EUROPEAN  See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

RUSSIA] of higher See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools, in which careful instruction is given in natural and social sciences, have been opened in the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief cities under the name of " pedagogical courses." At St See also:

• PETERSBURG

Petersburg a See also:

• WOMEN

women's medical See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

academy, the See also:

• EXAMINATIONS

examinations of which were even more searching than those of the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary academy (especially as regards diseases of women and See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children), was opened, but after about one See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred women had received the degree of M.D. it was suppressed by See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government . In several university towns there are See also:

• FREE

free teaching establishments for women, supported by subscription, with See also:

• PRO

pro-grammes and examinations equal to those of the See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

universities . The natural sciences are much cultivated in Russia . Besides the Academy of See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

Science, the See also:

• MOSCOW (Russian Moskva)
• MOSCOW, (Russian Moskva)

Moscow Society of Naturalists, the Scieatilic Mineralogical Society, the See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

Geographical Society, with its See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

societies . Caucasian and Siberian branches, the archaeological societies and the scientific societies of the Baltic provinces, all of which are of old and recognized See also:

• STANDING

standing, there have lately sprung up a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of new societies in connexion with each university, and their serials are yearly growing in importance, as, too, are those of the Moscow Society of See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

Friends of Natural Science, the Chemico-See also:

• PHYSICAL

Physical Society, and various medical, educational and other associations . The See also:

• WORK

work achieved by See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian savants, especially in See also:

• BIOLOGY (Gr. Qios, life)

biology, See also:

• PHYSIOLOGY (from Gr. 4 i s, nature, and koyos, discourse)

physiology and See also:

• CHEMISTRY
• CHEMISTRY (formerly "chymistry"; Gr. xvµela; for derivation see ALCHEMY)

chemistry, and in the sciences descriptive of the vast territory of Russia, is well known to See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . The ordinary See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue of the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire is in excess of the ordinary See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure, but the extraordinary expenditure not only swallows See also:

• FINANCE

Finance. up this surplus, but necessitates the raising of fresh loans every See also:

• YEAR

year . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, there is a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• DEAL

deal to show for this extraordinary expenditure . A considerable number of new See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways, including the Siberian, have been built with See also:

• MONEY

money obtained from that source . But since 1894 all extra-ordinary items of expenditure, with the exception of those for the construction of new lines of railway, have been defrayed out of ordinary revenue . The only See also:

• SOURCES

sources of extraordinary revenue still remaining under that See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head are the money derived from loans and the perpetual deposits in the Imperial See also:

• BANK

Bank . The ordinary revenue, obtained principally from the See also:

• SALE
• SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736)
• SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782—1845)

sale of See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits (28%), which is a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state See also:

• MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

monopoly, from state railways (231%) and customs 001 %), steadily See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose from a See also:

• TOTAL

total of £132,750,000 in 1895 to a total of £214,360,000 in 1905 .

Other noteworthy sources of revenue are See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade licences, See also:

• DIRECT

direct taxes on lands and forests, See also:

• STAMP (from " to stamp," to strike or tread heavily, hence to impress, O. Eng. stempen, Du. stampen, Ger. stampfen, whence, O. Fr. estamper, mod. etamper)

stamp duties, posts and telegraphs, indirect taxes on See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco, See also:

• SUGAR

sugar and other commodities, the See also:

• CROWN

crown forests, and See also:

• LAND

land redemption payable annually by the peasants since 1861 . At the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time the total ordinary expenditure has increased at a similarly steady See also:

• RATE

rate, namely, from £119,391,000 in 1895 to £202,544,000 in 1905 . In 1904, 811% of the extraordinary expenditure, namely, £71,550,000, was incurred in consequence of the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war with See also:

• JAPAN

Japan, and to this must be added in 1906 a further expenditure of £42,085,000 . The total See also:

• NATIONAL

national See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt of Russia nearly trebled between 1852 (£57,038,600) and 1862 (£145,500,000), and again between 1872 (£242,277,000) and 1892 (£526,109.000) it more than doubled, while by 1906 it amounted altogether to £812,040,000 . Of the total, 77 % stands at 4% and 17 at less than 4% . The See also:

• SYSTEM

system of obligatory military service for all, introduced in 1874, has been maintained, but the six years' See also:

• TERM

term of service has See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

Army been reduced to five, while the privileges granted to See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young men who have received various degrees of See also:

• EDUCATION

education have been slightly extended . During the reign of See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander III. efforts were mainly directed towards—(t) reducing the time required for the mobilization of the army; (2) increasing the immediate readiness of See also:

• CAVALRY (Fr. cavalerie, Ger. Kavallerie or Reiterei, derived ultimately from late Lat. caballus, horse)

cavalry for war and its fitness for serving as mounted See also:

• INFANTRY

infantry (See also:

• DRAGOON (Fr. dragon, Ger. Dragoner)

dragoon regiments taking the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of hussars and lancers) ; (3) strengthening the W. frontier by fortresses and railways; and (4) increasing the See also:

• ARTILLERY (the O. Fr. artiller, to equip with engines of war, probably comes from Late Lat. articulum, dim. of ars, art, cf. " engine " from ingenium, or of artus, joint)

artillery, See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege and See also:

• TRAIN (M. Eng. trayn or trayne, derived through Fr. from Late Lat. trahinare, to drag, draw, Lat. trahere, cf. trail, trace, ultimately from the same source)

train reserves . Further, the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age releasing from service was raised from 40 to 43 years and the See also:

• MILITIA (Fr. milice, Ger. Miliz, from Lat. miles, soldier, militia, military service)

militia (See also:

• LANDSTURM

landsturm) was reorganized . The See also:

• MEASURES

measures taken during the reign of See also:

• NICHOLAS
• NICHOLAS (1841– )
• NICHOLAS (or NICLAES), HENRY (or HENDRIK) (c. 1501-C. 158o)
• NICHOLAS, SIR EDWARD (1593-1669)
• NICHOLAS, ST

Nicholas II. have been chiefly directed towards increasing the fighting capacity and readiness for immediate service of the troops in See also:

• ASIA

Asia, and towards the better re-organization of the See also:

• LOCAL

local irregular militia forces . Broadly speaking, the army is divided into regulars, See also:

• COSSACKS (Russ. Kazak; plural, Kazaki, from the Turki quzzaq, " adventurer, free-hooter ")

Cossacks and militia . The See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace strength of the army is estimated at 42,000 See also:

• OFFICERS

officers and 1,1oo,000 men (about 950,000 combatants), while the war strength is approximately 75,000 officers and 4,500,000 men . However, this latter figure is merely nominal, the available artillery and train service being much below the strength which would be required for such an army; estimates which put the military forces of Russia in time of war at 2,750,000—irrespective of the armies which may be levied during the war itself—seem to approach more nearly the strength of the forces which could actually be mustered .

The infantry and rifles are armed with small-See also:

• BORE

bore See also:

• MAGAZINE

magazine rifles, and the active artillery have See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel See also:

• BREECH (common in early forms to Teutonic languages)

breech-loaders with extreme ranges of 4150 to 4700 yds . Before the See also:

• JAPANESE

Japanese war Russia maintained four See also:

• SEPARATE

separate squadrons: the Baltic, the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea, the Pacific and the See also:

• CASPIAN

Caspian . See also:

• NAVY

Navy . But in the operations before See also:

• PORT

Port See also:

• ARTHUR (Fr. Arius)
• ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN (1830 – 1886)

Arthur and in the disastrous See also:

• BATTLE

battle of Tsushima the Russian fleets were almost completely annihilated . The bulk of the Black Sea See also:

• FLEET

fleet and a few other battleships were, however, still See also:

• LEFT

left, and since 1904879 steps have been taken to build new See also:

• SHIPS

ships, both battleships and powerful cruisers . See also:

• KRONSTADT

Kronstadt is the See also:

• NAVAL

naval headquarters in the Baltic, See also:

• SEVASTOPOL, or SEBASTOPOL

Sevastopol in the Black Sea and See also:

• VLADIVOSTOK

Vladivostok on the Pacific . Fortresses.—The chief first-class fortresses of Russia are See also:

• WARSAW
• WARSAW (Polish Warszawa, Ger. Warschau, Fr. Varsovie)

Warsaw and See also:

• NOVOGEORGIEVSK

Novogeorgievsk in See also:

• POLAND (Polish Polska, Ger. Polen), (see POLAND, RUSSIAN, below)
• POLAND, RUSSIAN

Poland, and See also:

• BREST

Brest-Litovsk and See also:

• KOVNO
• KOVNO (in Lithuanian Kauna)

Kovno in Lithuania . The second-class fortresses are Kronstadt and Sveaborg in the Gulf of See also:

• FINLAND (Finnish, Suomi or Suomenmaa)

Finland, See also:

• IVANGOROD

Ivangorod in Poland, See also:

• LIBAU (Lettish, Leepaya)

Libau on the Baltic Sea, See also:

• KETCH, JOHN (d. 1686)

Ketch .on the Black Sea and Vladivostok on the Pacific . In the third class are See also:

• VIBORG
• VIBORG (Finnish Viipuri)

Viborg in Finland, Ossovets and Ust See also:

• DVINSK

Dvinsk (or Dunamiinde) in Lithuania, Sevastopol and See also:

• OCHAKOV

Ochakov on the Black Sea, and See also:

• KARS

Kars and See also:

• BATUM

Batum in See also:

• CAUCASIA
• CAUCASIA, or CAUCASUS

Caucasia . There are, more-over, 46 forts and fortresses unclassed, of which 6 are in Poland, 8 in W. and S.W . Russia, and the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder (See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere fortified posts) in the See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic dominions . II .

EUROPEAN RUSSIA See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

Geography.—The administrative boundaries of European Russia, apart from Finland, coincide broadly with the natural limits of the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East-European plains . In the N. it is bounded by the See also:

• ARCTIC (Gr. "ApKroc, the Bear, the northern constellation of Ursa Major)

Arctic Ocean; the islands of Novaya-Zemlya, Kolguyev and Vaigach also belong to it, but the Kara Sea is reckoned to See also:

• SIBERIA

Siberia . To the E. it has the Asiatic dominions of the empire, Siberia and the See also:

• KIRGHIZ

Kirghiz See also:

• STEPPES

steppes, from both of which it is separated by the Ural Mountains, the Ural See also:

• RIVER

river and the Caspian—the administrative boundary, however, partly extending into Asia on the Siberian slope of the Urals . To the S. it has the Black Sea and Caucasia, being separated from the latter by the See also:

• MANYCH

Manych depression, which in See also:

• POST

Post-See also:

• PLIOCENE (from the Gr. sr?eiov, mere, and xatvbs, recent)

Pliocene times connected the Sea of See also:

• AZOV
• AZOV, SEA OF

Azov with the Caspian . The W. boundary is purely conventional: it crosses the See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula of See also:

• KOLA

Kola from the Varanger See also:

• FJORD, or FIORD

Fjord to the Gulf of See also:

• BOTHNIA, GULF OF

Bothnia; thence it runs to the Kurisches Haff in the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern Baltic, and thence to the mouth of the See also:

• DANUBE (Ger. Donau, Hungarian Duna, Rumanian Dunarea, Lat. Danubius or Danuvius, and in the lower part of its course Ister)

Danube, taking a See also:

• GREAT

great circular sweep to the W. to embrace Poland, and separating Russia from See also:

• PRUSSIA
• PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; Lat. Borussia)

Prussia, See also:

• AUSTRIAN

Austrian See also:

• GALICIA (Ger. Galizien; Pol. Halicz)
• GALICIA (the ancient Gallaecia or Callaecia, KaMauci,a or KaXau da)

Galicia and See also:

• RUMANIA
• RUMANIA, or ROUMANIA [Romdnia]

Rumania . It is a See also:

• SPECIAL

special feature of Russia that she has no free outlet to the open sea except on the See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice-See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound shores of the Arctic Ocean . Even the See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

White Sea is merely a gulf of that ocean . The deep indentations of the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland are surrounded by what is ethnologically Finnish territory, and it is only at the very head of the latter gulf that the Russians have taken See also:

• FIRM

firm foothold by erecting their See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital at the mouth of the See also:

• NEVA

Neva . The Gulf of See also:

• RIGA (Esth. Ria-Lin)

Riga and the Baltic belong also to territory which is not inhabited by Slays, but by Finnish races and by Germans . It is only within the last hundred and See also:

• THIRTY

thirty years that the Russians have definitely taken See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of the N. shores of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov . The E. See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of the Black Sea belongs properly to See also:

• TRANSCAUCASIA

Transcaucasia, a great See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain of mountains separating it from Russia . But even this See also:

• SHEET

sheet of See also:

• WATER

water is an inland sea, the only outlet of which, the Bosphorus, is in See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign hands, while the Caspian, an immense shallow See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

lake, mostly bordered by deserts, possesses more importance as a See also:

• LINK

link between Russia and her Asiatic settlements than as a channel for inter-course with other countries .

The great territory occupied by European Russia—1600 m. in length from N. to S., and nearly as much from E. to W.—is on the whole a broad elevated See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain, ranging between Soo and 900 ft. above sea-level, deeply cut into by river- valleys, and bounded on all sides by broad swellings or See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain-ranges: the lake plateaus of Finland and the Maanselka heights in the N.W.; the Baltic coast-See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge and spurs of the Carpathians in the W., with a broad depression between the two, occupied by Poland; the See also:

• CRIMEAN

Crimean and Caucasian mountains in the S.; and the broad but moderately high swelling of the Ural Mountains in the E . From a central See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau, which comprises the governments of See also:

• TVER

Tver, Moscow, See also:

• SMOLENSK

Smolensk and See also:

• KURSK

Kursk, and projects E. towards See also:

• SAMARA

Samara, attaining an See also:

• AVERAGE

average See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation of 800 to 900 ft. above the sea, the See also:

• SURFACE

surface slopes gently in all directions to a level of 300 to 500 ft . Then it again rises gradually as it approaches the hilly tracts which enclose the great plain . This central swelling may be considered a continuation towards the E.N.E. of the great See also:

• LINE

line of upheavals of N.W . Europe; the elevated grounds of Finland would then represent a continuation of the Scanian plateaus of S . See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Sweden, and the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern mountains of Finland a continuation of Kjolen (the See also:

• KEEL

Keel) which separate Sweden from See also:

• NORWAY
• NORWAY (Norge)

Norway, while the other great line of Boun- daries . Configuration . upheaval of the old See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent, which runs N.W. to S.E., would be represented in Russia by the See also:

• CAUCASUS

Caucasus in the S. and by the Timan ridge of the See also:

• PECHORA

Pechora See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin in the N . 1 he hilly aspect of several parts of the central plateau is not due to foldings of the strata, which for the most See also:

• PART

part appear to be See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal, but chiefly to the excavating See also:

• ACTION

action of the See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers, whose valleys are deeply eroded in the plateau, especially on its See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders . The See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round flattened summits of the Valdai plateau do not rise above i too ft., and they See also:

• PRESENT

present the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of mountains only in consequence of the depths of the valleys—the rivers which flow towards the depression of Lake See also:

• PEIPUS, or CHUDSKOYE OZERO

Peipus being only 200 to 250 ft. above the sea . The same is true of the plateaus of See also:

• LIVONIA, or LIVLAND (Russian, Liflandia)

Livonia, " Wendish See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland," and the government of Kovno, which do not exceed woo ft. at their highest points; and again of the E. spurs of the Baltic coast-ridge between the governments of See also:

• GRODNO

Grodno and See also:

• MINSK

Minsk . The same elevation is reached by a very few See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat summits of the plateau about Kursk, and farther E. on the See also:

• VOLGA (known to the Tatars as Etil, Jill or Atel; to the Finnish tribes as Rau, and to the ancients as Rha and Oarus)

Volga about See also:

• KAMYSHIN

Kamyshin, where the valleys are excavated to a See also:

• DEPTH

depth of 800 or 900 ft., giving quite a hilly aspect to the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country .

It is only in the S.W., where spurs of the Carpathians enter the governments of See also:

• VOLHYNIA

Volhynia, See also:

• PODOLIA

Podolia and See also:

• BESSARABIA

Bessarabia, that ridges reaching 110o ft. are met with, these again intersected by deep ravines . The depressions which See also:

• GAP

gap the borders of the central plateau thus acquire a greater importance than the small See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences in its See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical elevation . Such is the broad depression of the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle Volga and See also:

• LOWER

lower See also:

• KAMA, or KAMADEVA

Kama, bounded on the N. by the faint swelling of the Uvaly, the See also:

• WATERSHED

watershed between the Arctic Ocean and the Volga basin . Another broad depression, 250 to 500 ft. above the sea, still filled by Lakes Peipus, See also:

• LADOGA (formerly NEvo)

Ladoga, See also:

• ONEGA

Onega, Byelo-ozero, Lacha, Vozhe, and many thousands of smaller lakes, skirts the central plateau on the N., and follows the same E.N.E. direction . Only a few low swellings penetrate into it from the N.W., about Lake Onega, and reach 900 ft., while in the N.E. it is enclosed by the Timan ridge (woo ft.) . A third depression, traversed by the Pripet and the middle See also:

• DNIEPER

Dnieper, extends to the W. and penetrates into Poland . This immense lacustrine basin is now broken up into numberless ponds, lakes and marshes (see MINSK) . It is bounded on the S. by the broad plateaus which spread out E. of the Carpathians . S. of 5o° N. the central plateau slopes gently towards the S., and we find there a See also:

• FOURTH

fourth depression stretching W. and E. through See also:

• POLTAVA

Poltava and See also:

• KHARKOV

Kharkov, but still reaching in its higher parts 500 to 700 ft . It is separated from the Black Sea by a See also:

• GENTLE (through the Fr. gentil, from Lat. gentilis, belonging to the same gens, or family)

gentle swelling which may be traced from See also:

• KREMENETS (Polish, Krzemieniec)

Kremenets in Volhynia to the lower See also:

• DON
• DON (anc. Tanais)

Don, and perhaps farther S.E . This swelling includes the Donets See also:

• COAL

coal-measures and the middle granitic ridges which give rise to the rapids of the Dnieper . Finally a fifth depression, which descends below the level of the ocean, extends for more than 200 M. to the N. of the Caspian, comprising the lower Volga and the Ural and Emba rivers, and establishing a link between Russia and the See also:

• ARAL

Aral-Caspian region .

It is continued farther N. by plains below 30o ft., which join the depression of the middle Volga, and extend as far as the mouth of the Oka . The Ural Mountains present the aspect of a broad swelling whose strata no longer exhibit the horizontality which is characteristic of central Russia, and moreover are deeply cut into by rivers . They are connected in the W. with broad plateaus which join those of central Russia, but their orographical relations to other upheavals must be more closely studied before they can be definitely pronounced on . The rhomboidal peninsula of the See also:

• CRIMEA (ancient Tauris or Tauric Chersonese, called by the Russians by the Tatar name Krym or Crim)

Crimea, connected by only a narrow See also:

• ISTHMUS (Gr.io0pbs, neck)

isthmus with the continent, is occupied by an arid plateau sloping gently N. and E., and bordered on the S.E. by the Yaila Mountains, the summits of which range between 4000 and 5000 ft . Owing to the orographical structure of the East-European plains, the river systems have become more than usually prominent and Rivers. important features of the configuration . Taking their origin from a series of lacustrine basins scattered over the plateaus and differing slightly in elevation, the Russian rivers describe immense curves before reaching the sea, and flow with a very gentle gradient, while numerous large tributaries collect their See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters from over vast areas . Thus the Volga, the Dnieper and the Don attain respectively lengths of 2325, 1410 and 1325 m., and their basins run to 563,300, 202,140 and 166,000 sq. m. respectively . Moreover, the chief rivers, the Volga, the W . See also:

• DVINA

Dvina, the Dnieper, and even the See also:

• LOVAT, SIMON FRASER, 12TH BARON (e. 1667-1747)

Lovat and the Oka, take their rise (in the N.W. of the central plateau) so See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close to one another that they may be said to radiate from the same centre . The sources of the Don interlace with the tributaries of the Oka, while the upper tributaries of the Kama join those of the N . Dvina and Pechora . In consequence of this, the rivers of Russia have been from remote antiquity the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal channels of trade and See also:

• MIGRATION

migration, and have contributed much more to the elaboration of national unity than any See also:

• POLITICAL

political institutions .

Boats could be conveyed over flat and easy portages from one river-basin to another, and these portages were subsequently transformed with a relatively small amount of labour into navigable canals, and even at the present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day the canals have more importance for the See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic of the country than have most of the railways . By their means the plains of the central plateau—the very See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart of Russia, whose natural outlet was the Caspian—were brought into water-communication with the Baltic, and the Volgabasin was connected with the Gulf of Finland . The White Sea has also been brought into connexion with the central Volga basin while the See also:

• SISTER

sister-river of the Volga—the Kama—became the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main artery of communication with Siberia . But although the rivers of Russia See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank before the rivers of W . Europe in respect of length, they are far behind them as regards the volumes of water which they See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge . They freeze in See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter and dry up in summer, and most of them are navigable only during the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring floods; even the Volga becomes so shallow during the hot See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season that none but boats of See also:

• LIGHT

light See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught can pass over its shoals . Arctic Ocean Basin.—The Pechora rises in the N . Urals, and enters the ocean by a large See also:

• ESTUARY (from the Lat. aestuarium, a place reached by aestus, the tide)

estuary at the Gulf of Pechora . Its basin, thinly-peopled and available only for See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle-breeding and for See also:

• HUNTING (the verbal substantive from " hunt "; O. Eng. huntian, hunta; apparently connected with O. Eng. hentan, Gothic hinpan, to capture, O.H.G. hunda,booty)

hunting, is quite isolated from Russia by the Timan ridge . The river is navigable for 770 m.; See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain and a variety of goods conveyed from the upper Kama are floated down, while furs, See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish and other products of the sea are shipped up the river to be transported to Cherdyn on the Kama . The Mezen enters the See also:

• BAY

Bay of Mezen; it is navigable for 450 m., and is the channel of a considerable export of See also:

• TIMBER

timber . The N .

Dvina is formed by the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union of the Yug and the Sukhona . The latter, although it flows over a great number of rapids, is navigable throughout its length (330 m.); it is connected by See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal with the Caspian and the Baltic . The Vychegda, which flows W.S.W. to join the Sukhona, through a woody region, thinly peopled, is navigable for 500 M. and in its upper portion is connected by a canal with the upper Kama . The N . Dvina flows with a very slight gradient through a broad valley, and reaches the White Sea at See also:

• ARCHANGEL (ARCHANGELSK)
• ARCHANGEL (ARCHANGELSx)

Archangel . Notwithstanding serious obstacles offered by shallows, See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn, fish, See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt and timber are largely shipped to and from Archangel . The Onega, which flows into Onega Bay, has rapids; but timber is floated down in spring, and fishing and some See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation, are carried on in the lower portion . Baltic Basin.—The Neva (4o m.) flows from Lake Ladoga into the Gulf of Finland . The Volkhov, discharging into Lake Ladoga, and forming part of the Vyshniy-Volochok system of canals, is an important channel for navigation; it flows from Lake Ilmen, which receives the Msta, connected with the Volga, and the Lovat . The Svir, also discharging into Lake Ladoga, flows from Lake Onega, and, being part of the See also:

• MARIINSK

Mariinsk canal system, is of great importance for navigation . The Narova flows out of Lake Peipus into the Gulf of Finland at See also:

• NARVA (Rugodiv of Russian annals, also Ivangorod)

Narva; it has remarkable rapids, which are used to generate See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power for See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton-See also:

• MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736)
• MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832– )

mills; in spite of this, the river is navigated . Lake Peipus, or Chudskoye, receives the Velikaya, a channel of traffic with S .

Russia front a remote antiquity, but now navigable only in its lower portion, and the Embach, navigated by steamers to Dorpat (Yuryev) . The S . Dvina, which falls into the sea below Riga, is shallow above the rapids of Jacobstadt, but navigation is carried on as far as See also:

• VITEBSK

Vitebsk—corn, timber, potash, See also:

• FLAX

flax, &c., being the principal shipments of its navigable tributaries (the Obsha, Ulla and Kasplya) . The Ulla is connected by the See also:

• BEREZINA

Berezina canals with the Dnieper . The See also:

• MEMEL
• MEMEL, or N1EMEN

Memel (Niemen), with a course of 470 M. in Russia, rises in the N. of Minsk, leaves Russia ,at Yurburg, and enters the Kurisches Haff; rafts are floated upon it almost from its source, and steamers ply as far as Kovno; it is connected by the Oginsky canal with the Dnieper . For the See also:

• VISTULA (Ger. Weichsel, Polish Wisla)

Vistula, with the See also:

• BUG

Bug and Narew, see POLAND . Black Sea Basin.—The Pruth rises in Austrian See also:

• BUKOVINA

Bukovina, and separates Russia from Rumania; it enters the Danube, which flows along the Russian frontier for too m. below Reni, touching it with its See also:

• KILIA

Kilia See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch . The See also:

• DNIESTER (Tyras and Danaster or Danastris of classical authors, Nistrul of the Rumanians, and Turla of the Turks)

Dniester (530 M. in Russia) rises in Galicia . Light boats and rafts are floated at all points, and steamers ply on its lower portion; its estuary has important See also:

• FISHERIES

fisheries . The Dnieper, with a basin of 202,140 sq. m., drains 13 governments, the aggregate See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of which See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers over 28,000,000 . It also originates in the N.W. parts of the central plateau, in the same marshy lakes which give rise to the Volga and the W . Dvina, and enters the Black Sea .

In the middle navigable part of its course, from Dorogobuzh to See also:

• EKATERINOSLAV

Ekaterinoslav, it is an active channel for traffic . It receives several large tributaries:—on the right, the Berezina, connected with the W . Dvina, and the Pripet, both very important for navigation—as well as several smaller tributaries on which rafts are floated; on the left the Sozh, the Desna, one of the most important rivers of Russia, navigated by steamers as far as Bryansk, the Sula, the Psiol and the Vorskla . Below Ekaterinoslav the Dnieper flows for 46 m. over a series of rapids . At See also:

• KHERSON

Kherson it enters its See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long (40 m.) but shallow estuary, which receives the S . Bug and the Ingul . The Don, with a basin of 166,000 sq. m., and navigable for 88o m., rises in the government of See also:

• TULA

Tula and enters the Sea of Azov at Rostov, after describing a great See also:

• CURVE (Lat. curvus, bent)

curve to the E. at See also:

• TSARITSYN

Tsaritsyn, approaching the Volga, with which it is connected by a railway (45 m.) . Its navigation is of great importance, especially for goods brought from the Volga, and its fisheries are extensive . The chief tributaries are the Sosna and See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North Donets on the right, and the See also:

• VORONEZH

Voronezh, Khoper, Medvyeditsa and Manych on the left . The Ylya, the See also:

• KUBAN

Kuban and the Rion belong to Caucasia . The Caspian Basin.—The Volga, the chief river of Russia, has a length of 2325 m., and its basin, about 563,300 sq. m. in See also:

• AREA

area, contains a population of nearly 40,000,000 . It is connected with the Baltic by three systems of canals (see VOLGA) .

The Ural, in its lower part, constitutes the frontier between European Russia and the Kirghiz See also:

• STEPPE (from the Russ. stepi, a waste)

steppe; it receives the Sakmara on the right and the Ilek on the left . The Kuma, the See also:

• TEREK

Terek and the Kura, with the See also:

• ARAS

Aras, which receives the waters of Lake Gok-cha, belong to Caucasia.' The See also:

• SOIL

soil of Russia depends chiefly on the See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of the See also:

• BOULDER
• BOULDER (short for " boulder-stone," of uncertain origin; cf. Swed. bullersten, a large stone which causes a noise of rippling water in a stream, from bullra, to make a loud noise)

boulder-See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay and See also:

• LOESS (Ger. Loss)

loess, on the degree to which the rivers have Soil. severally excavated their valleys, and on the moistness of the See also:

• CLIMATE

climate . Vast areas in Russia are quite unfit for cultivation, 19% of the aggregate surface of European Russia (apart from Poland and Finland) being occupied by lakes, marshes, See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand, &c., 39% by, forests, 16% by prairies, and only 26% being under cultivation . The distribution of all these is, however, very unequal, and the five following subdivisions may be established: (I) the tundras; (2) the See also:

• FOREST

forest region; (3) the middle region, comprising the surface available for See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture and partly covered with forests; (4) the black-See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth (chernozyom) region; and (5) the steppes . Of these the black-earth region—about 15o,000,000 acres—which reaches from the Carpathians to the Urals, from the See also:

• PINSK

Pinsk marshes in the S.W. to the upper Oka in the N.E., is the most important . It is covered with a thick sheet of black earth, a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of loess, mixed with 5 to 15 % of humus, due to the decomposition of an herbaceous vegetation, which See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed luxuriantly during the Lacustrine See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period on a continent relatively dry even at that See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch . On the three-See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields system corn has been grown upon it for fifty to seventy consecutive years without manure . Isolated black-earth islands, though less fertile, occur also in See also:

• COURLAND, or KURLAND

Courland and Kovno, in the Oka-Volga-Kama depression, on the slopes of the Urals, and in a few patches in the N . Towards the Black Sea coast its thickness diminishes, and it disappears in the valleys . In the extensive region covered with boulder-clay the black earth appears only in isolated places, and the soil consists for the most part of a sandy clay, containing a much smaller admixture of humus . There cultivation is possible only with the aid of a considerable quantity of manure . Drainage finding no outlet through the thick clay, the soil of the forest region is often hidden beneath extensive marshes, and the forests themselves are often mere thickets choking marshy ground; large tracts of sand appear in the W., and the admixture of boulders with the clay in the N.W. renders agriculture difficult .

On the Arctic coast the forests disappear, giving place to the tundras . Finally, in the S.E., towards the Caspian, on the slopes of the southern Urals and the plateau of Obshchiy Syrt, as also in the interior of the Crimea, and in several parts of Bessarabia, there are large tracts of real See also:

• DESERT

desert, buried under coarse sand and devoid of vegetation . Notwithstanding the fact that Russia extends from N. to S. through 3o° of See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude, the climate of its different portions, apart Climate. from the Crimea and Caucasia, presents a striking uni- formity . The aerial currents—cyclones, See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-cyclones and dry S.E. winds—prevail over extensive areas, and sweep across the flat plains without hindrance . Everywhere the winter is See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold and the summer hot, both varying in their duration, but differing relatively little in the extremes of temperature recorded . There is no place in Russia, Archangel and See also:

• ASTRAKHAN

Astrakhan included, where the thermometer does not rise in summer nearly to 86° Fahr. and descend in winter to -13° and -22° . It is only on the Black Sea coast that the See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute range of temperature does not exceed 108°, while in the remainder of Russia it reaches 126° to 144°, the oscillations being between -22 ° and -31 °, occasionally going down as low as -54°, and rising as high as 86° to toe, or even 109 . Everywhere the rainfall is small: if Finland and Poland on the one hand and Caucasia with the Caspian depression on the other be excluded, the average yearly rainfall varies between 16 and 28 in . Nowhere does the maximum rainfall take place in winter (as in W . Europe), but it occurs in summer, and everywhere the months of advanced spring are warmer than the corresponding months of autumn . Though thus exhibiting the distinctive features of a See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental climate, Russia does not See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie altogether outside the reach of the moderating See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of the ocean . The See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic cyclones penetrate to the Russian plains, mitigating to some extent the cold of winter, and in summer bringing with them their moist winds and See also:

• THUNDER

thunder-storms .

Their influence is chiefly See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt in W . Russia, though it does reach as far as the Urals and beyond . They thus check the See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension and limit the duration of the cold anticyclones . 'Bibliography of Geography: see Tillo, in Izvestia of Russian Geogr . See also:

• SOC

Soc . (1883); P . P . Semenov, Geogr. and Statist . See also:

• DICTIONARY

Dictionary of the Russian Empire (in Russian, 5 vols., St Petersburg, 1863–84), the most trustworthy source for the geography of Russia; the See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official Srod Materialov, with regard to Russian rivers (1876); Statistical Sbornik of the See also:

• MINISTRY

Ministry of Communications, vol. x . (freezing of Russian rivers, and navigation) . A great variety of monographs dealing with separate rivers and basins are available; e.g . S .

Martynov, Das Petschoragebiet (St Petersburg, 1905); G. von See also:

• HELMERSEN, GREGOR VON (1803-1885)

Helmersen, Das Olonezische Bergrevier (St Petersburg, 186o) ; Turbin, The Dnieper; Prasolenko, " The Dniester," in Engin . Journ . (1881) ; Danilevsky, " Kuban," in See also:

• MENA, JUAN DE (1411–1456)
• MENA, PEDRO DE (d. 1693)

Mena Geogr . Soc. i.; K . E. von See also:

• BAER, KARL ERNST VON (1792-1876)
• BAER, WILLIAM JACOB (186o– )

Baer, Kaspische Studien (St Petersburg, 1857–59); V . Ragozin, Volga (St Petersburg, 189o); Peretyatkovich, Volga; and Mikhailov, Kama . An orohydrographical See also:

• MAP
• MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9)

map of Russia in four sheets was published in 1878 . Throughout Russia the winter is of long duration . The last days of See also:

• FROST (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch, vorst, Ger. Frost, from the common Teutonic verb meaning " to freeze," Dutch, vriezcn, Ger. frieren; the Indo-European root is seen in Lat. pruina, hoar-frost, cf. prurire, to itch, burn, pruna, burning coal, Sans
• FROST, WILLIAM EDWARD (1810–1877)

frost are experienced for the most part in See also:

• APRIL

April, but as See also:

• LATE

late as May to the N. of 55° N . The spring is exceptionally beautiful in central Russia; late as it usually is, it sets in with vigour, and vegetation develops with a rapidity which gives to this season in Russia a special See also:

• CHARM (through the Fr. from the Lat. carmen, a song)

charm, unknown in warmer climates . The rapid melting of the See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow at the same time causes the rivers to swell, and renders a great many See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor streams navigable for a few See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks . But a return of cold See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather, injurious to vegetation, is very frequently observed in central and E .

Russia between May the 18th and the 24th, so that it is only in See also:

• JUNE

June that warm weather sets in definitely, and it reaches its maximum in the first