ETRUSCAN  ANTIQUITIES The large See also:

• RECENT

recent discoveries of Etruscan See also:

• OBJECTS

objects have not materially altered the conclusions arrived at a See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation ago . It is not so much our appreciation of the broad lines of the See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

manners and arts of the Etruscans that has altered as our understanding of the geographic and social causes which made them what they were . One See also:

• GREAT

great difficulty in the study of the remains is that a very large portion of them have been found by unofficial excavators who have been naturally unwilling to tell whence they came, and that certain other excavations, such as those carried out by See also:

• COMM

Comm . Barnabei for the See also:

• VILLA

Villa Giulia museum, have been carried out under conditions which help but little towards increasing our knowledge ? The increase has, however, been steady, even if not all one could wish . See also:

• ETHNOLOGY

Ethnology.—The origin of the Etruscans will most likely never be absolutely fixed,' but their own tradition (See also:

• TACITUS, CORNELIUS (c. 55-120)
• TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS

Tacitus, See also:

• ANN

Ann. iv . 55) that they came out of See also:

• LYDIA

Lydia seems not impossible . See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus (i . 94) and See also:

• STRABO (born c. 63 n.c.)

Strabo (v . 220) tell of Lydians landing at the mouth of the Po and See also:

• CROSSING

crossing the See also:

• APENNINES (Gr. 'A1T- vvLvos, Lat. Appenninus—in both cases used in the singular)

Apennines into See also:

• ETRURIA

Etruria . Thus it seems certain that though the earliest immigrants, known to the later Etruscans as the Rasena, may have come down from the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north, still they were joined by a See also:

• MIGRATION

migration from the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east before they had See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed a See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization of their own, and it is this See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double See also:

• RACE

race that became the Etruscans as we know them in tradition and by their See also:

• WORKS

works . To give a date to the migration of the Rasena from the north, for which the only See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence is the fact that the Etruscan See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language is found in various parts of north See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy,' is impossible, but we can perhaps give an approximate one to the coming of the Lydians or Tyrrhenians (Thuc. iv .

109; See also:

• HEROD
• HEROD (surnamed THE GREAT)

Herod. i . 57) . We know that there was a great See also:

• WAVE

wave of migration from See also:

• GREECE

Greece to Italy about woo B.C., and as the earliest imported See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek objects found in the tombs cannot be dated many generations later than this, this See also:

• YEAR

year may be considered as giving us roughly the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time when the real Etruscan civilization began . It has been, and still is, a See also:

• COMMON

common See also:

• MISTAKE (i.e. take amiss)

mistake to speak of the Etruscans as though they were closely confined to that See also:

• PART

part of Italy called Etruria on the maps, but it is quite certain that in the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early stages of their development they were differentiated from the Umbrians on the north-east and the Latins on the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south in ways due rather to the locality than to race or essential See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character.4 To See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive peoples open seas or deserts are a greater hindrance to intercourse than mountains or See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers, and even these did not cut off Etruria from the neighbouring regions of Italy . The Apennines that separated her from See also:

• UMBRIA
• UMBRIA ('Opj3pucrl)

Umbria were not difficult to See also:

• CROSS

cross, and the See also:

• TIBER (anc. Tiberis; Ital. Tevere)

Tiber which formed the boundary 1 For Barnabei's excavations see Fausto See also:

• BENEDETTI, VINCENT, COUNT (1817--1900)

Benedetti, Gli Scavi di Narce ed it Museo di Villa Giulia (1900), 2 For a further discussion see ad fin., See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section Language . 3 See See also:

• PAULI, REINHOLD (1823-1882)

Pauli, Altitalische Forschungen, vol. i.; also See also:

• SECT

sect . Language (below) . 4 Cf. the contents of the See also:

• GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL (1846— )

graves found by See also:

• BONI (Bone)

Boni in the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• FORUM (Lat. from foris, " out of doors ")

Forum (Notizie degli Scavi, 1902, 1903, 1905) with the objects represented in the plates of Montelius, La Civilisation primitive en Italie, pt. i . For the cemeteries at Novilara cf . Brizio, Monumenti antichi, vol. v . See also:

• HISTORY

HISTORY] between her and See also:

• LATIUM

Latium has been a far greater See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element of separation in the minds of See also:

• MODERN

modern authors than it ever was in reality . Narrow, not particularly See also:

• SWIFT
• SWIFT, JONATHAN (1667—1745)

swift, often shallow, such a stream can never have caused more than a moment's delay to the See also:

• HARDY, ALEXANDRE (1569?-1631)
• HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS (1804-1878)
• HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN
• HARDY, THOMAS (1840- )

hardy Etruscans .

When See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome was founded, the See also:

• RIVER

river of course could be used like a See also:

• MOAT

moat See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round a See also:

• CASTLE
• CASTLE (Lat. castellum, a fort, diminutive of castra, a camp; Fr. chateau and chdtel)

castle as a means of See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence, but that is very different from its being a permanent See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

bar to the spread of a given culture . The fact that the alphabets used in other parts of Italy besides Etruria are derived from the Etruscan or from similar Grecian See also:

• SOURCES

sources, that Rome was ruled by Etruscan See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings, that the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple of See also:

• JUPITER

Jupiter on the Capitoline was decorated by Etruscan artists (See also:

• LIVY [Thus L1v1us] (59 B.C.—A.D: 17)

Livy x . 23; See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny, H.N. See also:

• XXXV

xxxv . 1S7), that the decorations of the temple found by Signor Mazzoleni near See also:

• CONCA, SEBASTIANO (1679-1764)

Conca (Notizie degli scavi, 1896) are of the same See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind as others found in Etruria, show that the influences which See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew to their clearest development in the region See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west of the Tiber had a marked effect over a broader region than is usually admitted . This too was the belief of the Greek historians, many of whom considered Rome as a Tyrrhenian See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city.l Cities and Organization.—The See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief cities of Etruria proper were See also:

• VEII

Veii, See also:

• TARQUINII (mod. Corneto Tarquinia, q.v.)

Tarquinii, See also:

• FALERII [mod. Civitd Castellana (q.v.)]

Falerii, See also:

• CAERE (mod. Cerveteri, i.e. Caere vetus, see below)

Caere, See also:

• VOLCI

Volci, See also:

• VOLSINII

Volsinii, See also:

• CLUSIUM (mod. Chiusi, q.v.)

Clusium, See also:

• ARRETIUM (mod. Arezzo)

Arretium, See also:

• CORTONA

Cortona, Perusia, Volaterrae (See also:

• VOLTERRA (anc. Volaterrae)

Volterra), See also:

• RUSELLAE

Rusellae, See also:

• POPULONIUM (Etruscan Pupluna)

Populonium and See also:

• FAESULAE (mod.. Fiesole, q.v.)

Faesulae . That the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country was thickly settled is made See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain by the ruins that have been found . It was governed by kings who were elected for See also:

• LIFE

life, but whose See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power depended largely on the leaders (lucumones) of the See also:

• SEPARATE

separate states or regions and on the See also:

• ARISTOCRACY (Gr. apuvror, best; «paria, government)

aristocracy (Censorinus, De See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die natali, iv . 13) . Later the See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office of See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king was abolished and re-placed by See also:

• ANNUAL

annual magistrates (Livy v . 1) . Below the aristocracy came the See also:

• FREE

free See also:

• PEOPLE

people, who were divided into curiae (Serv. ad Aen . X .

202), and then the slaves . There can be little doubt that the early organization of the people at Rome was typical of Etruria (See also:

• NIEBUHR, BARTHOLD GEORG (1776–1831)
• NIEBUHR, KARSTEN (1733-1815)

Niebuhr, Rom . Gesch . 2nd ed. i . 389) . A See also:

• LEAGUE

league of twelve cities is mentioned by the ancients (Livy iv . 23), whose delegates met at the temple of Voltumna, but we are not told which cities formed the league, and there can be little doubt that the See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list changed from time to time . A glance at the See also:

• MAP
• MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9)

map makes clear some of the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general relations of these cities to one another and to the See also:

• OUTER

outer See also:

• WORLD

world . They are well spread all over the country, and by no means only along the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast . None of the important ones is among the mountains . This means that the earliest inhabitants of the country were not roving traders like the Mycenaean Greeks, and that the cities See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew their See also:

• WEALTH

wealth and strength from agricultural pursuits, for which the country was well suited, as the three rivers, Arnus, Umbro and Tiber, with their feeders (not to mention several lesser streams), channel it in all directions . We get a hint as to the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government of the cities from the fact that many of the Roman forms and apanages of office were derived from the Etruscans (See also:

• DION

Dion .

See also:

• HAL

Hal. iii . 61); for instance, the diadem worn by those honoured with a See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph, the See also:

• IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur)
• IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842)

ivory See also:

• SCEPTRE

sceptre and the embroidered toga (Tertull . De See also:

• COR

Cor . 13) , and so too the See also:

• GOLDEN

golden bulla and the praetexta (See also:

• FESTUS (? RuFUS or RUFIUS)
• FESTUS, SEXTUS POMPEIUS

Festus, s.v . " Sardi ") . Such things give us an See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea as to the aristocratic basis of the government . Of the actual See also:

• LAWS

laws we know something also . See also:

• CICERO

Cicero (Div. ii . 23) tells the See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story of the miraculous uncovering by a ploughboy of a See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

child who had the See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom of a See also:

• SAGE, RUSSELL (1816-1906)

sage, and how the child's words were written down by the amazed folk, and became their archives and the source of their See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law . Coming down to historic times we find that their See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code, known as the libri disciplinae Etruscae, consisted of various parts (Festus, s.v . " Ritualis ") . There were the libri haruspicini (Cic .

Div. i . 33, 72), which dealt with the See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation of the will of the gods by means of See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice; the libri fulgurales, which explained the messages of the gods in the See also:

• THUNDER

thunder and See also:

• LIGHTNING

lightning; and finally the libri rituales, which held the rules for the conduct of daily life —how to found cities, where to See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place the See also:

• GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806)

gates, how to take the See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census, and the general ordering of the people both in See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace and See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war . Natural Resources and See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

Commerce.—Such was the country 1 rnv re 'Nam, abri)v ovyypackEwv Tvppgvi*a abXty eiva4 balaat3ov, Dion Hal. i . 29; but see sect . Language for meaning of Tvpp,via.855 and such the laws . The people were a See also:

• WARRIOR

warrior stock with little commercial skill . Much of their wealth was due to See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade, but they were not the restless, conquering See also:

• BLOOD

blood that goes in See also:

• SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH

search of new markets . They waited for the buyers to come to them . That their wealth and consequent power were gathered contemporaneously with that of Greece is shown by various facts . One of these is that See also:

• DIONYSIUS
• DIONYSIUS (c. 432–367 B.C.)

Dionysius of See also:

• PHOCAEA (mod. Fukia or Fokha)

Phocaea settled in See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily after the Ionian revolt (in which his native city took part) had been quelled by See also:

• DARIUS (Pers. Darayavaush; Old Test. Daryavesh)

Darius, and thence harried the Etruscans (Herod. vi . 17) . Their power is also shown by the fact that they made an See also:

• ALLIANCE

alliance with the Carthaginians, with the result that they obtained See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of See also:

• CORSICA (Fr. Corse)

Corsica (Herod. i .

166), and this See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union continued for many generations .2 That this treaty was no exceptional one is shown by See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle (Pol. iii . 96, Op. ii . 261), who says that there were numerous See also:

• TREATISES

treatises, concerning their alliances and mutual rights, between the two peoples . That the Greeks held the Etruscans iii considerable dread is suggested by the fact that See also:

• HESIOD

Hesiod (Theog . 1011 foll.) names one of their leaders Agrios, " the See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

Wild See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

Man," and by the fear they had of the straits of See also:

• MESSINA

Messina, where they imagined Scylla and Charybdis, which, unless the whirlpools were of very different character then than now, were as likely to be the pirate bands of Carthaginians and Etruscans who guarded the channel . And this explanation is strengthened by See also:

• EURIPIDES (48o–4o6 B.C.)

Euripides (Med . 1342, 1359), whose See also:

• MEDEA (Gr. Mi/Seta)

Medea compares herself to " Scylla, who dwells on the Tyrrhenian See also:

• SHORE

shore." The wealth that was the source of this power of the Etruscans must in the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main have been See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture and forestry . " The See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich See also:

• LAND

land with its many streams could scarcely be surpassed for the raising of crops and See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle, and the hills were heavily timbered . That it was such material as this, which leaves no trace with the passing of time, that they sold cannot be doubted, for there is plenty of evidence that their country was visited by See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign traders of many lands, and that -they bought largely of them, especially of metals . Metals also suggest that another source of their wealth was that of the middleman . Their towns were the centres of See also:

• EXCHANGE

exchange, where the north and west met the south and east . They had no mines of See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold or See also:

• TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

tin, but the See also:

• CARRIERS

carriers of tin, See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron or amber3 from the north met in the markets of Etruria the Phoenician and Greek merchants bringing gold and ivory and the other luxuries of the East .

The quantities of gold, See also:

• SILVER

silver and See also:

• BRONZE

bronze found in Etruscan tombs prove this clearly . Of these metals the only one found in unworked See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form, in what are practically pigs, is bronze . This in the form of aes See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude has frequently been found in considerable quantities, and the larger and better formed bits of metals known as aes signatum are not rare . Both forms are usually spoken of as the earliest forms of See also:

• MONEY

money, but as the aes rude generally bears no marks of valuation or of any See also:

• MINT
• MINT (Lat. moneta; Mid. Eng. mynt)

mint, and as the aes signatum is far too large and heavy for See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary circulation, it is probable that these shapes of See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal are not to be considered strictly or alone as coins, but as forms given to the alloy of tin and See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper made and sold by the Etruscans to the foreigners for purposes of manufacture . This of course does not exclude their use as money . Where the copper for this bronze came from is not certain, but probably a great part was from the mines at Volaterrae . Still another See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof that what the Etruscans sold was the product of their See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields or crude metals imported from the north, is the fact that though in the museum at See also:

• CARTHAGE
• CARTHAGE (Phoenician Kart-hadshat, " New City "; Gr. Kapxn5c; v, Lat. Carthago or Carchedon)
• CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF

Carthage and elsewhere there are a few vases and other objects which probably come from Etruria, still such objects are extremely uncommon . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, articles obviously imported from the East are by no means uncommon in Etruria . Such are the See also:

• OSTRICH

ostrich shells from Volci,4 the Phoenician cups from 2 For the See also:

• WARS

wars of the Greeks against the Carthaginians and the Etruscans see BusoIt, Griechische Geschichte, ii . 218 ff . 3 Pliny (H.N. See also:

• XXXVII

xxxvii . 11) .

He says that See also:

• AMBER

amber was brought by the Germans down the valley of the Po . Thence the trade-route crossed the Apennines to See also:

• PISA
• PISA, COUNCIL OF (1409)

Pisa (Scylax in Geographi minores, ed . See also:

• DIDOT

Didot, i. p . 25) . In the See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of problems suggested by amber it 's too often forgotten that a very beautiful dark amber is found in Sicily . 4 Montelius, Civilization primitive en Italie, ii. pl . 265; cf . See also:

• PETRIE, GEORGE (179o-1866)
• PETRIE, WILLIAM MATTHEW FLINDERS (1853– )

Petrie, Naukratis, i. pl . 20, fig . 15, and See also:

• PERROT, SIR JOHN (c. 1S27–1592)

Perrot-Chipiez, Histoire de fart, iii . See also:

• PALESTRINA, GIOVANNI PIERLUIGI DA (1526-1594)

Palestrina,l the See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian glazed vases and scarabs found on more than one site.2 All this goes to show that the Etruscans lacked in their earlier days skilful workers in the arts and crafts . Habits and Customs.—The lack of See also:

• LITERARY

literary remains of the Etruscans does not See also:

• CRAMP
• CRAMP, CHARLES HENRY (1828— )

cramp our knowledge of their habits as much as might be supposed, owing to the numerous paintings that are See also:

• LEFT

left .

These paintings are on the walls of the tombs at Veii, Corneto, See also:

• CHIUSI (anc. Clusium)

Chiusi (Clusium), and elsewhere,3 and give a varied picture of the See also:

• DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

dress, utensils and habits of the people . The evidence of many See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient authors cannot be questioned that as a race the Etruscans in historic times were much given to luxurious living . So much so in fact that See also:

• VIRGIL (PUBLIUS VERGILIUS MARC)
• VIRGIL, POLYDORE (c. 1470-1555)

Virgil (Georg. ii . 193) speaks of the pinguis Tyrrhenus (a See also:

• TRUMPETER

trumpeter at the See also:

• ALTAR (Lat. altare, from alias, high; some ancient etymological guesses are recorded by St Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae xv. 4)

altar) and See also:

• CATULLUS, GAIUS VALERIUS (?84-J4 B.C.)

Catullus (xxxix . II) of the obesus Etruscus . Diodorus (v . 40) gives a succinct See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account in which he says that " their country was sq fertile they derived therefrom not only sufficient for their needs but enough to See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply them with luxuries . Twice a See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day they partook of elaborate repasts at which the tables were decked with embroidered cloths and vessels of gold and silver . The servants were numerous and noticeable for the richness of their attire . The houses, too, were large and commodious . In fact, giving themselves up to sensuous enjoyments they had naturally lost the glorious reputation their ancestors had won in war." This last remark shows that Diodorus recognized the important difference between the early Etruscans who built up the country and the later ones who merely enjoyed it . Naturally courtesans flourished in such a community .

See also:

• TIMAEUS (c. 345—c. 250 B.e.)

Timaeus and See also:

• THEOPOMPUS (b. c. 380)

Theopompus tell hdw the See also:

• WOMEN

women lived and See also:

• ATE

ate and even exercised with the men (Athen. xii . 14; cf. iv . 38), habits which of course gave the Roman satirists many openings for attack (Plaut . See also:

• CIST (Gr. ,dorn, Lat. cista, a box; cf. Ger. Kiste, Welsh kistvaen, stone-coffin, and also the other Eng. form " chest ")

Cist. ii . 3 . 563; cf . Herod. i . 98; Strabo xi . 14) . In dress they differed but little from the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans, both wearing the toga and the See also:

• TUNIC (0. Eng. tunice, tunical, taken, before the Norman con-quest, directly from Lat. tunica, of which the origin is unknown)

tunic . Hats too, often of pointed form, were common (Serv. ad Aen. ii . 683), as the paintings show, but it was their shoes for which they were particularly famous .

One author (See also:

• LYDUS (" THE LYDIAN "), JOANNES LAURENTIUS

Lydus, de Magistr. i . 17 . 36) suggests that See also:

• ROMULUS

Romulus borrowed from Etruria the type of See also:

• SHOE (a word appearing in the Teutonic languages in various forms, as Ger. Schuh, Swed. and Dan. sko, sometimes supposed to come from an unknown root ska or sku, cover)

shoe he gave the senators, and this may well be true, though the form mentioned, the kampagus, is of See also:

• LATE

late origin . At any See also:

• RATE

rate vavba,Xea T vpprtvcxci are frequently mentioned . From the pictures and remains we know that they had wooden soles strengthened with bronze, and that the uppers were of See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather and See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound with thongs . Their occupations of trade and agriculture have been already mentioned . For their leisure See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours they had athletic See also:

• GAMES, CLASSICAL

games including gladiatorial shows (Athen. iv . 153; cf . Livy ix . 40 . 7; Strabo v . 250), See also:

• HUNTING (the verbal substantive from " hunt "; O. Eng. huntian, hunta; apparently connected with O. Eng. hentan, Gothic hinpan, to capture, O.H.G. hunda,booty)

hunting, See also:

• MUSIC

music and dancing .

All these are shown in the See also:

• TOMB (Gr. Tuµ/3a, Tuµ(3os, probably allied to Lat. tumulus, literally a swelling, tumere, to swell)

tomb pictures, and all, with the exception of the hunting, developed first as a part of religious service, and their importance is shown by the strictness of the rules that governed them (Cicero, De harusp. See also:

• RESP

resp. ii . 23) . Did a dancer lose step, or an attendant lift his hand from the See also:

• CHARIOT (derived from an O. Fr. word, formed from char, a car)

chariot, the games lost their value as a religious service . An idea of the splendour of the triumphs that accompanied victorious generals and of the parades at the games is given by See also:

• APPIAN (Gr. 'Aairtavbs)

Appian (De reb . Punk. viii . 66) and Dionysius (vii . 92) . The music that was an See also:

• ACCOMPANIMENT (i.e. that which " accompanies ")

accompaniment of all their occupations, even of hunting (See also:

• AELIAN (AELIANUS TACTICUS)
• AELIAN (CLAUDIUS AELIANUS)

Aelian, De natur. anim. xii . 46), was mainly produced by the single or double See also:

• FLUTE

flute, the mastery of which by the Etruscans was known to all the world . They also had small harps and trumpets . For the regularization of all these duties and pleasures there was a See also:

• CALENDAR

calendar and time-See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division for the day . It is noteworthy that the beginning of the day was for them the moment when the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun was at the See also:

• ZENITH (from the Arabic)

zenith (Serv. ad Aen. v .

738) . In this they differed from the Greeks, who began their day with the sunset, and the Romans, who reckoned theirs from midnight . The See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks were of eight days, the first being See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market day and the day when the people could See also:

• APPEAL

appeal to the king, and the months were lunar . Monumenti dell' Inst . See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

Arch . Rom. x. pl . 31; Museo Etrusco Vatican, i. p1 . 63-69; cf . Annali dell'Inst . Arch., 1896, p . 199 if . 2 See also:

• VASE
• VASE (through Fr. from Lat. vas, a vessel, pl. vasa, of which the singular vasum is rarely found; the ultimate root is probably was-, to cover, seen in Lat: vestis, clothing, Eng. " vest," Gr. to-th c, and also in " wear," of garments)

Vase with hieroglyphs found at See also:

• SANTA

Santa Marinella, Boltettino deli' Inst .

Arch., 1841, p. r I I ; Mon. antichi, viii. p . 88 . 3 G . See also:

• DENNIS, JOHN (1657—1734)

Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria.The years were kept numbered by the annual See also:

• DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages)

driving of a See also:

• NAIL (O. Eng. naegal, cf. Dutch, Ger., Swed. nagel; the word is also related to Lat. unguis, Gr. ovu, Sans. nakhas)

nail into the walls of the temple of Nortia at Volsinii (Livy vii . 3 . 7), a See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom later adopted by the Romans, who used the Capitoline temple for the same purpose . In Rome this rite was performed on the Ides of See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September, and it is likely that it took place in Etruria on the same date, the natural end of the year among an agricultural folk . A still longer measure of time was the saeculum, which was supposed to be the length of the longest life of all those See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born in the year in which the preceding See also:

• OLDEST

oldest inhabitant died (Censorinus, De die natali, 17 . 5; cf . See also:

• ZOSIMUS

Zosimus According to later writers' the Etruscan race was to last ten saecula, and the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus in his See also:

• MEMOIRS

memoirs (Serv. ad . Bucol. ix . 47) says that the See also:

• COMET (Gr. Koµieiis, long-haired)

comet of the year 44 B.C. was said by the priests to betoken the beginning of the tenth saeculum .

The earliest saecula had been, according to See also:

• VARRO, MARCUS TERENTIUS (116—27 B.C.)
• VARRO, PUBLIUS TERENTIUS

Varro, roo years See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long . The later ones varied in length from 105 to 123 years . The round number roo is obviously an ex See also:

• POST

post facto approximation, and the accuracy of the others is probably more apparent than real, but if we reckon back some 900 years from the date given by Augustus we arrive at just about the time when the archaeological evidence leads us to believe that the Etruscans in Italy were beginning to recognize their individuality . See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

Religion.—To retrace the religious development of the Etruscans from its mystic beginnings is beyond our power, and it is unlikely that any future discoveries will help us much . We are, however, able to draw a clear, if not a detailed, picture of the See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship paid to the various divinities, partly from the See also:

• DIRECT

direct See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information we have concerning them and partly from the analogies which may safely be drawn between them and the Romans . The frequency of sacrifice among them and their belief in the See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short duration of the race 5 show clearly their belief in a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good and a See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad principle, and the latter seems to have been pre-dominant in their minds . Storms, earthquakes, the See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth of deformities, all gave evidence of evil See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers, which could be appeased sometimes only by human sacrifice . We See also:

• MISS

miss here the Greek joy in human life and the beauties of See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth . The gods (aesar) were divided into two main See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups, the Dii Consentes and a vaguer set of powers, the Dii Involuti (See also:

• SENECA

Seneca, Quaest . Nat. ii . 41), to whom even Jupiter bowed . They all dwelt in various parts of the heavens (Martianus See also:

• CAPELLA, MARTIANUS MINNEUS FELIX

Capella, De nupt .

Phil. i . 41 ff.) . Of the Dii Consentes the most important See also:

• GROUP

group consisted of Jupiter (Tinia), See also:

• JUNO

Juno (Uni) and See also:

• MINERVA

Minerva (Menrva) . In some towns, such as Veii and Falerii, Juno was the chief deity, and at Perusia she was worshipped like the Greek See also:

• APHRODITE

Aphrodite in See also:

• CONJUNCTION (from Lat. conjungere, to join together)

conjunction with See also:

• VULCAN (Volcanos)

Vulcan (the Greek See also:

• HEPHAESTUS

Hephaestus) . This shows that though in exterior form the Etruscan gods were influenced by the Greeks, still their character and powers betoken different beliefs . An interesting point to See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note about Minerva (Menrva) is that she was the goddess of the music of flutes and horns . The myth of See also:

• ATHENA (the Attic form of the Homeric Athene, also called Athenaia, Pallas Athene, Pallas)

Athena and See also:

• MARSYAS

Marsyas probably originated in See also:

• ASIA

Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor, and a Pelasgian Tyrrhenian founded in See also:

• ARGOS

Argos the temple of Athena Salpinx (Pans. ii . 21 . 3) . The evident connexion between Asia Minor and Etruria in these facts cannot be over-looked . Besides these deities there were See also:

• VENUS

Venus (Turan), Bacchus (Fufluns), See also:

• MERCURY
• MERCURY (MERCU1uus)
• MERCURY (symbol Hg, atomic weight = 2oo)

Mercury (Turms), Vulcan (Sethlans) . Of these, Sethlans is in a way the most important, for he shows a connexion in prehistoric times between Etruria and the East.° Other deities of Greek origin there were—See also:

• ARES

Ares, See also:

• APOLLO (Gr. 'A2r6XXwv,'Airkkhwv)

Apollo, Heracles, the Dioscuri; in fact, as the centuries passed, the Greek divinities were adopted almost without exception .

Besides these there were also many gods of Latin or See also:

• SABINE, SIR EDWARD (1788-1883)

Sabine origin, of whom little is known but their names; these may often be See also:

• LOCAL

local appellations for the same See also:

• GOD

god . Among these were Voltumna at Volsinii and See also:

• VERTUMNUS (or VORTUMNUS, " turning," "changing ")

Vertumnus at Rome, See also:

• JANUS

Janus, Nortia, goddess of See also:

• FORTUNA (FORTUNE)

Fortuna, Feronia, whose temple was at a See also:

• TOWN

town of the same name at the See also:

• FOOT

foot of See also:

• SORACTE

Soracte,7 Mantus, See also:

• PALES

Pales, Vejovis, Eileithyia and See also:

• CERES

Ceres . ' Varro ap . Serv. ad Aen. viii . 526; see Helbig, See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

Bull. dell' Inst . Arch . (1876), 227 . Censorinus, De Die Nat . 17 . ° See See also:

• PRELLER, FRIEDRICH (1804–1878)
• PRELLER, LUDWIG (1809–1861)

Preller, Rom . Myth. s.v . Volcanus." Opposed to this see Wissowa, Religion u .

Kultus der Romer, who seems to misinterpret the evidence . 7 Strabo v . 2 . 39; cf . Livy i . 30; Dion . Hal. iii . 32 . Such were the leading gods; in addition there was the world of See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits whom we know in Rome as the See also:

• MANES

Manes, See also:

• LARES (older form Lases)

Lares and See also:

• PENATES (from Lat. palms, eatables, food)

Penates . The latter were of four classes, pertaining to Jove, See also:

• NEPTUNE
• NEPTUNE (Lat. NEPTUNUS)

Neptune, the gods of the See also:

• LOWER

lower world, and to men.' The Lares too were of various sorts (familiares, compitales, viales), and with them the souls of the dead, after the performance of due expiatory See also:

• RITES

rites, took their place as dii animales (Serv. ad Aen. iii . 168 and 302) . The Manes are the vaguest group of all and were confined almost wholly to the lower world (Festus, s.v .

" Mundus " ; See also:

• APULEIUS, LUCIUS

Apuleius, De deo Socratis) . Over all these ruled Mantus and See also:

• MANIA

Mania, the counterparts of See also:

• PLUTO (IlXoirrwv)

Pluto and Persephone in Greece . As a result of this See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• HIERARCHY (Gr. iepos, holy, and apxe.v, to rule)

hierarchy of divine powers the priesthood of Etruria was large, powerful, and of such fame that Etruscan See also:

• HARUSPICES, or ARUSPICES (perhaps " entrail observers," cf. Skt. Kira, Gr. xopSit)

haruspices were sent for from distant places to interpret the sacrifices and the oracles (Livy v. i . 6, See also:

• XXVII

xxvii . 37 . 6) . See also:

• ART

Art.—The evidence drawn from tradition and custom which we have so far considered in relation to the origin and beliefs of the Etruscans has taken us into the prehistoric times much earlier than those when the handicrafts developed into true See also:

• FINE

fine arts . The contents of the earliest graves 2 show but few traces of any feeling for art either in See also:

• ARCHITECTURE (Lat. architectura, from the Gr. ap)(LTEKrwv, a master-builder)

architecture or in the lesser forms of See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household and See also:

• PERSONAL

personal decoration . Gradually, however, as one comes down towards the more fixed historic periods, certain objects, obviously imported from the eastern Mediterranean, occur, and these are the first signs of an See also:

• INTEREST

interest in the beauty or curiosity of things, an interest that local workmen could not yet satisfy, but which stirred them to endeavour . It was probably during the 9th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century that this began, not long after the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period when foreign trade began to flourish . The history of Etruscan art has usually been wrongly estimated owing to the widespread delusion that objects found in Etruria were in the true sense products of native artists and indicative of native-grown culture . It is only recently, and not even yet completely, that the See also:

• TERM

term " Etruscan" has been given up as the name for the terra-See also:

• COTTA
• COTTA, BERNHARD VON (1808—1879)
• COTTA, GAIUS AURELIUS (c. 124—73 B.c.)

cotta vases (which were found in the 19th century by the earlier archaeologists of the modern scientific school in great quantities in the Etruscan tombs); these are now known to have been made by Greek potters .

There are few books on the subject of Etruscan art . The best known is Jules Martha's L' Art etrusque (2nd ed., 1889), a See also:

• BOOK

book which, though full of accurate data, shows See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute lack of discrimination between those works that are of Etruscan fabric and those that were brought from other lands, particularly Greece and the Greek colonies of Magna Graecia and Sicily . These latter are too generally forgotten in the study both of Greek and of Etruscan art, and all works which show the Greek spirit are vaguely supposed to have been produced on the Greek mainland . As much of the following must be to some extent controversial in character, a See also:

• CONCRETE
• CONCRETE (Lat. concretes, participle of concrescere, to grow together)

concrete See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration may serve to prevent misconception as to this important distinction . The beautiful See also:

• THRONE

throne in the Ludovisi collection representing the birth of Aphrodite is commonly spoken of as though made by some sculptor in Greece . It seems at least as likely that it comes from Sicily . Not only is the character of the modelling similar to what we find on Sicilian sculptures and coins, and not quite so See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp as on most works from Greece, but there is a lyrical feeling for nature in the pose of the figures and in the pebbled See also:

• SOIL

soil on which the main group stands, which seems to See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer to the Sicilian feeling as we know it in See also:

• POETRY

poetry rather than to the Greek . The houses of the earliest times were, to See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge by the See also:

• BURIAL

burial urns known from their shape as hut-urns, small single-See also:

• ROOM

room constructions of rectangular See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan similar to certain Arc6ltec- types of the capanne used by the shepherds to-day . tare . Probably the walls were wattled and the See also:

• ROOFS

roofs were certainly thatched, for the urns show plainly the long beams fastened together at the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top and See also:

• HANGING

hanging from the See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge down each See also:

• SIDE