See also:

• EURIPIDES (48o–4o6 B.C.)

EURIPIDES (48o–4o6 B.C.)  , the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek dramatic poet, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born in 48o B.C., on the very See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, according to the See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend, of the Greek victory at See also:

• SALAMIS

Salamis, where his Athenian parents had taken See also:

• REFUGE

refuge; and a whimsical See also:

• FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of " fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fantasie, modern fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. cbavraoia, Oavrai'ecv, Oat Pais, to show)

fancy has even suggested that his name—son of Euripus—was meant to commemorate the first check of the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian See also:

• FLEET

fleet at Artemisium . His See also:

• FATHER

father Mnesarchus was at least able to give him a liberal See also:

• EDUCATION

education; it was a favourite taunt with the comic poets that his See also:

• MOTHER

mother Clito had been a See also:

• HERB (Lat. herba, grass, food for cattle, generally taken to represent the Old Lat. forbea, Gr. 4op(3i1, pasture, <0p/3Ew, to feed, Sans. bharb, to eat)

herb-seller—a See also:

• QUAINT (O. Fr. cointe, from Lat. cognitus, known, probably influenced by association with Lat. corn plus, neat)

quaint instance of the See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone which public See also:

• SATIRE (Lat. satira, satura; see below)

satire could then adopt with plausible effect . At first he was intended, we are told, for the profession of an See also:

• ATHLETE (Gr. aOX177'7r; Lat. athleta)

athlete, a calling of which he has recorded his See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion with something like the courage of See also:

• XENOPHANES

Xenophanes . He seems also to have essayed See also:

• PAINTING

painting; but at five-and-twenty he brought out his first See also:

• PLAY

play, the Peliades, and thenceforth he was a tragic poet . At See also:

• THIRTY

thirty-nine he gained the first See also:

• PRIZE, or PRIZE OF WAR (Fr. prise, from prendre, to take)

prize, and in his career of about fifty years he gained it only five times in all . This fact is perfectly consistent with his unquestionably great and growing popularity in his own day . Throughout See also:

• LIFE

life he had to compete with See also:

• SOPHOCLES (495-406 B.c.)

Sophocles, and with other poets who represented tragedy of the type consecrated by tradition . The hostile See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism of See also:

• ARISTOPHANES
• ARISTOPHANES (c. 448–385 B.e.1)

Aristophanes was witty; and, moreover, it was true, granting the premise from which Aristophanes starts, that the tragedy of See also:

• AESCHYLUS (525–456 B.c.)

Aeschylus and Sophocles is the only right See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model . Its unfairness, often extreme, consists in ignoring the changing conditions of public feeling and See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste, and the possibilities, changed accordingly, of an See also:

• ART

art which could exist only by continuing to please large audiences . It has usually been supposed that the unsparing derision of the comic poets contributed not a little to make the life of See also:

• EURIPIDES (48o–4o6 B.C.)

Euripides at See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens uncomfortable; and there is certainly one passage in a fragment of the Melanippe (See also:

• NAUCK, JOHANN AUGUST (1822-1892)

Nauck, Frag., 495), which would apply well enough to his persecutors: L.r6p@r & 7roXAOl roU yEXwro OUVEKR See also:

• ITO, HIROBUMI, PRINCE (1841-1909)

Ito Kmiec xapLras KEpebaovs• E'yt Si 7rws /2LQW 'ycXoLou1, OLTLLES oo4 ip rim . AxciXty' g'ouet aroµara . (To raise vain See also:

• LAUGHTER

laughter, many exercise The arts of satire; but my spirit loathes These mockers whose unbridled mockery Invades See also:

• GRAVE

grave themes.) The infidelity of two wives in See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession is alleged to explain the poet's tone in reference to the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of their See also:

• SEX (Lat. sexes; possibly connected with secure, to cut)

sex, and to See also:

• COMPLETE

complete the picture of an uneasy private life .

He appears to have been repelled by the Athenian See also:

• DEMOCRACY (Gr. 3np.oKparia, from S)µos, the people, i.e. the commons, and Kparos, rule)

democracy, as it tended to become less the See also:

• RULE

rule of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people than of the See also:

• MOB

mob . Thoroughly the son of his day in intellectual matters, he shrank from the coarser aspects of its See also:

• POLITICAL

political and social life . His best word Is for the small See also:

• FARMER, RICHARD (1735–1787)

farmer (airroupyos), who does not often come to See also:

• TOWN

town, or See also:

• SOIL

soil his rustic honesty by contact with the See also:

• CROWD, CROUTH, CROWTH

crowd of the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market-See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place . About 409 B.C . Euripides See also:

• LEFT

left Athens, and after a See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence in the Thessalian See also:

• MAGNESIA

Magnesia repaired, on the invitation of See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King See also:

• ARCHELAUS

Archelaus, to the Macedonian See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court, where Greeks of distinction were always welcome . In his Archelaus Euripides celebrated that legendary son of Temenus, and See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the Temenid See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

dynasty, who had founded Aegae; and in one of the meagre fragments he evidently alludes to the beneficent See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy of his royal See also:

• HOST

host in opening up the See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild See also:

• LAND

land of the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North . It was at See also:

• PELLA

Pella, too, that Euripides composed or completed, and perhaps produced, the Bacchae . Jealous courtiers, we are told, contrived to have him attacked and killed by See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage See also:

• DOGS, ISLE OF

dogs . It is See also:

• ODD (in middle English odde, from old Norwegian oddi, an angle of a triangle; the old Norwegian oddamann is used of the third man who gives a casting vote in a dispute)

odd that the See also:

• FATE

fate of See also:

• ACTAEON

Actaeon should be ascribed, .by legend, to two distinguished Greek writers, Euripides and See also:

• LUCIAN (d. 312)
• LUCIAN [Aowaavos] (c. A.D. 120-180)

Lucian; though in the former See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case at least the fate has not such appropriateness as the See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine biographer discovers in the latter, on the ground that its victim " had waxed rabid against the truth." The See also:

• DEATH

death of Euripides, whatever its manner, occurred in 406 B.C., when he was seventy-four . Sophocles followed him in a few months, but not before he had been able to See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour the memory of his younger See also:

• RIVAL

rival by causing his actors to appear with less than the full See also:

• COSTUME
• COSTUME (through the Fr. costume, from Ital. costume, Late Lat. costuma, a contracted form of Lat. consuetudinem, ace. of consuetudo, custom, habit, manner, &c.)

costume of the Dionysiac festival . Soon afterwards, in the Frogs, Aristophanes pronounced the See also:

• EPITAPH (Gr. it oa¢cos, sc. X/yos, from bri, upon, and ra¢os, a tomb)

epitaph of See also:

• ATTIC (i.e. "in the Attic style ")

Attic See also:

• COMEDY

comedy on Attic tragedy . The See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical See also:

• INTEREST

interest of such a life as that of Euripides consists in the very fact that its See also:

• EXTERNAL

external See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record is so scanty —that, unlike Aeschylus or Sophocles, he had no place in the public See also:

• ACTION

action of his See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, but dwelt apart as a student and a thinker .

He has made his See also:

• MEDEA (Gr. Mi/Seta)

Medea speak of those who, through following quiet paths, have incurred the reproach of apathy (p¢Bvµiav) . Undoubtedly enough of the old feeling for civic life remained to create a See also:

• PREJUDICE (Lat. praejudicium)

prejudice against one who held aloof from the affairs of the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city . Quietness (a7rpayµoa'Gv71), in this sense, was still regarded as akin to indolence (apyi,a) . Yet here we see how truly Euripides was the precursor of that near future which, at Athens, saw the more complete divergence of society from the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state . In an See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age which is not yet ripe for reflection or for the subtle See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis of See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, people are content to See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general types those See also:

• PRIMARY

primary facts of human nature which strike every one . See also:

• ACHILLES
• ACHILLES (Gr. 'AxtXXeus)

Achilles will stand well enough for the See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young chivalrous See also:

• WARRIOR

warrior, See also:

• ODYSSEUS (in Latin Ulixes, incorrectly written Ulysses)

Odysseus for the See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man of resource and endurance . In the case of the Greeks, these types had not merely an See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic and a moral interest; they had, further, a religious interest, because the Greeks believed that the epic heroes, sprung from the gods, were their own ancestors . Greek tragedy arose when the choral See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship of See also:

• DIONYSUS (probably = " son of Zeus," from & Os and vv(7os, a Thracian word for " son ")

Dionysus, the See also:

• GOD

god of See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical rapture, had engrafted upon it a See also:

• DIALOGUE

dialogue between actors who represented some persons of the legends consecrated by this faith . The dramatist was accordingly obliged to refrain from multiplying those See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute touches which, by individualizing the characters too highly, would detract from their general value as types in which all Hellenic humanity could recognize its own See also:

• IMAGE (Lat. imago, perhaps from the same root as imitari, copy, imitate)

image glorified and raised a step nearer to the immortal gods . This See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity was further enforced by the existence of the See also:

• CHORUS (Gr. xopbs)Z

chorus, the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element of the See also:

• DRAMA (literally "action," from Gr. Snail, act or do)

drama, and the very essence of its nature as an See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of Dionysiac worship . Those utterances of the chorus, which to the See also:

• MODERN

modern sense are so often platitudes, were not so to the Greeks, just because the moral issues of tragedy were See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt to have the same typical generality as these comments themselves . An unerring See also:

• INSTINCT

instinct keeps both Aeschylus and Sophocles within the limits imposed by this See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law .

Euripides was only fifteen years younger than Sophocles . But, when Euripides began to write, it must have been clear to any man of his See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius and culture that, though an established See also:

• PRESTIGE

prestige might be maintained, a new poet who sought to construct tragedy on the old basis would be See also:

• BUILDING

building on See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand . For, first, the popular See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion itself—the very See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of tragedy—had been undermined . Secondly, See also:

• SCEPTICISM (o-Kesrroµai, I consider, reflect, hesitate, doubt)

scepticism had begun to be busy with" the legends which that religion consecrated . Neither gods nor heroes commanded all the old unquestioning faith . Lastly, an increasing number of the See also:

• AUDIENCE (from Lat. audire, to hear)

audience in the See also:

• THEATRE (BEarpov, " a place for seeing," from OeacOae)

theatre began to be destitute of the training, musical and poetical, which had prepared an earliergeneration to enjoy the chaste and placid grandeur of ideal tragedy . Euripides made a splendid effort to maintain the place of tragedy in the spiritual life of Athens by modifying its interests in the sense which his own See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation required . Could not the heroic persons still excite interest if they were made more real,—if, in them, the passions and sorrows of every-day life were portrayed with greater vividness and directness ? And might not the less cultivated See also:

• PART

part of the audience at least enjoy a thrilling See also:

• PLOT
• PLOT, ROBERT (164o-1696)

plot, especially if taken from the See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home-legends of See also:

• ATTICA

Attica ? Euripides became the virtual founder of the romantic drama . In so far as his See also:

• WORK

work fails, the failure is one which probably no artistic tact could then have wholly avoided . The See also:

• FRAME

frame within which he had to work was one which could not be stretched to his See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan .

The chorus, the masks, the narrow See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage, the conventional costumes, the slender opportunities for See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change of scenery, were so many fixed obstacles to the See also:

• FREE

free development of tragedy in the new direction . But no man of his time could have broken free from these traditions; in attempting to do so he must have wrecked either his fame or his art . It is not the See also:

• FAULT (Mid. Eng. faute, through the French, from the popular Latin use of fallere, to fail; the originallof the Latin being replaced in English in the 15th century)

fault of Euripides if in so much of his work we feel the want of See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony between See also:

• MATTER

matter and See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form . Art abhors See also:

• COMPROMISE (pronounced compromize; through Fr. from Lat. compromittere)

compromise; and it was the misfortune of Attic tragedy in his generation that nothing but a compromise could See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save it . Two devices have become See also:

• COMMON

common phrases of reproach against him—the See also:

• PROLOGUE (from Gr. 7rpo, before, and Myer, a word)

prologue and the See also:

• DEUS
• DEUS, JOAO DE (1830-1896)

deus ex machina . Doubtless the prologue is a slipshod and sometimes ludicrous expedient . But the audiences of his days were far from being so well versed as their fathers in the mythic See also:

• LORE
• LORE, AMBROISE DE (1396-1446)

lore, and, on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, a dramatist who wished to avoid trite themes had now to go into the byways of See also:

• MYTHOLOGY

mythology . A prologue was often perhaps desirable or necessary for the instruction of the audience . As regards the deus ex machina, a distinction should be observed between those cases ii. which the See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution is really See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical, as in the See also:

• ANDROMACHE

Andromache and perhaps the See also:

• ORESTES

Orestes, and those in which it is warranted or required by the plot, as in the See also:

• HIPPOLYTUS
• HIPPOLYTUS, THE CANONS OF

Hippolytus and the Bacchae . The choral songs in Euripides, it may be granted, have often nothing to do with the action . But the chorus was the greatest of difficulties for a poet who was seeking to See also:

• PRESENT

present drama of romantic tendency in the plastic form consecrated by tradition . So far from censuring Euripides on this See also:

• SCORE (O.E. scor, from sceran, to cut, notch, cf. " shear ")

score, we should be disposed to regard his management of the chorus as a See also:

• SIGNAL

signal See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof of his genius, originality and skill .

Euripides is said to have written 92 dramas, including 8 satyr-plays . The best critics of antiquity allowed 75 as genuine . Nauck has collected 1117 Euripidean fragments . Among these, See also:

• WORKS

Works. See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers 1092-1117 are doubtful or See also:

• SPURIOUS

spurious; numbers 842-to9t are from plays of uncertain See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title; numbers 1-841 represent fifty-five lost pieces, among which some of the best known are the 'See also:

• ANDROMEDA

Andromeda, See also:

• ANTIOPE

Antiope,1 See also:

• BELLEROPHON, or BELLEROPHONTES

Bellerophon, Cresphontes, See also:

• ERECHTHEUS

Erechtheus, See also:

• OEDIPUS (OiSiirovs, O16tir63i7s, Wines, from Gr. ot&eiv swell, and gobs foot, i.e. " the swollen-footed ")

Oedipus, See also:

• PHAETHON (Gr. gSaEBwv, shining, radiant)

Phaethon, and Telephus . 1 . The See also:

• ALCESTIS (A1,CEST1s)

Alcestis, as the didascaliae tell us, was brought out in 01 . 85 . 2, i.e. at the See also:

• DIONYSIA

Dionysia in the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring of 438 B.C., as the See also:

• FOURTH

fourth play of a tetralogy comprising the Cretan See also:

• WOMEN

Women, the See also:

• ALCMAEON

Alcmaeon at Psophis, and the Telephus . The Alcestis is altogether removed from the character, essentially See also:

• GROTESQUE

grotesque, of a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere satyric drama On the other hand, it has features which distinctly See also:

• SEPARATE

separate it from a Greek tragedy of the normal type . First, the subject belongs to none of the great cycles, but to a byway of mythology, and involves such See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange elements as the See also:

• SERVITUDE (Lat. servitus, from service, to serve)

servitude of See also:

• APOLLO (Gr. 'A2r6XXwv,'Airkkhwv)

Apollo in a mortal See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household, the See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

decree of the fates that See also:

• ADMETUS

Admetus must See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die on a fixed day, and the restoration of the dead Alcestis to life . Secondly, the treatment of the subject is romantic and even fantastic,—strikingly so in the passage where Apollo is directly confronted with the daemonic figure of Thanatos . Lastly, the boisterous, remorseful, and generous Heracles makes, not, indeed, a satyric drama, but a distinctly satyric See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene—a scene which, in the See also:

• FRANK, JAKOB (1726-1791)

frank original, hardly bears the subtle See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation which in Balaustion is hinted by the genius of See also:

• BROWNING, ELIZABETH BARRETT (z8o6-r861)
• BROWNING, OSCAR (1837- )
• BROWNING, ROBERT (1812-1889)

Browning that Heracles got drunk in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to keep up other people's See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits .

When the happy ending is taken into See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account, it is not surprising that some should have called the Alcestis a tragi-comedy . But we cannot so regard it . The slight and purely incidental See also:

• STRAIN (through O. Fr. straindre, estraindre, mod. i treindre, from Lat. stringere, to draw tight, related to stress, stretch, string, &c.)

strain of comedy is but a moment of See also:

• RELIEF

relief between the tragic sorrow and 1 A considerable fragment of the Anliope was discovered in See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt in the latter part of the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century; ed . J . P . See also:

• MAHAFFY, JOHN PENTLAND (1839- )

Mahaffy in vol. viii. of the See also:

• CUNNINGHAM, ALEXANDER (c.1655-173o)
• CUNNINGHAM, ALLAN (1784-1842)
• CUNNINGHAM, WILLIAM (1805-1861)

Cunningham See also:

• MEMOIRS

Memoirs (See also:

• DUBLIN

Dublin, 1891); and quite recently fragments, probably from the Hypsipyle, the Phaethon, and the Cretans (see Berliner Klassikerlexle, v . 2, 1907), terror of the opening and the joy, no less See also:

• SOLEMN (Lat. sollemnis, sollemnis, less correctly solennis, yearly, annual; from sollus = totus, whole, entire, Gr. Mos., and annus, year)

solemn, of the conclusion . In this respect the Alcestis might more truly be compared to such a drama as the See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

Winter's See also:

• TALE (O.Eng. talu, number, account, story; the word is common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Zahl, number, Erzahlung, narrative, Du. taal, speech, language)

Tale; the loss and recovery of~Hermione by Leontes do not form a tragi-comedy because we are amused between-whiles by See also:

• AUTOLYCUS

Autolycus and the See also:

• CLOWN (derived by Fuller, in his Worthies, from Lat. colones, a husbandman; but apparently connected with " clod " and with similar forms in Teutonic and Scandinavian languages)

clown . It does not seem improbable that the Alcestis—the earliest of the extant plays—may represent an See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to substitute for the old satyric drama an after-piece of a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind which, while preserving a satyric element, should stand nearer to tragedy . The taste and See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

manners of the day were perhaps tiring of the merely grotesque entertainment that old usage appended to the tragedies; just as, in the See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere of comedy, we know from Aristophanes that they were tiring of broad buffoonery . An original dramatist may have seen an opportunity here . However that may be, the Alcestis has a See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar interest for the See also:

• HISTORY

history of the drama .

It marks in the most signal manner, and perhaps at the earliest moment, that great See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement which began with Euripides,—the movement of transition from the purely Hellenic drama to the romantic . 2 . The Medea was brought out in 431 B.C. with the See also:

• PHILOCTETES

Philoctetes, the Dictys, and a lost satyr-play called the Reapers (Theristae) . Euripides gained the third prize, the first falling to See also:

• EUPHORION

Euphorion, the son of Aeschylus, and the second to Sophocles . If it is true that Euripides modelled his Medea on the work of an obscure predecessor, Neophron, at least he made the subject thoroughly his own . Hardly any play was more popular in antiquity with readers and spectators, with actors, or with sculptors . See also:

• ENNIUS, QUINTUS (239-170 B.c.)

Ennius is said to have translated and adopted it . We do not know how far it may have been used by See also:

• OVID [PUBLIUS OvID1us NASO] (43 B.C.–A.D. 17)

Ovid in his lost tragedy of the same name; but it certainly inspired the rhetorical performance of See also:

• SENECA

Seneca, which may be regarded as bridging the See also:

• INTERVAL

interval between Euripides and modern adaptations . We may See also:

• GRANT (from A.-Fr. graunter, O. Fr. greanter for creanter, popular Lat. creantare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to believe, trust)
• GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838)
• GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823)
• GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835–1902)
• GRANT, JAMES (1822–1887)
• GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827–1892)
• GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892)
• GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
• GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878)
• GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808–1895)
• GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895)
• GRANT, U
• GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885)

grant at once that the Medea of Euripides is not a faultless play; that the dialogue between the heroine and See also:

• AEGEUS

Aegeus is not happily conceived; that the See also:

• MURDER

murder of the See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children lacks an adequate dramatic See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive; that there is something of a moral See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-See also:

• CLIMAX, JOHN (c. 525–600 A.D.)

climax in the arrangements of Medea, before the See also:

• DEED (in O. Eng. dead, from the stem of the verb " to do ")

deed, for her See also:

• PERSONAL

personal safety . But the Medea remains a tragedy of first-See also:

• RATE

rate See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power . It is admirable for the splendid force with which the character of the strange and strong-hearted woman, a See also:

• BARBARIAN (Gr. fap/3apos)

barbarian friendless among Hellenes, is thrown out against the background of Hellenic life in See also:

• CORINTH
• CORINTH, ISTHMUS OF

Corinth . 3 .

The extant Hippolytus (429 B.C.)—sometimes called Stephanephoros, the " See also:

• WREATH (O. Eng. wry, from wriian, to twist)

wreath-See also:

• BEARER

bearer," from the See also:

• GARLAND, JOHN (fl. 1202—1252)

garland of See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers which, in the opening scene, the See also:

• HERO (Gr. open)
• HERO, THE YOUNGER

hero offers to See also:

• ARTEMIS

Artemis—was not the first drama of Euripides on this theme . In an earlier play of the same name, we are told, he had shocked both the moral and the aesthetic sense of Athens . In this earlier Hippolytus, See also:

• PHAEDRA

Phaedra herself had confessed her love to her step-son, and, when repulsed, had falsely accused him to See also:

• THESEUS

Theseus, who doomed him to death; at the sight of the See also:

• CORPSE (Lat. corpus, the body)

corpse, she had been moved to confess her See also:

• CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime, and had atoned for it. by a voluntary death . This first Hippolytus is cited as Hippolytus the Veiled (KaMnrrbuEVOS), either, as See also:

• TOUP, JONATHAN [JOANNES TouPrus] (1713-1785)

Toup and See also:

• WELCKER, FRIEDRICH GOTTLIEB (1784-1868)

Welcker thought, from Hippolytus covering his See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face in horror, or, as See also:

• BENTLEY, RICHARD (1662-1742)
• BENTLEY, RICHARD (1794-1871)

Bentley with more likelihood suggested, because the youth's shrouded corpse was brought upon the scene . It can scarcely be doubted that the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief dramatic defect of our Hippolytus is connected with the unfavourable reception of its predecessor . Euripides had been warned that limits must be observed in the dramatic portrayal of a morally repulsive theme .. In the later play, accordingly, the whole action is made to turn on the jealous See also:

• FEUD

feud between See also:

• APHRODITE

Aphrodite, the goddess of love, and Artemis, the goddess of chastity . Phaedra not only shrinks from breathing her See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret to Hippolytus, but destroys herself when she learns that she is rejected . But the natural agency of human See also:

• PASSION (post-classical Lat. passio, formed from pati, passus, to suffer, endure)

passion is now replaced by a supernatural machinery; the slain son and the bereaved father are no longer the martyrs of See also:

• SIN
• SIN (O. Eng. syn: a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zonde, Ger. Siinde)

sin, the tragic witnesses of an inexorable law; rather they and Phaedra are alike the puppets of a divine caprice, the scapegoats of an Olympian See also:

• QUARREL

quarrel in which they have no concern . But if the dramatic effect of the whole is thus weakened, the character of Phaedra is a See also:

• FINE

fine psychological study; and, as regards form, the play is one of the most brilliant . Boeckh (De tragoediae Graecae principiis, p . 18o f.) is perhaps too ingenious in finding an allusion to the See also:

• PLAGUE (in Gr. Xotµos; in Lat. pestis, pestilentia)

plague at Athens (430 B.C.) in the OJ See also:

• KASAI, or CASSAI

Kasai Ov r&,v ert yepat re vbeot of v .

177, and in v . 209 f.; but it can scarcely be doubted that he is right in suggesting that the closing words of Theseus (v . 146o) [:7 KXely"AO,1vwv IlaXXhIos 0' bptetsara, olov erepiteee0' bvhpbs, and the reply of the chorus, Koevbv rb5' Exec, &c., contain a reference to the See also:

• RECENT

recent death of See also:

• PERICLES (49o-429 B.C.)

Pericles (429 B.C.) . 4 . The See also:

• HECUBA (Gr. `Exa(3n)

Hecuba may be placed about 425 B.C . See also:

• THUCYDIDES (OovavMns)

Thucydides (iii . 104) notices the See also:

• PURIFICATION

purification of See also:

• DELOS

Delos by the Athenians, and the restoration of the Panionic festival there, in 426 B.c.—an event to which the choral passage, v . 462 f., probably refers . It appears more hazardous to take v . 65o f. as an allusion to the Spartan mishap at See also:

• PYLOS (mod. Navarino)

Pylos . The subject of the play is the revenge of Hecuba, the widowed See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

queen of See also:

• PRIAM (Gr. IlpLauos)

Priam, on Polymestor, king of See also:

• THRACE

Thrace, who had murdered her youngest son Polydorus, after her daughter Polyzena had already been sacrificed by the Greeks to the shade of Achilles . The two calamities which befall Hecuba have no See also:

• DIRECT

direct connexion with each other .

In this sense the play lacks unity of See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design . On the other hand, both events serve the same end—viz. to heighten the tragic pathos with which the poet seeks to surround the central figure of903 Hecuba . The drama illustrates the skill with which Euripides, while failing to satisfy the requirements of artistic drama, could sustain interest by an ingeniously See also:

• WOVEN

woven plot . It is a representative Intriguenstuck, and well exemplifies the peculiar power which recommended Euripides to the poets of the New Comedy . 5 . The Andromache, according to a See also:

• NOTICE

notice in the scholia Veneta (446), was not acted at Athens, at least in the author's life-time; though some take the words in the Greek See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument (rb bpap.a rwv SEUTipW V) to mean that it was among those which gained a second prize . The invective on the Spartan character which is put into the mouth of Andromache contains the words, alai's EUTVXEIT' av''EXaiSa, and this, with other indications, points to the Peloponnesian successes of the years 424–422 B.C . Andromache, the widow of See also:

• HECTOR

Hector, has become the See also:

• CAPTIVE (from Lat. capere, to take)

captive and concubine of See also:

• NEOPTOLEMUS (also called PYRRxus)

Neoptolemus, son of Achilles . During his See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence, her son Molossus is taken from her, with the aid of See also:

• MENELAUS

Menelaus, by her jealous rival Hermione . Mother and son are rescued from death by See also:

• PELEUS

Peleus; but meanwhile Neoptolemus is slain at See also:

• DELPHI (the Pytho of Homer and Herodotus; in Boeotian inscriptions BeA4oi, on coins Aa)tg5oi)

Delphi through the intrigues of Orestes . The goddess See also:

• THETIS

Thetis now appears, ordains that Andromache shall marry See also:

• HELENUS

Helenus, and declares that Molossus shall found a See also:

• LINE

line of Epirote See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings, while Peleus shall become immortal among the gods of the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea . The Andromache is a poor play .

The contrasts, though striking, are harsh and coarse, and the compensations dealt out by the deus ex machina leave the moral sense wholly unsatisfied . Technically the piece is noteworthy as bringing on the scene four characters at once—Andromache, Molossus, Peleus and Menelaus (v . 545 f.) . 6 . The See also:

• ION

Ion is an admirable drama, the finest of those plays which See also:

• DEAL

deal with legends specially illustrating the traditional glories of Attica . It is also the most perfect example of the poet's skill in the structure of dramatic intrigue . For its place in the See also:

• CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological order there are no data except those of See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style and See also:

• METRE ((terpuc?, sc. rFxvf, from Gr. Or poi', measure)

metre . Judging by these, See also:

• HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB (1772–1848)
• HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH (1804–1855)

Hermann would place it " neither after 01 . 89, nor much before "—i.e. somewhere between 424 and 421 B.C.; and this may be taken as approximately correct . The scene is laid throughout at the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple of Delphi . The young Ion is a See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest in the temple of Delphi when Xuthus and his wife Creusa, daughter of Erechtheus, come to inquire of the god concerning their childlessness; and it is discovered that Ion is the son of Creusa by the god Apollo . See also:

• ATHENA (the Attic form of the Homeric Athene, also called Athenaia, Pallas Athene, Pallas)

Athena herself appears, and commands that Ion shall be placed on the See also:

• THRONE

throne of Athens, foretelling that from him shall spring the four Attic tribes, the Teleontes (priests), Hopletes (fighting-men), Argadeis (husbandmen) and Aigikoreis (herdsmen) .

The play must have been peculiarly effective on the Athenian stage, not only by its situations, but through its See also:

• APPEAL

appeal to Attic sympathies . 7 . The Suppliants who give their name to the play are Argive women, the mothers of Argive warriors slain before the walls of See also:

• THEBES (anciently &Oat, Thebae, or in poetry sometimes Oif3a, in modern Greek Phiva, or, according to the corrected pronunciation, Thivae)
• THEBES (e 3a1)
• THEBES, ROMANCE OF

Thebes, who, led by Adrastus, king of See also:

• ARGOS

Argos; come as suppliants to the See also:

• ALTAR (Lat. altare, from alias, high; some ancient etymological guesses are recorded by St Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae xv. 4)

altar of See also:

• DEMETER

Demeter at See also:

• ELEUSIS

Eleusis . See also:

• CREON

Creon, king of Thebes, has refused See also:

• BURIAL

burial to their dead sons . The Athenian king Theseus demands of Creon that he shall grant the funeral See also:

• RITES

rites; the refusal is followed by a See also:

• BATTLE

battle in which the Thebans are vanquished, and the bodies of the Argive dead are then brought to Eleusis . At the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close the goddess Athena appears, and ordains that a close See also:

• ALLIANCE

alliance shall be formed between Athens and Argos . Some refer the play to 417 B.C., when the democratic party at Athens See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose against the oligarchs . But a more probable date is 420 B.C., when, through the agency of See also:

• ALCIBIADES (c. 450-404 B.c.)

Alcibiades, Athens and Argos concluded a defensive alliance . The play has a strongly marked rhetorical character, and is, in fact, a See also:

• PANEGYRIC

panegyric, with an immediate political aim, on Athens as the See also:

• CHAMPION (Fr. champion, Late Lat. campio from campus; a field or open space, i.e. one " who takes the field " or fights; cf. Ger. Kampf, battle, and Kampfer, fighter)

champion of humanity against Thebes . 8 . The Heracleidae—a See also:

• COMPANION (through the O. Fr. compaignon or compagnon, from the Late Lat. companio,—cum, with, and panis, bread,—one who shares meals with another; the word has been wrongly derived from the Late Lat. compagnus, one of the same pages or district)

companion piece to the Suppliants, and of the same See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period—is decidedly inferior in merit . Here, too, there are direct references to contemporary history .

The defeat of Argos by the Spartans in 418 B.C. strengthened the Argive party who were in favour of discarding the Athenian for the Spartan alliance (Thug. v . 76) . In the Heracleidae, the sons of the dead Heracles, persecuted by the Argive Eurystheus, are received and sheltered at Athens . Thus, while Athens is glorified, See also:

• SPARTA (Gr. Eirapril or AaKe5atycav)

Sparta, whose kings are descendants of the Heracleidae, is reminded how unnatural would be an alliance between herself and Argos . 9 . The Heracles Mainomenosl (See also:

• HERCULES
• HERCULES (0. Lat. Hercoles, Hercles)

Hercules Furens), which, on grounds of style, tan scarcely be put later than 420-417 B.C., shares with the two last plays the purpose of exalting Athens in the See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person of Theseus . Heracles returns from Hades—whither, at the command of Eurystheus, he went to bring back See also:

• CERBERUS

Cerberus—just in time to save his wife See also:

• MEGARA

Megara and his children from being put to death by Lycus of Thebes, whom he slays . As he is offering lustral See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice after the deed, he is suddenly stricken with madness by Lyssa (Fury), the daemonic See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent of his enemy the goddess See also:

• HERA

Hera, and in his frenzy he slays his wife and children . Theseus finds him, in his agony of despair, about to kill himself, and persuades him to come to Athens, there to seek See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

grace and See also:

• PARDON (through the Fr. from Late Lat. perdonare, to remit a debt or other obligation on a penalty)

pardon from the gods . The unity of the plot may be partly vindicated by observing that the slaughter of Lycus entitled Heracles to the gratitude of Thebes, whereas the slaughter of his own kinsfolk made it unlawful that he should remain there; thus, having found a refuge only to lose it, Heracles has no See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope left but in Athens, whose praise is the true theme of the entire drama . ' (Originally simply Heracles, the addition Mainomenos being due to the Aldine ed.) to . Iphigenia among the See also:

• TAURI

Tauri, which metre and• dittion See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark as one of the later plays, is also one of the best-excellent both in the management of a romantic plot and in the delineation;of character .

The scene is laid at the temple of Artemis in the Tauric See also:

• CHERSONESE, CHERSONESUS

Chersonese (the See also:

• CRIMEA (ancient Tauris or Tauric Chersonese, called by the Russians by the Tatar name Krym or Crim)

Crimea)—on the site of the modern See also:

• BALAKLAVA

Balaklava . Iphigenia, who had been doomed to die at See also:

• AULIS

Aulis for the Greeks, had been snatched from that death by Artemis, and had become priestess of the goddess at the Tauric See also:

• SHRINE (Lat. scrinium, a case or chest for books, hence a casket; from scribere, to write, Fr. ecrin, Ital. scrigno)

shrine, where human victims were immolated . Two strangers, who had landed among the Tauri, have been sentenced to die at the altar . She discovers in them her See also:

• BROTHER

brother Orestes and his friend Pylades . They plan an See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape, are recaptured, and are finally delivered by the goddess Athena, who commands Thoas, king of the land, to permit their departure . Iphigenia, Orestes and Pylades return to See also:

• GREECE

Greece, and establish, the worship of the Tauric Artemis at Brauron and Halae in Attica . The drama of Euripides necessarily suggests a comparison with that of See also:

• GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON (1749-1832)

Goethe; and many readers will probably also feel that, while Goethe is certainly not inferior in fineness of ethical See also:

• PORTRAITURE

portraiture, he has the See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage in his management of the See also:

• CATASTROPHE (Gr. Karaurpoch, from KaraQrp4ecv, to over-turn)

catastrophe . But it is only just to Euripides to remember that, while his competitor had free See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope of treatment, he, a Greek dramatist, was See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound to the motive of the Greek legend, and was obliged to conclude with the foundation of the Attic worship . ti . The Troades appeared in 415 B.C. along with the See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander, the See also:

• PALAMEDES