See also:

• ESTATE (through O. Fr. estat, mod. flat, from Lat. status, state, condition, position, stare, to stand)

ESTATE (through O. Fr. estat, mod. See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat, from See also:

• LAT

Lat. status, See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition, position, stare, to stand)  , the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state or See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition in which a See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man lives, now chiefly used poetically and in such phrases as " man's See also:

• ESTATE (through O. Fr. estat, mod. flat, from Lat. status, state, condition, position, stare, to stand)

estate," or " of high estate "; " state has superseded most of the uses of the word except (I) in See also:

• PROPERTY

property and (2) in constitutional See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law . DIsestablishment . 1 . In the law of property the word is employed in several senses . In the widest sense a man's estate comprises his entire belongings; so much of it as consists of See also:

• LAND

land and certain other interests associated therewith is his " real estate "; the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest is his " See also:

• PERSONAL

personal estate." The word is more particularly applied to interests in land, and in popular and See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general use " an estate " means the land itself . The strict technical meaning of " an estate " is an See also:

• INTEREST

interest in lands, and this conception lies at the See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root of the See also:

• ENGLISH

English theory of property in land . " The first thing that the student has to do," says See also:

• JOSHUA, BOOK OF

Joshua See also:

• WILLIAMS
• WILLIAMS, JOHN (1582-1650)
• WILLIAMS, JOHN (1796-1839)
• WILLIAMS, ROGER (c. 1604–1684)
• WILLIAMS, ROWLAND (1817-1870)
• WILLIAMS, SIR WILLIAM FENWICK

Williams (Law of Real Prol erty), " is to get rid of the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute ownership . Such an idea is quite unknown to the English law . No man is in law the absolute owner of lands . He can only hold an estate in them." That is, the notion of See also:

• TENURE (Fr. tenure, from Lat. tenere, to hold)

tenure, of holding by a See also:

• TENANT (from Lat. tenere, to hold)

tenant from a See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

lord, prevails . The last lord of all from whom all land was ultimately held was the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king . Persons holding directly from the king and granting to others were the king's tenants in capite, and were the See also:

• MESNE (an Anglo-French legal form of the O. Fr. meien, mod. moyen, mean, Med. Lat. medianus, in the middle, cf. " mean ")

mesne lords of their tenants .

Estates in land may be classified according to (I) the quantity of their interest or duration, (2) the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of enjoyment, and (3) the number and connexion of the tenants . According to (1), an estate may be either a See also:

• FREEHOLD

freehold of See also:

• INHERITANCE

inheritance or a freehold not of inheritance . A freehold of inheritance may be (a) an estate in See also:

• FEE

fee See also:

• SIMPLE

simple, which is the largest estate a man can hold in English law, and comes See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close to the idea of absolute ownership, repudiated by Williams; an estate in fee simple is inheritable by a man's heirs generally, he has full See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of disposition over it, and may alienate the whole or See also:

• PART

part . (b) It may also be in limited fees, which are again subdivided into (i.) qualified or See also:

• BASE

base fee, (ii.) fee conditional, so called at the See also:

• COMMON

common law, afterwards, on the passing of the See also:

• STATUTE

statute De Donis Conditionalibus, fee tail, which may be general as to the heirs of a man's See also:

• BODY

body, or See also:

• SPECIAL

special, as to the heirs male (or See also:

• FEMALE

female) of his body . A freehold not of inheritance may be either (I) conventional, as an estate for See also:

• LIFE

life, which may be either an estate for one's own life or for the life of another (pur autre See also:

• VIE

vie); (2) legal, or created by operation of law, as tenancy in tail after possibility of issue See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct (i.e. where an estate is given to a man and the heirs of his body by his See also:

• PRESENT

present wife, and the wife See also:

• DIES, CHRISTOPH ALBERT (1755-1822)

dies without issue, the See also:

• HUSBAND

husband becomes tenant in tail after possibility of issue extinct) ; tenancy by See also:

• CURTESY (a variant of " courtesy," q.v.)

curtesy (see CuRTESY) ; tenancy in See also:

• DOWER (through the Old Fr. douaire from late Lat. dotarium, classical Lat. dos, dowry)

dower (see DOWER) . Estates not of freehold or less than freehold are subdivided into (i.) estates for years (often called estates for a See also:

• TERM

term of years, the See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument creating it being termed a See also:

• LEASE (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. laxare, to loosen)

lease or See also:

• DEMISE

demise, and the estate itself a leasehold interest); (ii.) estates at will, that is, where lands or tenements are let by one man to another to have and to hold at the will of the lessor; (iii.) estates at sufferance, where one comes into See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of land under a lawful See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title, and continues in possession after his title has determined . According to (2), estates are either in possession or in expectancy . Estates in expectancy are either (a) in See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder, which may be vested or contingent, or (b) in reversion (see REMAINDER, REVERSION) . According to (3), estates may be either (i.) in severalty, that is, the holding of an estate by a See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person in his own right only, without any other person being joined or connected with him in point of interest therein; (ii.) estates in See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint tenancy (see JOINT); (iii.) See also:

• COPARCENARY (co-, with,. and parcener, i.e. sharer; from O. Fr. par confer, Lat. partitio, division)

coparcenary (q.v.); and (iv.) tenancy in common, where two or more hold the same land, by several and distinct titles, but with unity of possession . (See also REAL . PROPERTY.) 2 . In constitutional law an estate is an See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order or class having a definite See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share as such in the body politic, and participating either directly or by its representatives in the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government .

The See also:

• SYSTEM

system of See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation by estates took its rise in western See also:

• EUROPE

Europe during the 13th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, at a time when the feudal system was being broken up through various causes, notably the growing See also:

• WEALTH

wealth and See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of the towns . In the feudal See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council the See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy and the territorial nobles had alone had a See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice; but the 13th century, to quote See also:

• STUBBS [STUBBES], PHILIP (c. 1555-c. 161o)
• STUBBS [STUnnE], JOHN
• STUBBS, WILLIAM (1825-1901)

Stubbs (Const . Hist. ii.168, ed . 1875), " turns the feudal council into an See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly of estates, and draws the constitution of the third estate from the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• LOCAL

local machinery which it concentrates." This is, allowing for See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences of detail, true of other countries as well as See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England . To the two estates already existing, clergy and nobles, is added a third, that of the See also:

• COMMONS

commons (burgesses and knights of the See also:

• SHIRE

shire) in England, that of the roturiers in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France (known as the tiers etat) . This See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division into three estates became the norm, but it was not universal, nor inevitable.' Even in England there was a tendency to create other estates, the king for instance treating with the merchants separately for grants of See also:

• MONEY

money to be raised by taxing the general body of merchants in the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country; and there was a similar tendency on the part of the lawyers . But for the See also:

• ACCIDENT
• ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen)

accident of their sitting and voting together, the burgesses and knights of the shire would also have formed See also:

• SEPARATE

separate estates . In See also:

• ARAGON, or ARRAGON (in Span. Aragon)

Aragon the See also:

• CORTES
• CORTES, HERNAN

cortes contained four estates (brazos or arms), the clergy, the See also:

• GREAT

great barons (ricos hombres), the See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor barons (knights or infanzones), and the towns . The See also:

• SWEDISH

Swedish See also:

• DIET

diet had also four—clergy, barons, burghers and peasants . The system of estates, based on the See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval conception of society as divided into definite orders, formed the basis of whatever constitutional forms survived in Europe till the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French Revolution . In England, of course, it had See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early become obscured, the See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

House of Commons representing the whole nation outside the narrow order of the peers . The creation of an estate of lesser nobles or landowners had been prevented by the See also:

• FUSION

fusion of the knights of the shire with the burgesses; the spiritual estate was ruled out by the determination of the clergy to deliberate and tax themselves in their own See also:

• CONVOCATION
• CONVOCATION (Lat. convocatio, a calling together)

convocation, leaving the bishops, as spiritual peers, to represent their interests in See also:

• PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

parliament .

The phrase " the three estates of the See also:

• REALM

realm " still survives, but to most men it conveys no clear meaning . The erroneous conception early arose—See also:

• HALLAM
• HALLAM, ROBERT (d. 1417)

Hallam says it was current among the popular lawyers of the 17th century—that the " three estates" were king, lords and commons, as representing the three great divisions of legislative authority . Such a conception might be possible in See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary, where the See also:

• CROWN

crown of St See also:

• STEPHEN
• STEPHEN (1097?-1154)
• STEPHEN (ISTVAN) BATHORY (1533-1586)
• STEPHEN, SIR JAMES (1789-1859)
• STEPHEN, SIR JAMES FITZJAMES, BART
• STEPHEN, SIR LESLIE (1832-1904)

Stephen symbolizes not so much the royal power as the co-ordination of the powers of all the See also:

• ORGANS

organs of the state, including the king; but in England the king represents the whole nation and in no sense a separate interest within it, which is the essence of an estate . The phrase " three estates " as applied to the English constitution at present is, in fact, misleading . It is now usually understood of the lords spiritual, the lords temporal, and the commons . The conception of the " three estates of the realm " as the great divisions of legislative authority led in England to the coining of the phrase " See also:

• FOURTH

fourth estate," to indicate some power of corresponding magnitude in the state distinct from them . See also:

• FIELDING, ANTHONY VANDYKE COPLEY (1787-1855)
• FIELDING, HENRY (1707-1754)
• FIELDING, WILLIAM STEVENS (1848– )

Fielding thus spoke of "the See also:

• MOB

mob," and See also:

• HAZLITT, WILLIAM (1778-1830)

Hazlitt of See also:

• COBBETT, WILLIAM (1766-1835)

Cobbett; but the phrase is now usually applied to the See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press, a usage originating in a speech by See also:

• BURKE
• BURKE, ROBERT
• BURKE, SIR JOHN BERNARD (1814–1892)
• BURKE, WILLIAM (1792–1829)

Burke (See also:

• CARLYLE, ALEXANDER (1722-1805)
• CARLYLE, JOSEPH DACRE (1759-18o4)
• CARLYLE, THOMAS (1795-1881)

Carlyle, See also:

• HERO (Gr. open)
• HERO, THE YOUNGER

Hero-See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship,Lect. v.) . In the constitutional struggles of the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent, from the Revolution onward, the See also:

• RIVAL

rival theories of representation by estates and of popular representation have played a great part . The See also:

• CRUCIAL (from Lat. crux, a cross)

crucial moment of the French Revolution was when the See also:

• VOTE

vote according to " order " was rejected and the estates of the clergy and nobles were merged with the tiers Nat, the states-general thus becoming the See also:

• NATIONAL

National Assembly . This was the precedent followed, generally speaking, during the 19th century in the other countries in which constitutional govern- ' In See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland the three estates were the prelates, the tenants-inchief and the burgesses, the third estate joining the others for the first time about the beginning of the 14th century . In 1428 commissioners of shires, men elected by the minor tenants-in-See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief, were ordered to appear in parliament; the greater tenants-in-chief then coalesced with the prelates and the three estates were the lords, clerical and See also:

• LAY

lay, the commissioners of shires and the burgesses From 164o to 166o parliament was reorganized, the prelates being excluded, but at the Restoration the old order was re-established . The Scottish parliament was accustomed to depute much of its See also:

• WORK

work to a See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

committee, composed of members from each of the three orders, and the committee of the estates was very prominent during the struggle betvdeen See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles I. and his See also:

• PEOPLE

people .

ment was established . In most of them the medieval estates lingered on in provincial diets (Landtage),' and the famous See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

Article XIII. of the Federal See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

Act (Bundesakte) of See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna decreed that " assemblies of estates " should be set up, wherever not already existing, in the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German states . The efforts of Metternich and the statesmen of his school were directed, not so much to abolishing the constitutional See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model, as to establishing it, if need were, on traditional and conservative lines . This is what was meant by the famous reply of the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis I. to the Magyar deputation: " All the See also:

• WORLD

world is playing the See also:

• FOOL (O. Fr. fol, modern fou, foolish, from a Late Latin use of follis, bellows, a ball filled with air, for a stupid person, a jester, a wind-bag)

fool and demanding fanciful constitutions." When the need for making constitutional concessions became urgent, the See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt was accordingly made to base them on the system of estates . But the central diet convoked in 1847 by See also:

• FREDERICK
• FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrich; Ital. Federigo; Fr. Frederic and Federic; M.H.G. Friderich; O.H.G. Fridurih, " king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, A.S. frith, " peace," and rfh " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY)

Frederick See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William IV. to See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, technically a concentration of provincial estates, quickly converted itself as Metternich had prophesied—into a national assembly; and precisely the same thing happened in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of the first See also:

• AUSTRIAN

Austrian parliament in 1848 . In Hungary the revolution was in some respects more conservative in See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character . The See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March See also:

• LAWS

Laws of 1848 preserved the general character of the House of Magnates, comparable to the See also:

• BRITISH

British House of Lords, but converted the See also:

• LOWER

Lower House from what was practically representative of the estate of the lesser nobles into a national representative assembly . Of all the See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign states of Europe only the See also:

• GRAND

grand-duchies of See also:

• MECKLENBURG

Mecklenburg still (1909) retain the ancient system of estates untouched . The diet, which is common to the two duchies, consists of the Ritterschaft, in which all tenants in See also:

• CHIVALRY (O. Fr. chevalerie, from Late Lat. caballerius)

chivalry (Rittergutsbesitzer), whether See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble or non-noble, have a voice, and the Landschaft, which consists of the chief magistrates of the towns . The former is taken as representative of the See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

peasant proprietors and copy-holders (Hintersassen), the latter of the burghers . The plural See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form ESTATES or STATES (Fr. eta's, Ger . Stdnde) is the name commonly given to an assembly of estates (assemblee See also:

• DES

des eats, Stdndeversammlung) .

When such an assembly is not merely local or provincial it is called the estates-general or states-general (ads generaux), e.g. in France the assembly of the deputies of the three estates of the realm as distinct from the provincial estates which met periodically in the so-called pays d'etats . For further details about the estates in England and elsewhere see W . Stubbs, Constitutional See also:

• HISTORY

History, vol. ii . (1896); H . Hallam, The See also:

• MIDDLE

Middle Ages (1855); F . W . See also:

• MAITLAND (MAITLAND OF LETHINGTON), WILLIAM
• MAITLAND, EAST
• MAITLAND, EDWARD (1824-1897)
• MAITLAND, FREDERIC WILLIAM (1850-1906)
• MAITLAND, SIR RICHARD (LORD LETHINGTON) (1496-r586)

Maitland, Constitutional History of England (1908); A . See also:

• LUCHAIRE, DENIS JEAN ACHILLE (1846-1908)

Luchaire, Histoire des institutions monarchiques de la France (1883-1885); G . See also:

• WAITZ, GEORG (1813-1886)
• WAITZ, THEODOR (1821-1864)

Waitz, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte (See also:

• KIEL

Kiel, 1865-1878); and A . S . Rait, The Scottish Parliament (1901) . See also REPRESENTATION .