searwum, See also:

• TEA (Chinese cha, Amoy dialect t€)

tea hie to sele See also:

• FUR (connected with O. Fr. forre, a sheath or case; so " an outer covering ")

fur,5um In hyra gry're geatwum gangan cwomon . Trans.: The See also:

• STREET
• STREET, GEORGE EDMUND (1824-1881)

street was See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone-variegated, the path guided (The) men together; the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war-mailcoat shone, Hard hand-locked . See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

Ring-See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron, sheer (See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

bright ring-See also:

• MAIL

mail) Sang in (their) cunning-trappings, as they to See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

hall forth In their horror-accoutrements going came . The Old English was a homogeneous language, having very few foreign elements in it, and forming its compounds and derivatives entirely from its own resources . A few Latin appellatives learned from the Romans in the German See also:

• WARS

wars had been adopted into the common West Germanic tongue, and are found in English as in the allied dialects . Such were strata (street, via strata), See also:

• CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

camp (See also:

• BATTLE

battle), caseee (See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar), mil (mile), See also:

• PIN (a doublet with " pen " from Lat. pinna, feather, pinnacle, which is said to contain the same root as irirvs, pine tree, and properly to mean a sharp point or end)

pin (See also:

• PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment), mynet (See also:

• MONEY

money), pund (See also:

• POUND
• POUND (2)—(a)

pound) , win (See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine); probably also cyriee (See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church), biscop (See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop), lceden (Latin language), case (See also:

• CHEESE (Lat. caseus)

cheese), bettor (See also:

• BUTTER (Lat. butyrum, Gr. 0obrvpov, apparently connected with $ous, cow, and rvpbs, cheese, but, according to the New English Dictionary, perhaps of Scythian origin)

butter), See also:

• PIPER, CARL, COUNT (1647-1716)

piper (See also:

• PEPPER
• PEPPER, WILLIAM (1843–1898)

pepper), olfend (See also:

• CAMEL (from the Arabic Djemal or the Heb. Gamal)

camel, elephantus), ynce (See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch, uncia), and a few others . The relations of the first invaders to the Britons were to a See also:

• GREAT

great extent those of destroyers; and with the exception of the proper names of places and prominent natural features, which as is usual were retained by the new See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population, few British words found their way into the Old English .

Among these are named broc (a See also:

• BADGER

badger), brat (breeches), cliat (clout), See also:

• PAL, KRISTO DAS (1839–1884)

pal (See also:

• POOL

pool), and a few words See also:

• RELATING

relating to the employment of See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field or See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household menials . Still fewer words seem to have been adopted from the provincial Latin, almost the only certain ones being castra, applied to the Roman towns, which appeared in English as ccestre, ceaster, now found in See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition as -caster, -See also:

• CHESTER
• CHESTER, EARLS OF

Chester, -See also:

• TESTER (Fr, teetiere, head-covering, from teete)

tester, and culina(See also:

• KITCHEN (O.E. cycene; this and other cognate forms, such as Dutch keuken, Ger. Kiuche, Dan. kokken, Fr. cuisine, are formed from the Low Lat. cucina, Lat. coquina, coquere, to cook)

kitchen),which gave cylen(See also:

• KILN (0. E. cylene, from the Lat. culina, a kitchen, cooking-stove)

kiln) . The introduction and gradual See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity, brought a new series of Latin words connected with the offices of the church, the accompaniments of higher See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization, the foreign productions either actually made known, or mentioned in the Scriptures and devotional books . Such were mynster (monasterium), munue (See also:

• MONK (O.Eng. munuc; this with the Teutonic forms, e.g. Du. monnik, Ger. Witch, and the Romanic, e.g. Fr. moine, Ital. monacho and Span. monje, are from the Lat. monachus, adaptedfrom Gr. µovaXos, one living alone, a solitary; Own, alone)
• MONK (or MONCK), GEORGE
• MONK, JAMES HENRY (1784-1856)
• MONK, MARIA (c. 1817—1850)

monk), nunne (See also:

• NUN (O. Eng. nunne, from Lat. nonnus, nonna, familiar terms for an old man or woman)

nun), maesse (See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass), .rchol (school), almesse (eleemosyna), candel (candela), turtle (turtur), fic (ficus), See also:

• CEDAR (Lat. cedrus, Gr. iapos)

cedar (cedrus) . These words, whose number increased from the 7th to the loth century, are commonly called Latin of the second period, the Latin of the first period including the Latin words brought by the English from the continent, as well as those picked up in Britain either from the Roman provincials or the Welsh . The Danish invasions of the 8th and loth centuries 590 resulted in the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of extensive Danish and See also:

• NORWEGIAN

Norwegian populations, about the See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin of the See also:

• HUMBER

Humber and its tributaries, and above See also:

• MORECAMBE

Morecambe See also:

• BAY

Bay., Although these Scandinavian settlers must have greatly affected the language of their own localities, but few traces of their influence are to be found in the literature of the Old English period . As with the greater part of the words adopted from the Celtic, it was not until after the dominion of the See also:

• NORMAN
• NORMAN, SIR HENRY WYLIE (1826-1904)

Norman had overlaid all preceding conquests, and the new English began to emerge from the ruins of the old, that Danish words in any number made their See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance in books, as equally " native " with the Anglo-Saxon . The earliest specimens we have of English date to the end of the 7th century, and belong to the Anglian dialect, and particularly to Northumbrian, which, under the political See also:

• EMINENCE (Lat. eminentia)

eminence of the early Northumbrian See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings from See also:

• EDWIN, AEDUINI
• EDWIN, JOHN (1749–1790)

Edwin to Ecgfriti, aided perhaps by the learning of the scholars of Ireland and See also:

• IONA

Iona, first attained to literary distinction . Of this literature in its original form See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere fragments exist, one of the most interesting of which consists of the verses uttered by Bede on his deathbed, and preserved in a nearly contemporary MS.: Fore there neid faerae . naenig uuiurthit thonc snotturra . than him tharf sie, to ymb-hycggannm . aer his hin-iongae, huaet his gastae . godaes aeththa yflaes, aefter deoth-daege . doemid uueorthae . 'Trans.: Before the inevitable See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey becomes not any Thought more wise than (that) it is needful for him, To consider, ere his hence-going, What, to his See also:

• GHOST (a word common to the W. Teutonic languages; O.E. vest, Dutch, 'geest, Ger. Geist)

ghost, of See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good or See also:

• ILL

ill, After See also:

• DEATH

death-thy, doomed may be . But our See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief acquaintance with Old English is in its West-Saxon form, the earliest literary remains of which date to the 9th century, when under the political supremacy of Wessex and the scholarship of King Alfred it became the literary language of the English nation, the classical " Anglo-Saxon." If our materials were more extensive, it would probably be necessary to divide the Old English into several periods; as it is, consider-able differences have been shown to exist between the " early West-Saxon " of King Alfred and the later language of the t1th century, the earlier language having numerous phonetic and inflectional distinctions which are "levelled" in the later, the inflectional changes showing that the tendency to pass from the synthetical to the See also:

• ANALYTICAL

analytical stage existed quite independently of the Norman Conquest . The northern dialect, whose literary career had been cut See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short in the 8th century by the Danish invasions, reappears in the loth in the form of glosses to the Latin gospels and a service-See also:

• BOOK

book, often called the See also:

• RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom)

Ritual of See also:

• DURHAM
• DURHAM, JOHN GEORGE LAMBTON, 1ST EARL OF (1792–1840)

Durham, where we find that, owing to the confusion which had so long reigned in the north, and to special Northumbrian tendencies, e.g. the dropping of the inflectional n in both verbs and nouns, this dialect had advanced in the See also:

• PROCESS

process of inflection-levelling far beyond the sister dialects of Mercian and the south, so as already to anticipate the forms of Early Middle English .

Among the literary remains of the Old English may be mentioned the epic poem of Beowulf, the original See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus of which has been supposed to date to See also:

• HEATHEN

heathen and even See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental times, though we now possess it only in a later form; the poetical works of Cynewulf; those formerly ascribed to Cmdmon; several works of Alfred, two of which, his translation of Orosius and of The See also:

• PASTORAL (from Lat. pastor, a shepherd)

Pastoral Care of St See also:

• GREGORY
• GREGORY (Gregorius)
• GREGORY (Grigorii) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1734-1783)
• GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-19o9)
• GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774—1841)
• GREGORY, ST (c. 213-C. 270)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329–389)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (c.331—c. 396)
• GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594)

Gregory, are contemporary specimens of his Ianguage; the Old English or Anglo-Saxon See also:

• CHRONICLE (from Gr. Xpovos, time)

Chronicle; the theological works of 1Elfric (including See also:

• TRANSLATIONS

translations of the See also:

• PENTATEUCH

Pentateuch and the gospels) and of See also:

• WULFSTAN
• WULFSTAN, ST (c. 1o12—1095)

Wulfstan; and many works both in prose and See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse, of which the authors are unknown . The earliest specimens, the See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions on the Ruthwell and Bewcastle crosses, are in a Runic See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character; but the letters used in the See also:

• MANUSCRIPTS

manuscripts generally are a British variety of the Roman See also:

• ALPHABET (see also WRITING)

alphabet which the Anglo-Saxons found in the island, and which was also used by the Welsh and Irish 1 Several of the Roman letters had in Britain developed forms, and retained or acquired values, unlike those used on the continent, in particular See also:

• SPA

Spa nr Z 1 See on this Rhys, Lectures on Welsh Philology, v.,F'(d f g r s t) . The letters q ands were not used, q being represented by cw, and k was a rare alternative to c; u or v was only a vowel, the consonantal power of v being represented as in Welsh by f . The See also:

• RUNES, RUNIC LANGUAGE AND INSCRIPTIONS

Runes called See also: