See also:

• ESTHONIA (Ger. Ehstland and Ehshland, Esthonian Eestimae and Meie-maa, also Viroma and Rahvama; Lettish Iggaun Senna)

ESTHONIA (Ger. Ehstland and Ehshland, Esthonian Eestimae and Meie-maa, also Viroma and Rahvama; Lettish Iggaun See also:

• SENNA (Arab. sand)

Senna)  , a Baltic See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia, stretching along the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of the Gulf of See also:

• FINLAND (Finnish, Suomi or Suomenmaa)

Finland, and having See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake See also:

• PEIPUS, or CHUDSKOYE OZERO

Peipus and See also:

• LIVONIA, or LIVLAND (Russian, Liflandia)

Livonia on the S. and the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government of St See also:

• PETERSBURG

Petersburg on the E . An See also:

• ARCHIPELAGO

archipelago of islands, of which See also:

• DAGO

Dago is the largest, belongs to this government (See also:

• OESEL (in Esthonian Kure-saare or Saare-ma)

Oesel belongs to Livonia) . The See also:

• AREA

area is 7818 sq. m., 503 sq. m. of this being insular . The See also:

• SURFACE

surface is See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low, not exceeding roo ft. in See also:

• ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

altitude along the coast and alongside Lake Peipus, while in the interior the See also:

• AVERAGE

average See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation ranges from 200 to 300 ft., and nowhere exceeds 450 ft . It was entirely covered with the bottom See also:

• MORAINE

moraine of the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice-See also:

• SHEET

sheet of the Glacial See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

Epoch, resting upon See also:

• SILURIAN

Silurian sandstones and limestones . In places sands and See also:

• CLAYS, PAUL JEAN (1819-1900)

clays overlie the glacial deposits . The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal stream is the Narova, which issues from Lake Peipus, flows along the eastern border, and empties into the Gulf of Fin-See also:

• LAND

land . The other drainage See also:

• ARTERIES (Gr. ap-rnpia, probably from a"spew, to raise, but popularly connected by the ancients with ai7P, air)

arteries are all small, but many in number; while lakes and marshes aggregate fully 221% of the See also:

• TOTAL

total surface . The See also:

• CLIMATE

climate is severe, great See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold being experienced in See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter, though moist See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west winds exercise a moderating See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence . Nevertheless the See also:

• ANNUAL

annual mean temperature ranges between 390 and 430 Fahr . In1878 the See also:

• NOBILITY

nobility, mostly of See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German descent, owned and farmed 52% of the land; 42% was farmed, but not owned, by the peasants, mostly Esths or Ehsts, and only 3% was owned by persons outside the ranks of the nobility . Since then one-See also:

• FOURTH

fourth of the peasantry have been enabled to See also:

• PURCHASE

purchase their holdings, more than See also:

• HALF

half a million acres having passed into their See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession .

See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

Agriculture is the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief occupation, and it is, on all the larger holdings, carried on with greater scientific knowledge than in any other See also:

• PART

part of Russia . Of the total area about 16.6% is under cultivation; meadows and grass-lands amount to 41.7%; and forests See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover 19% . The principal crops are See also:

• RYE

rye, oats, See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley and potatoes, with large quantities of vegetables . See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

Cattle-breeding flourishes, and See also:

• MEAT

meat and See also:

• BUTTER (Lat. butyrum, Gr. 0obrvpov, apparently connected with $ous, cow, and rvpbs, cheese, but, according to the New English Dictionary, perhaps of Scythian origin)

butter are constantly increasing items of export . The manufactories consist chiefly of distilleries (over 13,500,000 gallons annually), See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton (at Kranholm falls on the Narova), woollen, See also:

• FLOUR

flour, See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper and saw See also:

• MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736)
• MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832– )

mills, See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron and machinery See also:

• WORKS

works, and match factories . Fishing is active along the coast, especially for anchovies . The province is intersected by a railway See also:

• RUNNING

running from St Petersburg to See also:

• REVAL, or REVEL (Russ. Revel, formerly Kolyvan; Esthonian, Tallina and Tannilin)

Reval, with branches from the latter See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city westwards to Baltic See also:

• PORT

Port and southwards into Livonia, and from Taps south to Yuryev (Dorpat) . The chief seaports are Reval, Baltic Port, Hapsal, Kunda and Dago, See also:

• ESTHONIA (Ger. Ehstland and Ehshland, Esthonian Eestimae and Meie-maa, also Viroma and Rahvama; Lettish Iggaun Senna)

Esthonia is divided into four districts, the chief towns of which are Reval (pop. in 1897, 66,292), the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of the province; Hapsal, a lively watering-See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place (3238); Weissenstein (2509); and Wesenberg (556o) . The See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population, which consists chiefly of Ehstes (365,959 in 1897), Russians (18,000), Germans (16,000), Swedes (5800), and some See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews, is growing fairly fast: in 187o it numbered 323,960, and in 1897 413,747, of whom 210,199 were See also:

• WOMEN

women and 76,315 lived in towns; in 1906 it was estimated at 451,700 . Ninety-six per cent. of the whole belong to the Lutheran See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church . See also:

• EDUCATION

Education is, for Russia, relatively high . The Esths, Ehsts or Esthonians, who See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call themselves Tallopoeg and Maamees, are known to the Russians as Chukhni or Chukhontsi, to the Letts as Iggauni, and to the Finns as Virolaiset .

They belong tb the Finnish See also:

• FAMILY

family, and consequently to the Ural-Altaic See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of the human See also:

• RACE

race . Altogether they number See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close upon one million, and are thus distributed : 365,959 in Esthonia (in 1897), 518,594 in Livonia, 64,116 in the government of St Petersburg, 25,458 in that of See also:

• PSKOV

Pskov, and 12,855 in other parts of Russia . As a race they exhibit See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

manifest evidences of their Ural-Altaic or Mongolic descent in their See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short stature, See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of See also:

• BEARD (A.S. beard, O. H. and Mod. Ger. Bart, Dan. beard, Icel. bar, rim, edge, beak of a ship, &c., O. Slay. barda, Russ. barodd. Cf. Welsh barf, Lat.. barba, though, according to the New English Dictionary, the connexion is for phonetic reasons doubtful)
• BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK (1825-1900)

beard, oblique eyes, broad See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face, low forehead and small mouth . In addition to that they are an under-sized, See also:

• ILL

ill-thriven See also:

• PEOPLE

people, with See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long arms and thin, short legs . They cling tenaciously to their native See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, which is closely allied to the Finnish, and divisible into two, or according to some authorities into three, principal dialects—Dorpat Esthonian and Reval Esthonian, with See also:

• PERNAU (in Russ. Pernov and in Esthonian Pernolin)

Pernau Esthonian . Reval Esthonian, which preserves more carefully the full inflectional forms and pays greater See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to the See also:

• LAWS

laws of euphony, is recognized as the See also:

• LITERARY

literary language . Since 1873 the cultivation of their See also:

• MOTHER

mother-See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue has been sedulously promoted by an Esthonian Literary Society (Eesti Korjameeste Sells), which publishes Toimetused, or " Instructions " in all sorts of subjects . They have a decided love of See also:

• POETRY

poetry, and exhibit great facility in improvising verses and poems on all occasions, and they sing, everywhere, from See also:

• MORNING

morning to See also:

• NIGHT

night . Like the Finns they possess See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich stores ofnational songs . These, which See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear an unmistakable family likeness to those of the great Finnish epic of the Kalevala, were collected as the Kalevi Poeg, and edited by Kreutswald (1857), and translated into German by Reinthal (1857–1859) and See also:

• BERTRAM, CHARLES (1723–1765)

Bertram (1861) and by See also:

• LOWE, JOHANN KARL GOTTFRIED (1796-1869)
• LOWE, SIR HUDSON (1769-1844)

Lowe (1900) . Other collections of Esthnische Volkslieder have been published by See also:

• NEUSS

Neuss (1850–1852) and Kreutzwald and Neuss (1854); while Kreutzwald (1866) and Jannsen (1888) have published collections of legends and See also:

• NATIONAL

national tales . The earliest publication in Esthonian was a Lutheran See also:

• CATECHISM (from Gr. Karnxeiv, teach by word of mouth)

catechism in the 16th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century .

An Esthonian See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation of the New Testament was printed at Reval in 1715 . Between 1813 and 1832 there appeared at Pernau twenty volumes of Beitrage zur genauern Kenntniss der esthnischen Sprache, by Rosenplanter, and from 184o onwards many valuable papers on Esthonian subjects were contributed to the Verhandlungen der gelehrten esthnischen Gesellschaft zu Dor pat . F . J . See also:

• WIEDEMANN, GUSTAV HEINRICH (1826-1899)

Wiedemann, who laboured indefatigably in the See also:

• REGISTRATION

registration and preservation of matters connected with Esthonian language and See also:

• LORE
• LORE, AMBROISE DE (1396-1446)

lore, published an Esthnisch-deutsches Worterbuch (1865; and ed. by Hurt, 1891, &c.), and in 1903 there appeared at Reval a Deutschesthnisches Worterbuch, by Ploompun and Kann . The Esthonians first appear in See also:

• HISTORY

history as a warlike and predatory race, the terror of the Baltic See also:

• SEAMEN, LAWS RELATING TO

seamen in consequence of their piracies . More than one of the Danish See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings made serious attempts to subdue them . Canute VI. invaded their See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country (1194–1196) and forced See also:

• BAPTISM

baptism upon many of them, but no sooner did his See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war-See also:

• SHIPS

ships disappear than they reverted to their former heathenism . In 1219 Waldemar II. undertook a more formidable crusade against them, in the course of which he founded the See also:

• TOWN

town and episcopal see of Reval . By his efforts the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern portion of the race were made submissive to the Danish See also:

• CROWN

crown; but, though conquered, they were by no means subdued, and were incessantly in revolt, until, after a great See also:

• REBELLION

rebellion in 1343, Waldemar IV . Atterdag sold for 19,000 marks his portion of Esthonia in 1346, to the See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of the Knights of the See also:

• SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

Sword . These German crusaders had already, after a See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of a century's fighting, in 1224 gained possession of the regions inhabited by the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern portion of the race, that is those now included in Livonia .

From that See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time for nearly six See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred years or more the Esthonians were practically reduced to a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of See also:

• SERFDOM (from Fr. serf, Lat. servus, a servant or slave)

serfdom to the German landowners . In 1521 the nobles and cities of Esthonia voluntarily placed themselves under the See also:

• PROTECTION

protection of the crown of See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Sweden; but after the See also:

• WARS

wars of See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles XII., Esthonia was formally ceded to his victorious See also:

• RIVAL

rival, See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter the Great, by the See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace of Nystad (1721) . Serfdom was abolished in 1817 by See also:

• TSAR, or CZAR

Tsar See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander I.; but the See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the peasants was so little improved that they See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose in open revolt in 1859 . Since 1878, however, a vast See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change for the better has been effected in their economic position (see above) . The determining feature of their See also:

• RECENT

recent history has been the See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt made by the See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian government (since 1881) and the Orthodox See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek Church (since 1883) to russify and convert the inhabitants of the province, Germans and Esths alike, by enforcing the use of Russian in the See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools and by harsh and repressive See also:

• MEASURES

measures aimed at their native language . See Merkel, See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die freien Letten and Esthen (182o) ; See also:

• PARROT (according to Skeat, from Fr. Perrot or Pies-rot, the diminutive of the proper name Pierrel)

Parrot, Versuch einer Entwickelung der Sprache, Abstammung, £&c., der Liwen, LOtten, Eeslen (1839); F . Kruse, Urgeschichte See also:

• DES

des esthnischen Volksstammes (1846); Wiedemann, Grammatik der esthnischen Sprache (1875), and Aus dem innern and dussern Leben der Esthen (1876); Koppen, Die Bewohner Esthlands (1847); F . See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller, Beitrage zur Orographie and Hydrographie von Esthland (1869–1871); Bunge, Das Herzogthum Esthland unter den Konigen von Danmark (1877); and See also:

• SERAPHIM

Seraphim, Geschichte Liv-, Est-, and Kurlands (2nd ed., 1897) and various papers in the Finnisch-Ugrische Forschungen . (P . A . K.; J . T .

BE.; C .