See also:

• ENTOMOLOGY (Gr. iv-roµa, insects, and Xiryos, a discourse)

ENTOMOLOGY (Gr. iv-roµa, See also:

• INSECTS

insects, and Xiryos, a discourse)  , the See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science that treats of See also:

• INSECTS

insects, i.e. of the animals included in the class See also:

• HEXAPODA (Gr. 4, six, and gobs, foot)

Hexapoda of the See also:

• GREAT

great phylum (or sub-phylum) See also:

• ARTHROPODA

Arthropoda . The See also:

• TERM

term, however, is somewhat elastic in its current use, and students of centipedes and See also:

• SPIDERS

spiders are often reckoned among the entomologists . As the number of See also:

• SPECIES

species of insects is believed to exceed that of all other animals taken together, it is no wonder that their study should See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form a See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of See also:

• ZOOLOGY (from Gr. Nov, a living thing, and ?byos, theory)

zoology with a distinctive name . Beetles (Scarabaei) are the subjects of some of the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest sculptured See also:

• WORKS

works of the Egyptians, and references to locusts, bees and ants are See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar to all readers of the See also:

• HEBREW

Hebrew scriptures . The See also:

• INTEREST

interest of insects to the eastern races was, however,economic, religious or moral . The science of insects began with See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle, who included in a class " Entoma " the true insects, the arachnids and the myriapods, the See also:

• CRUSTACEA

Crustacea forming another class (" See also:

• MALACOSTRACA

Malacostraca") of the "Anaema" or " bloodless animals." For nearly 2000 years the few writers who dealt with zoological subjects followed Aristotle's leading . In the See also:

• HISTORY

history of the science, various lines of progress have to be traced . While some observers have studied in detail the structure and See also:

• LIFE

life-history of a few selected types (See also:

• INSECT

insect See also:

• ANATOMY
• ANATOMY (Gr. avaroyil, from ava-silo c', to cut up)

anatomy and development), others have made a more superficial examination of large See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of insects to classify them and determine their relationships (systematic See also:

• ENTOMOLOGY (Gr. iv-roµa, insects, and Xiryos, a discourse)

entomology), while others again have investigated the habits and life-relations of insects (insect bionomics) . During See also:

• RECENT

recent years the study of fossil insects (palaeoentomology) has attracted much See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention . The See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations of See also:

• MODERN

modern entomology were laid by a series of wonderful See also:

• MEMOIRS

memoirs on anatomy and development published in the 17th and 18th centuries . Of these the most famous are M . See also:

• MALPIGHI, MARCELLO (1628-1694)

Malpighi's See also:

• TREATISE

treatise on the silkworm (1669) and J .

See also:

• SWAMMERDAM, JAN (1637-168o)

Swammerdam's Biblia naturae, issued in 1737, fifty years after its author's See also:

• DEATH

death, and containing observations on the structure and life-history of a series of insect types . Aristotle and See also:

• HARVEY
• HARVEY, GABRIEL (c. 1545-1630)
• HARVEY, SIR GEORGE (1806-1876)
• HARVEY, WILLIAM (1578—1657)

Harvey (De generatione animalium, 1651) had considered the insect larva as a prematurely hatched embryo and the pupa as a second See also:

• EGG (O.E. aeg, cf. Ger. Ei, Swed. aegg, and prob. Gr. u,ov, Lat. ovum)
• EGG, AUGUSTUS LEOPOLD (1816-1863)

egg . Swammerdam, however, showed the presence under the larval cuticle of the pupal structures . His only unfortunate contribution to entomology—indeed to zoology generally—was his theory of pre-formation, which taught the presence within the egg of a perfectly formed but See also:

• MINIATURE

miniature adult . A See also:

• YEAR

year before Malpighi's great See also:

• WORK

work appeared, another See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian naturalist, F . Redi, had disproved by experiment the spontaneous See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation of maggots from putrid flesh, and had shown that they can only develop from the eggs of flies . Meanwhile the See also:

• ENGLISH

English naturalist, See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• RAY (Lat. raia)
• RAY (or WRAY, as he wrote his name till 1670), JOHN (1628-1705)

Ray, was studying the See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification of animals ; he published, in 1705, his Methodus insectorum, in which the nature of the See also:

• METAMORPHOSIS

metamorphosis received due See also:

• WEIGHT

weight . Ray's " Insects " comprised the Arachnids, Crustacea, See also:

• MYRIAPODA (Gr. for " many-legged ")

Myriapoda and See also:

• ANNELIDA

Annelida, in addition to the . Hexapods . Ray was the first to formulate that definite conception of the species which was adopted by See also:

• LINNAEUS

Linnaeus and emphasized by his binominal nomenclature . In 1735 appeared the first edition of the Systema naturae of Linnaeus, in which the " Insecta " forma See also:

• GROUP

group ' See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to the Arthropoda of modern zoologists, and are divided into seven orders, whose names—See also:

• COLEOPTERA

Coleoptera, See also:

• DIPTERA (Sir, double, arepa, wings)

Diptera, See also:

• LEPIDOPTERA (Gr. ?emir, a scale or husk, and 7rrepov, a wing)

Lepidoptera, &c., founded on the nature of the wings—have become firmly established . The fascinating subjects of insect bionomics and life-history were dealt with in the classical memoirs (1734–1742) of the Frenchman R .

A . F. de See also:

• REAUMUR, RENE ANTOINE FERCHAULT DE (1683-1757)

Reaumur, and (1752–1778) of the Swede C. de Geer . The freshness, the See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air of leisure, the See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm of See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery that See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark the work of these old writers have lessons for the modern professional zoologist, who at times feels burdened with the accumulated knowledge of a See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century and a See also:

• HALF

half . From the end of the 18th century until the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, it is only possible to enumerate the outstanding features in the progress of entomology . In the See also:

• REALM

realm of classification, the work of Linnaeus was continued in See also:

• DENMARK
• DENMARK (Danmark)

Denmark by J . C . See also:

• FABRICIUS, GAIUS LUSCINUS (i.e. " the one-eyed ")
• FABRICIUS, GEORG (1516-1571)
• FABRICIUS, HIERONYMUS
• FABRICIUS, JOHANN ALBERT (1668-1736)
• FABRICIUS, JOHANN CHRISTIAN (1745-18o8)

Fabricius (Systema entomologica, 1795), and extended in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France by G . P . B . See also:

• LAMARCK,

Lamarck (Animaux sans vertebres, 1801) and G . See also:

• CUVIER, GEORGES LEOPOLD CHRETIEN FREDERIC DAGOBERT, BARON (1769-1832)

Cuvier (Lecons d'anatomie comparee, 1800-1805), and in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England by W . E .

Leach (Trans . Linn . See also:

• SOC

Soc. xi., 1815) . These three authors definitely separated the See also:

• ARACHNIDA

Arachnida, Crustacea and Myriapoda as classes distinct from the Insecta (see HEXAPODA) . The work of J . O . Westwood (Modern Classification of Insects, 1839–1840) connects these older writers with their successors of to-day . In the anatomical See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field the work of Malpighi and Swammerdam was at first continued most energetically by See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French students . P . Lyonnet had published in 176o his elaborate monograph on the See also:

• GOAT (a common Teut. word; O. Eng. gat, Goth. gaits, Mod. Ger. Geiss, cognate with Lat. haedus, a kid)

goat-See also:

• MOTH

moth See also:

• CATERPILLAR

caterpillar, and H . E . See also:

• STRAUSS, DAVID FRIEDRICH (1808-1874)
• STRAUSS, JOHANN (1804-1849)
• STRAUSS, RICHARD (1864– )

Strauss-Durckheim in 1828 issued his great treatise on the cockchafer .

But the name of J . C . L. de See also:

• SAVIGNY, FRIEDRICH KARL VON (1779–1861)

Savigny, who (Mem. sur See also:

• LES

les animaux sans vertebres, 1816) established the homology of the jaws of all insects whether biting or sucking, deserves especial See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour . Many anatomical and developmental details were carefully worked out by L . See also:

• DUFOUR, WILHELM HEINRICH [GUILLAUME HENRI] (1787–1875)

Dufour (in a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long series of memoirs from 1811 to z86o) in France, by G . See also:

• NEWPORT

Newport (" Insecta " in Encyc . Anat. and Physiol., 1839) in England, and by H . Burmeister (Handbuch der Entomologie, 1832) in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany . Through the 19th century, as knowledge increased, the work of investigation became necessarily more and more specialized . Anatomists like F . Leydig, F . See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller, B .

T . Lowne and V . Graber turned their attention to the detailed investigation of some one species or to special points in the structure of some particular See also:

• ORGANS

organs, using for the elucidation of their subject the ever-improving microscopical methods of See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research . See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

Societies for the discussion and publication of papers on entomology were naturally established as the number of students increased . The Societe Entomologique de France was founded in 1832, the Entomological Society of See also:

• LONDON

London in 1834 . Few branches of zoology have been more valuable as a See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting-ground for professional and See also:

• AMATEUR (Lat. amator, lover)

amateur naturalists than entomology, and not seldom has the amateur—as in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of Westwood—See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed into a See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

professor . During the pre-Linnaean See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period, the beauty of insects—especially the Lepidoptera—had attracted a number of collectors; and these " Aurelians "—regarded as harmless lunatics by most of their See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends—were the forerunners of the systematic students of later times . While the insect See also:

• FAUNA

fauna of See also:

• EUROPEAN

European countries was investigated by See also:

• LOCAL

local naturalists, the spread of See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical exploration brought ever-increasing stores of See also:

• EXOTIC (Gr. EWTIK6s, foreign, from few, outside)

exotic material to the great museums, and specialization —either in the fauna of a small See also:

• DISTRICT

district or in the See also:

• WORLD

world-wide study of an See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order or a group of families—became constantly more marked in systematic work . As examples may be instanced the studies of A . H . Haliday and H . Loew on the European Diptera, of John See also:

• CURTIS, GEORGE TICKNOR (1812-1894)
• CURTIS, GEORGE WILLIAM (1824-1892)

Curtis on See also:

• BRITISH

British insects, of H .

T . Stainton and O . Staudinger on the European Lepidoptera, of R . M`Lachlan on the European and of H . A . See also:

• HAGEN
• HAGEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH VON DER (178o-1856)

Hagen on the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North See also:

• AMERICAN

American See also:

• NEUROPTERA (Gr. vevpov, a nerve, and ,rmpbv, a wing)

Neuroptera, of D . See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

Sharp on the Dyticidae and other families of Coleoptera of the whole world . The See also:

• EMBRYOLOGY

embryology of insects is entirely a study of the last century . C . See also:

• BONNET
• BONNET, CHARLES (172o–1793)

Bonnet indeed observed in 1745 the virgin-See also:

• REPRODUCTION

reproduction of Aphids, but it was not until 1842 that R . A. von See also:

• KOLLIKER, RUDOLPH ALBERT VON (1817-1905)

Kolliker described the formation of the blastoderm in the egg of the midge Chironomus . Later A .

See also:

• WEISMANN, AUGUST (1834– )

Weismann (1863–1864) traced details of the growth of embryo and of pupa among the Diptera, and A . See also:

• KOVALEVSKY, SOPHIE (1850–1891)

Kovalevsky in 1871 first described the formation of the germinal layers in insects . Most of the recent work on the embryology of insects has been done in Germany or the See also:

• UNITED

United States, and among numerous students V . Graber, K . Heider, W . M . See also:

• WHEELER, JOSEPH (1836-1906)
• WHEELER, WILLIAM ALMON (1819-1887)

Wheeler and R . Heymons may be especially mentioned . The work of de Reaumur and de Geer on the bionomics and life-history of insects has been continued by numerous observers, among whom may be especially mentioned in France J . H . See also:

• FABRE
• FABRE, FERDINAND (183o—1898)

Fabre and C . See also:

• JANET, PAUL (1823—1899)

Janet, in England W .

See also:

• KIRBY, WILLIAM (1759–1850)

Kirby and W . See also:

• SPENCE, THOMAS (1750-1814)

Spence, J . Lubbock (See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord See also:

• AVEBURY
• AVEBURY, JOHN LUBBOCK, 1ST BARON (1834– )

Avebury) and L . C . See also:

• MIALL, EDWARD (1809-1881)

Miall, and in the United States C . V . See also:

• RILEY, JAMES WHITCOMB (1853– )

Riley . The last-named may be considered the founder of the strong See also:

• COMPANY

company of entomological workers now labouring in See also:

• AMERICA

America . Though Riley was especially interested in the See also:

• BEARINGS

bearings of insect life on See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture and See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry—economic entomology (q. v.)—he and his followers have laid the science generally under a deep See also:

• OBLIGATION

obligation by their researches . After the publication of C . See also:

• DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT (1809-1882)
• DARWIN, ERASMUS (1731-1802)

Darwin's Origin of Species (18J9) a fresh impetus was given to entomology as to all branches of zoology, and it became generally recognized that insects form a group convenient and hopeful for the elucidation of certain problems of See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution . The writings of Darwin himself and of A .

R . See also:

• WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL (1823— )
• WALLACE, LEWIS [LEW] (1827—1905)
• WALLACE, SIR RICHARD
• WALLACE, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1270-1305)
• WALLACE, WILLIAM (1768-1843)
• WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897)
• WALLACE, WILLIAM VINCENT (1814-1865)

Wallace (both at one See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time active entomological collectors) contain much See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from insects in favour of descent with modification . The phylogeny of insects has since been discussed by F . Brauer, A . S . Packard and many others; See also:

• MIMICRY

mimicry and allied problems by H . W . See also:

• BATES, HARRY (1850-1899)
• BATES, HENRY WALTER (1825-1892)
• BATES, JOHN
• BATES, JOSHUA (1788-1864)
• BATES, WILLIAM (1625-1699)

Bates, F . Muller, E . B . Poulton and M . C .

Piepers; the bearing of insect habits on theories of selection and use-See also:

• INHERITANCE

inheritance by A . Weismann, G . W. and E . See also:

• PECKHAM, JOHN (d. 1292)

Peckham, G . H . T . Eimer and See also:

• HERBERT (FAMILY)
• HERBERT, GEORGE (1593-1633)
• HERBERT, HENRY WILLIAM
• HERBERT, SIR THOMAS (1606-1682)

Herbert See also:

• SPENCER
• SPENCER, HERBERT (1820-1903)
• SPENCER, JOHN CHARLES SPENCER, 3RD EARL (1782-1845)
• SPENCER, JOHNPOYNTZ SPENCER
• SPENCER, WILLIAM ROBERT (1769-1834)

Spencer; variation by W . See also:

• BATESON (BATSON or BETSON), THOMAS

Bateson and M . Standfuss . B1sL1oGRArxv.—References to the works of the above authors, and to many others, will be found under HExAronA and the special articles on various insect orders . Valuable summaries of the labours of Malpighi, Swammerdam and other See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early entomologists are given in L . C .

Miall and A . Denny's Cockroach (London, 1886), and L . Henneguy's Les Insectes (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1904) . (G . H .