EXAMINATIONS  . The See also:

• TERM

term " examination " (i.e. inspecting, weighing and testing; from See also:

• LAT

Lat. examen, the See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue of a See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance) is used in the following See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article to denote a systematic test of knowledge, and of either See also:

• SPECIAL

special or See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general capacity or fitness, carried out under the authority of some public See also:

• BODY

body . 1 . See also:

• HISTORY

History.—The See also:

• OLDEST

oldest known See also:

• SYSTEM

system of examinations in history is that used in See also:

• CHINA

China for the selection of See also:

• OFFICERS

officers for the public service (c . 1115 B.C.), and the periodic tests which they undergo after entry (c . 2200 B.c.) . See CHINA; also W.A.P . See also:

• MARTIN (Martinus)
• MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI (1810-1883)
• MARTIN, CLAUD (1735-1800)
• MARTIN, FRANCOIS XAVIER (1762-1846)
• MARTIN, HOMER DODGE (1836-1897)
• MARTIN, JOHN (1789-1854)
• MARTIN, LUTHER (1748-1826)
• MARTIN, SIR THEODORE (1816-1909)
• MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE (1801–1895)
• MARTIN, ST (c. 316-400)
• MARTIN, WILLIAM (1767-1810)

Martin, The See also:

• LORE
• LORE, AMBROISE DE (1396-1446)

Lore of See also:

• CATHAY

Cathay (19o1), p . 311 et seq.; T . L . See also:

• BULLOCK, WILLIAM (c. 1657-c. 1740)

Bullock, " Competitive Examinations in China " (Nineteenth See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

Century, See also:

• JULY

July 1894); and See also:

• ETIENNE, CHARLES GUILLAUME (1778-1845)

Etienne Zi, Pratique See also:

• DES

des examens litteraires en Chine (See also:

• SHANGHAI

Shanghai, 1894) . The abolition of this system was announced in 1906, and, as a partial substitute, it was decided to hold an See also:

• ANNUAL

annual examination in See also:

• PEKING, or PEKIN

Peking of See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese graduates educated abroad (Times, 22nd of See also:

• OCTOBER

October 1906) .

The See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of examinations in western countries are derived from the university examinations of the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages . The first See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

universities of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe consisted of corporations of teachers and of students analogous to the See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade See also:

• GILDS, or GUILDS

gilds and See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

merchant gilds of the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . In the trade gilds there were apprentices, companions, and masters . No one was admitted to mastership until he had served his See also:

• APPRENTICESHIP (from Fr. apprendre, to learn)

apprenticeship (q.v.), nor, as a See also:

• RULE

rule, until he had shown that he could accomplish a piece of See also:

• WORK

work to the See also:

• SATISFACTION (Lat. salisfacerc, to satisfy)

satisfaction of the gild . The See also:

• OBJECT

object of the universities was to See also:

• TEACH [THATCH OR THACH], EDWARD (d. 1718)

teach; and to the three classes established by the gild correspond roughly the See also:

• SCHOLAR, SCHOLARSHIP

scholar, the See also:

• BACHELOR (from Med. Lat. baccalarius, with its late and rare variant baccalaris—cf. Ital. baccalare—through O. Fr. bacheler)

bachelor or See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil-teacher (see Rashdall i . 209, See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note 2, and 22,1 note 5), and the See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master or See also:

• DOCTOR (Lat. for " teacher ")

doctor (two terms at first See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent) who, having served his apprenticeship and passed a definite technical test, had received permission to teach . The See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early universities of Europe, being under the same religious authority and animated by the same See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy, resembled each other very closely in curriculum and general organization and examinations, and by the authority of the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor, or of the See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

pope in most cases, the permission to teach granted by one university was valid in all (See also:

• JUS

jus ubicunque docendi) . The earliest university examinations of which a description is available are those in See also:

• CIVIL

civil and in See also:

• CANON

canon See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law held at See also:

• BOLOGNA
• BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI DA (1524–1608)

Bologna at a See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period subsequent to 1219 . The student was admitted without. examination as bachelor after from four to six years' study, and after from six to eight years' study became qualified as a See also:

• CANDIDATE

candidate for the doctorate . He might obtain4- I the doctorate in both branches of law in ten years (Rashdall i . 221-222) . The doctoral examination at Bologna in the 13th-14th centuries consisted of two parts—a private examination which was the real test, and a public one of a ceremonial See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character (conventus) .

The candidate first took an " See also:

• OATH (0. Eng. ddh)

oath that he had complied with all the statutable conditions, that he would give no more than the statutable fees or entertainments to the See also:

• RECTOR (Lat. for " ruler," " guide," &c., from regere, " rule ")

rector himself, the doctor or his See also:

• FELLOW

fellow-students, and that he would obey the rector." He was then presented to the See also:

• ARCHDEACON (Lat. archidiaconus, Gr. &oxt3tauovor)

archdeacon of Bologna by one or. more doctors, who were required to have satisfied themselves of his fitness by private examination . On the See also:

• MORNING

morning of the examination, after attending See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass, he was assigned by one of the doctors of the assembled See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college two passages (puncta) in the civil or canon law, which he retired to his See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house to study, possibly with the assistance of the presenting doctor . Later in the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day he gave a lecture on, or exposition of, the prepared passages, and was examined on them by two of the doctors appointed by the college . Other doctors might then put supplementary questions on law arising out of the passages, or might suggest objections to his answers . The See also:

• VOTE

vote of the doctors See also:

• PRESENT

present was taken by See also:

• BALLOT (from Ital. ballotta, dim. of balla, a ball)

ballot, and the See also:

• FATE

fate of the candidate was determined by the majority . The successful candidate, who received the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of licentiate, was, on See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment of a heavy See also:

• FEE

fee and other expenses, permitted to proceed to the conventus or final public examination . This consisted in the delivery of a speech and the See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence of a thesis on some point of law, selected by the candidate, against opponents selected from among the students . The successful candidate received from the See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

arch-See also:

• DEACON (Gr. S&& ovos, minister, servant)

deacon the formal " See also:

• LICENCE (through the French from Lat. licentia, licere, to be lawful)

licence to teach " by the authority of the pope in the name of the Trinity, and was invested with the insignia of See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office . At Bologna, though not at See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, the " per-See also:

• MISSION

mission to teach " soon became fictitious, only a small number of doctors being allowed to exercise the right of teaching in that university (Rashdall) . In the See also:

• FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas, ability to do anything, from facilis, easy, facere, to do; another form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning)

faculty of arts of Paris, towards the end of the 13th century, the system was already more complicated than at Bologna . The baccalaureate, licentiateship, and mastership formed three distinct degrees . For See also:

• ADMISSION

admission to the baccalaureate a preliminary test or " Responsions " was first required, at which the candidate .had. to dispute in See also:

• GRAMMAR (from Lat. grammatica, sc. ars; Gr. ypaµ)

grammar or See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

logic with a master .

The examiners then inspected the certificates (schedulae) of See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence and of having attended lectures in the prescribed subjects, and examined him in the contents of his books . The successful candidate was admitted to maintain a thesis against an opponent, a See also:

• PROCESS

process called " determination " (see Rashdall i 443 et seq.), and as bachelor was then permitted to give "cursory" lectures . After five or six years from the date of beginning his. studies (matriculation) and being twenty years of See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age (these conditions varied at different, periods), a bachelor was permitted to present himself for the examination for the licentiate-See also:

• SHIP

ship, which was divided into two parts . The first See also:

• PART

part was conducted in private by the See also:

• CHANCELLOR (M. Eng. and Anglo-Fr. canceler, chanceler, Fr. chancelier, Lat. cancellarius)

chancellor and four examiners (temptatores in cameris), and included an inquiry into the candidate's residence, attendance at lectures, and performance of exercises, as well as examination in prescribed books; those candidates adjudged worthy were admitted to the more important examination before the faculty, and the names of successful candidates were sent to the chancellor in batches of eight or more at a time, arranged in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of merit . (The order of merit at the examination for the licentiateship existed in Paris till quite recently.) Each successful candidate was then required to maintain a thesis chosen by himself (quodlibetica) in St See also:

• JULIAN (FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS JULIANUS) (331-363)

Julian's See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church, and was finally submitted to a purely formal public examination (calcitic) at either the episcopal See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace or the See also:

• ABBEY (Lat. abbatia; from Syr. abba, father)
• ABBEY, EDWIN AUSTIN (1852– )

abbey of Ste See also:

• GENEVIEVE, or GENOVEFA, ST (c. 422-512)

Genevieve, before receiving from the chancellor, in the name of the Trinity, the licence to incept or begin to teach in the faculty of arts . After some six months more the licentiate took part " in a peculiarly See also:

• SOLEMN (Lat. sollemnis, sollemnis, less correctly solennis, yearly, annual; from sollus = totus, whole, entire, Gr. Mos., and annus, year)

solemn disputation known as his `See also:

• VESPERS (officium vespertinum)
• VESPERS, SICILIAN

Vespers,' " then gave his formal inaugural lecture or disputation before the faculty, and was received into the faculty as master . This last process was called " inception." In discussing the value of See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval examinations of the See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind described, See also:

• PAULSEN, FRIEDRICH (1846-1908)

Paulsen (The See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German Universities (1906), p . 25) asserts that they were well adapted to increase a student's alertness, his See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of comprehending new ideas, and his ability quickly and surely to assimilate them to his own, and that " they did more to enable [students] to grasp a subject than the See also:

• MUTE (Lat. tnutus, dumb)

mute and solitary reviewing and cramming of our See also:

• MODERN

modern examinations can possibly do." At their best they fulfilled precisely the technical purpose for which they were intended; they fully tested the capacity of the candidate to teach the subjects which he was required to teach in accordance with the methods which he was required to use . The limitations of the test were the limitations of the educational and philosophic ideals of the time, in which a dogmatic basis was presupposed to all knowledge and See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism was limited to the superstructure . At their worst, even with venal examiners (and additional fees were often offered as a bribe), Rashdall regards these examinations (at the end of the 13th century) as probably " less of a See also:

• FARCE

farce than the pass examinations of See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford and See also:

• CAMBRIDGE
• CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN (1717-1802)

Cambridge almost within the memory of persons now living." It is, however, to be pointed out that the See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard in Paris and elsewhere at a later date became scandalously See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low in some cases . In some universities the sons of nobles were regularly excused certain examinations . At See also:

• CAM (CAO), DIOGO (fl. 1480-1486)

Cam-See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge in 1794 Fellow Commoners were examined with such precipitation to fulfil the formal requirements of the statutes that the ceremony was termed " huddling for a degree " (See also:

• JEBB, JOHN (1736–1786)
• JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOTJSE (1841–1905)

Jebb, Remarks upon the Present Mode of See also:

• EDUCATION

Education in the University of Cambridge, 4th ed., 1774, p .

32) . The last privileges of this kind were abolished at Cambridge by a See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

grace passed on the loth of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 1884 . In the medieval examinations described above we find most of the elements of our present examinations: certificates of previous study and See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good conduct, preparation of set-books, questioning on subjects not specially prepared, See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of examinations into various parts, See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification in order of merit, payment of fees, the presentation of a dissertation, and the defence and publication of a thesis (a term of which the meaning has now become extended) . The requirement to write answers to questions written or dictated, to satisfy a See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical test (other than in teaching), and a clinical test in See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine, appear to be of later date.' The medieval candidate for the doctorate in medicine, although required to have attended practice before presenting himself, discussed as his thesis a purely theoretical question, often semi-theological in character, of which as an extreme example may be quoted " whether See also:

• ADAM
• ADAM (or ADAN) DE LE HALE (died c. 1288)
• ADAM, ALEXANDER (1741–1809)
• ADAM, JULIETTE (1836– )
• ADAM, LAMBERT SIGISBERT (1700-1759)
• ADAM, MELCHIOR (d. 1622)
• ADAM, PAUL (1862– )
• ADAM, ROBERT (1728—1792)
• ADAM, SIR FREDERICK (1781-1853)
• ADAM, WILLIAM (1751-1839)

Adam had a See also:

• NAVEL (O. Eng. nafela, a word common to Teutonic languages; of. Ger. Nobel, Swed. nafvel; the Sanskrit is nabhila; the English root is also seen in " nave," the hub of a wheel)

navel." The competitive system was See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed considerably at See also:

• LOUVAIN (Flem. Leuven)

Louvain, and in the 15th century the candidates for the master-ship of arts were divided into three classes (rigorosi, See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour-men; transibiles, pass-men; gratiosi, charity-passes), while a See also:

• FOURTH

fourth, which was not published, contained the names of those who failed . In the 17th century the first class comprised the names of twelve, and the second, of twenty-four, candidates, who were divided on the See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report of their teachers into classes before the examination, and finally arranged in order of merit by the examiners (Vernulaeus, quoted by See also:

• SIR

Sir W . See also:

• HAMILTON
• HAMILTON (GRAND or ASHUANIPI)
• HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (1757-1804)
• HAMILTON, ANTHONY, or ANTOINE (1646-1720)
• HAMILTON, ELIZABETH (1758–1816)
• HAMILTON, EMMA, LADY (c. 1765-1815)
• HAMILTON, JAMES (1769-1831)
• HAMILTON, JAMES HAMILTON, 1ST DUKE OF (1606-1649)
• HAMILTON, JOHN (c. 1511–1571)
• HAMILTON, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF
• HAMILTON, PATRICK (1504-1528)
• HAMILTON, ROBERT (1743-1829)
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1730-1803)
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN (1805-1865)
• HAMILTON, THOMAS (1789-1842)
• HAMILTON, WILLIAM (1704-1754)
• HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD (1729-1796)

Hamilton, Discussions, 1852; p . 647; Rashdall, loc. cit. ii . 262) . At the Cambridge tripos (as described by Jebb in 1774, Remarks, &c., pp . 20-31) the first twenty-four candidates were also selected by a preliminary test; they were then divided further into " wranglers" (the disputants, See also:

• PAR (Lat. par, equal)

par excellence) and See also:

• SENIOR, NASSAU WILLIAM (1790-1864)

Senior Optimes, the next twelve on the See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list being called the Junior Optimes . These names have in the See also:

• MATHEMATICS (Gr. /saBnµar1Kil, Sc. vOcvn or E7rlQTt'µn; from p iN.La, "learning" or "science ")

mathematics tripos survived the See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure . (The name Tripos is derived from the three-legged See also:

• STOOL

stool on which " an old bachilour," selected for the purpose, sat during his disputation with the senior bachelor of the See also:

• YEAR

year, who was required to See also:

• PRO

pro-See also:

• POUND
• POUND (2)—(a)

pound two questions to him.) ' W .

W . Rouse See also:

• BALL (in Mid. Eng. bal; the word is probably cognate with " bale," Teutonic in origin, cf. also Lat. falls, and Gr. 7raXXa)
• BALL, JOHN (1585-1640)
• BALL, JOHN (1818-1889)
• BALL, JOHN (d. 1381)
• BALL, SIR ALEXANDER JOHN, BART
• BALL, THOMAS (1819- )

Ball in his History of the Study of Mathematics at Cambridge (1889), p . 193, states that he can find no See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of any See also:

• EUROPEAN

European examinations by means of written papers earlier than those introduced by R . See also:

• BENTLEY, RICHARD (1662-1742)
• BENTLEY, RICHARD (1794-1871)

Bentley at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1702 . EXAMINATIONS The subjects in which the medieval universities examined were (i.) those of the See also:

• TRIVIUM (Lat. for cross-road, i.e. where three roads meet, from tres, three, and via, road)

trivium and quadrivium in the faculty of arts; (ii.) See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology; (iii.) medicine; and (iv.) civil and canon law . The number of subjects in which examinations are held has since grown immensely . We can only See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch in outline the transformations of certain typical university systems of examinations . At Oxford there is no record of a process of formal examination on books similar to that of Paris (Rashdall, ii . 442 et seq.), disputations being apparently the only test applied in its early history . Examinations were definitely introduced for the B.A. and M.A. degrees by See also:

• LAUD (Lat. laws)
• LAUD, WILLIAM (1573-1645)

Laud in 1636—1638 (Brodrick, History of Oxford, p . 114), but the standard prescribed was so much beyond the actual requirements of later times that it may be doubted if it was enforced . The studies See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell in the 18th century into an " abject See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state," from which they were first raised by a See also:

• STATUTE

statute passed in 1800 (Report of Oxford University See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

Commission of 1850-1852, p .

6o et seq.), under which distinctions were first allotted to the ablest candidates for the bachelor's degree . Further changes were made in 1807 and 1825; and in 183o a distinction was made between honours examinations of a more difficult character, at which successful candidates were divided into four classes, and pass examinations of an easier character . By the statutes of 1849 and 1858 an intermediate " Moderations " examination was instituted between the preliminary examination called " Responsions " and the final examination . Since 185o, although fresh subjects of examination have been introduced, no considerable See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change of system has been made . The bachelor's degree at Oxford tended from an early period to be postponed to an advanced See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of studies, while the requirements for the master's degree diminished until, in 1807, the examination for the M.A. was abolished . It is now awarded to bachelors of three years' See also:

• STANDING

standing on payment of a fee . Cambridge in early times followed the example of Oxford, and here also the bachelor's degree became more and more important (See also:

• BASS
• BASS (the same word as " base," and so pronounced, but influenced in spelling by the Ital. basso)

Bass Mullinger, History of the University of Cambridge from 1535 . . . , p . 414), and the M.A. has been finally reduced to a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere formality, awarded on terms similar to those of the See also:

• SISTER

sister university . The standard of examinations was raised in Cam-bridge at an earlier date than at Oxford, and in the 18th century the tripos " established the reputation of Cambridge as a School of Mathematical See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

Science." The school, however, produced few, if any, See also:

• GREAT

great mathematicians between See also:

• NEWTON
• NEWTON, ALFRED (1829–1907)
• NEWTON, JOHN (1725-1807)
• NEWTON, JOHN (1823-1895)
• NEWTON, SIR CHARLES THOMAS (1816-1894)
• NEWTON, SIR ISAAC (1642-1727)

Newton and See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

Green . It was only between 183o and 1840 that the standard of the tripos became a high one .

At Cambridge there is no intermediate examination between the " Previous Examination " (commonly called " Little-go "), which corresponds to Oxford " Responsions " or " Smalls " and the triposes and examinations for the " See also:

• POLL

Poll " degree, which correspond to the Oxford final honours and pass examinations respectively . But most of the triposes have been divided into two parts, of which the second is not obligatory in order to obtain a degree . The" senior wrangler" was the first candidate in order of merit in the first part of the mathematical tripos . The abolition of order of merit at this examination was decided on in 1906, and names of candidates appeared in this order for the last time in 1909 . - At the Scottish universities the B.A. degree has become See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct, and the M.A., awarded on the results of examination, is the first degree in the faculty of arts . The See also:

• INCORPORATION (from Lat. incorporare, to form into a body)

incorporation of the university of See also:

• LONDON

London in 1836 marks an era in the history of examinations; the teaching and examining functions of a university were dissociated for the first time . Until 1858 the London examinations were open only to students in affiliated colleges, and the teachers had no See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in the See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment of the examiners or indetermining the curricula for examinations; in 1858 the examinations were thrown open to all corners, and no requirements were insisted on with regard to courses of study except for degrees in the faculty of medicine . The See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole See also:

• FUNCTION

function of the university was to examine, and its examinations for matriculation and for degrees in arts and science were carried on by means of written papers not only in London but in many centres in the See also:

• UNITED

United See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom and the colonies . From the first the degrees were (unlike-those of Oxford and Cambridge until 1871) open to all male persons without religious distinctions; and in 1878 they were opened to See also:

• WOMEN

women . (Tripos examinations were thrown open to women at Cambridge by the grace of 24th Feb . 1881, and at Oxford women were admitted to examinations for honours by statute of 29th See also:

• APRIL

April 1884 . Proposals to admit women to university degrees were rejected by Oxford and Cambridge in 1896 and 1897 respectively.) The standard of difficulty set by the university of London was a high one, very much higher for its pass degrees than the corresponding See also:

• STANDARDS

standards at Oxford and Cambridge, while the standard for honours was equally high .

In medicine the examinations were made both wider in range and more searching than those of any other examining body . But, for reasons dealt with below, great discontent was roused by the new system . In 188o the See also:

• VICTORIA
• VICTORIA (or VITTORIA), TOMMASSO LUDOVICO DA (C. I540-C. 1613)
• VICTORIA [ALEXANDRINA VICTORIA]

Victoria University, See also:

• MANCHESTER
• MANCHESTER (popularly Manchester-by-the-Sea)
• MANCHESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF

Manchester, was established, in which teaching and examining were again united; and in the universities since established, with the exception of the Royal University of See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland (which was created in 188o as an examining body on the See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model of London, but which was dissolved under the Irish Universities See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

Act 1908, and replaced by the See also:

• NATIONAL

National University of Ireland and the See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

Queen's University of See also:

• BELFAST

Belfast), the precedent of Victoria has been followed . By an act passed in 1898, of which the provisions came into force in 1900, the university of London was reconstituted as a teaching university, although See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision was made for the continuance of the system of examinations by " See also:

• EXTERNAL

external examiners " for " external students," together with " See also:

• INTERNAL

internal examinations " for " internal students," in which the teachers and the external examiners of the university are associated . The examinations in See also:

• MUSIC

music and the final examinations in law and medicine are carried on [1910) both for " internal " and " external " students by " external " examiners only, who are, however, appointed on the recommendation of boards of studies consisting mainly of London teachers . At the university of See also:

• DUBLIN

Dublin, examinations have been maintained both for the B.A. and M.A. degrees, and students may be admitted to the examinations in subjects other than divinity, law, medicine, and See also:

• ENGINEERING

engineering without attendance at university courses . The examinations of the newer universities, the Victoria University of Manchester, See also:

• BIRMINGHAM

Birmingham, See also:

• LIVERPOOL
• LIVERPOOL, EARLS
• LIVERPOOL, EARLS OF

Liverpool, See also:

• LEEDS
• LEEDS, THOMAS OSBORNE

Leeds, See also:

• SHEFFIELD
• SHEFFIELD, JOHN BAKER HOLROYD, 1ST EARL

Sheffield and See also:

• WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria)

Wales, are open only to students at these universities, and are conducted by the teachers in association with one or more external examiners for each subject . In some universities, e.g . Manchester, the M.A. degree is given after examination to students who have taken a pass, and without examination to those who have taken an honours degree . The universities which have departed furthest from the medieval system of examinations, at any See also:

• RATE

rate in See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance, are those of See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany . The baccalaureate has disappeared, but students cannot be matriculated without having passed the Abiturianten-examen (see below), probably the most severe of all entrance examinations (See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign students may be exempted under certain conditions) . The student desiring to proceed to the doctorate is See also:

• FREE

free from examinations thereafter until he presents his thesis for the doctor's degree,' when, if it is accepted, he is submitted to a public oral examination not only in his See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal subject (Hauptfach), but also as a rule in two or more See also:

• COLLATERAL (from Med. Lat. collateralis,—cum, with, and latus, lateris, side,—side by side, hence parallel or additional)

collateral subjects (Nebenfacher) .

The doctor's degree does not give the right to teach in a faculty (venia legendi) . To acquire this a doctor must present a further thesis (Habilitationsschrift), and must deliver two lectures, one before the faculty, followed by a discussion (colloquium), the other in public; but these lectures " seem to be merely secondary and are tending to become so more and more "; " scientific productiveness is so sharply emphasized among the conditions for admission that it over-shadows all the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest " (Paulsen, loc. cit. p . 165) . ' It should be mentioned that the professors of See also:

• CHEMISTRY
• CHEMISTRY (formerly "chymistry"; Gr. xvµela; for derivation see ALCHEMY)

chemistry of a number of German, See also:

• AUSTRIAN

Austrian and Swiss universities, have, by agreement. instituted an intermediate examination in that subject which students are required to pass before beginning work on the doctoral thesis . The examination of the students is conducted by the teachers concerned . In See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France the examination for the baccalaureate, though conducted in part by university examiners, has become a school-leaving examination (see below) . The licentiateship has been preserved in the faculties of arts, science and See also:

• LAWS

laws, and is in point of difficulty about equal to the pass degree examinations of the university of London, though differing in the nature of the tests . In the faculty of sciences, the three subjects of examination selected may, under a See also:

• RECENT

recent regulation, be taken separately . Until a few years ago the successful candidates at the licentiate-ship were arranged in order of merit . For the doctorate in the faculty of letters two theses must be submitted, of which the subject and See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan must be approved by the faculty (until recently one of them was required to be written in Latin) . Permission to See also:

• PRINT

print the theses is given by the rector or See also:

• VICE

vice-rector after report from one or more professors, and they are then discussed publicly by the faculty and the candidate (soutenance de these) . In this public discussion the " disputation " of the middle ages survives in its least changed See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form .

The See also:

• LITERARY

literary theses required by See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French universities are, as a rule, volumes of several See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred pages, and more important in character even than the German Habilitationsschrift . The See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of the doctorate is a sine qua non for eligibility to a university See also:

• CHAIR (in. Mid. Eng. chcere, through O. Fr. chaire or chaiere, from Lat. cathedra, later caledra, Gr. xaOi3pa, seat, cf. "cathedral"; the modern Fr. form chaise, a chair, has been adopted in English with a particular meaning as a form of carriage; chaire

chair, and to a lectureship in the university of Paris . In the faculty of sciences a candidate for the doctorate may submit two theses, or else submit one thesis and undergo an oral examination . For the doctorate in law, a thesis and two oral examinations are required . In the faculty of medicine there is no licentiateship, but for the doctorate six examinations must be passed and a thesis submitted . There is also a special doctorate, the " doctoral d' Universite," awarded on a thesis and an oral examination; and there are diplomas (Diplo"See also:

• MES

mes d'Etudes superieures) awarded on dissertas tions and examinations on subjects in philosophy, history and See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

geography, See also:

• CLASSICS

classics or modern See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages, selected mainly by the candidate and approved by the faculty . 2 . Professional Examinations . (a) Teaching.—University examinations for degrees having ceased to be used as technical tests of teaching capacity, new examinations have been devised for this purpose . The test for German university teachers has been described above . For secondary teachers, W. von See also:

• HUMBOLDT, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH ALEXANDER, BARON
• HUMBOLDT, KARL WILHELM VON (1767-1835)

Humboldt instituted a special examination in 18io (Paulsen, Gesch. des gelehrlen Unterrichts, ii. pp . 283 and 393), and an examination for See also:

• PRIMARY

primary teachers was instituted in See also:

• PRUSSIA
• PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; Lat. Borussia)

Prussia in 1794 .

In France there is a competitive examination far secondary teachers, the agregation, originally established in 1766 . Agrees have a right to state employment and they alone can occupy the highest teaching See also:

• POST

post (chaire de professeur) in a state secondary school, other posts being open to licentiates . There are also examinations for primary teachers . The tests for teachers are different for the two sexes . In See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England there is no obligatory test for secondary teachers . The universities and the College of Preceptors conduct examinations for teaching diplomas . The See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

Board of Education holds special examinations (Preliminary Certificate examination and Certificate examination, &c.) for primary teachers . (b) Medicine.—See MEDICAL EDUCATION . (c) Other Professions.—A system of professional examinations carried on by professional bodies, in some cases with legal See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

sanction, was developed in England during the 19th century . Those in the following subjects are the most important: Accountancy (See also:

• INSTITUTE (from Lat. instituere, to establish or set up)

Institute of Chartered See also:

• ACCOUNTANTS

Accountants and Society of Accountants and Auditors), actuarial work (Institute of Actuaries), music (Royal See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy of Music, Royal College of Music, Trinity College of Music, Royal College of Organists, and the Incorporated Society of Musicians), See also:

• PHARMACY

pharmacy (Pharmaceutical Society), See also:

• PLUMBING

plumbing (the Plumbers' See also:

• COMPANY

Company), See also:

• SURVEYING

surveying (Surveyors' Institution), veterinary medicine (Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons), technical subjects, e.g. See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton-See also:

• SPINNING (from O. Eng. spinnen, to spin, cf. Ger. spinnen, &c., the Teut. root is seen, to draw out, cf. span, spider)

spinning, See also:

• DYEING (0. Eng. dedgian, dealt ; Mid. Eng. deyen)

dyeing, motor-manufacture (See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

City & Guilds of London Institute), See also:

• ARCHITECTURE (Lat. architectura, from the Gr. ap)(LTEKrwv, a master-builder)

architecture (Royal Institute of See also:

• BRITISH

British Architects), commercial subjects, shorthand (the Society of Arts and London Chamber of See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

Commerce), engineering (Institutions of Civil See also:

• ENGINEERS, MILITARY

Engineers, of See also:

• MECHANICAL

Mechanical Engineers, and of See also:

• ELECTRICAL
• ELECTRICAL (or ELECTROSTATIC) MACHINE

Electrical Engineers) . 3 . School-leaving Examinations.—The faculty of arts in medieval , universities covered ,secondary as well: as higher education in the subjects concerned .

The division in arts subjects between secondary and university education has been See also:

• DRAWN

drawn at different levels in different countries . Thus the first two years of the arts curriculum in See also:

• ENGLISH

English and See also:

• AMERICAN

American universities correspond, roughly speaking, to the last two years spent in a secondary school of Germany or' France, and the See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental " school-leaving examinations" correspond to the intermediate examinations of the newer English universities and to the pass examinations for the degree at Oxford and Cambridge (See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

Mark See also:

• PATTISON, MARK (1813-1884)

Pattison, Suggestions on Academical Organization, 1868, p . 238, and See also:

• MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF ST
• MATTHEW, ST (MaOOaior or MarOaIos, probably a shortened form of the Hebrew equivalent to Theodorus)
• MATTHEW, TOBIAS

Matthew See also:

• ARNOLD
• ARNOLD, BENEDICT (1741-1801)
• ARNOLD, GOTTFRIED (1666-1714)
• ARNOLD, MATTHEW (1822-1888)
• ARNOLD, SAMUEL (1740--18o2)
• ARNOLD, SIR EDWIN (1832-1904)
• ARNOLD, THOMAS (1745-1842)

Arnold, Higher See also:

• SCHOOLS

Schools and Universities in Germany, 1892, p . 2o9) . A See also:

• TABULAR

tabular See also:

• SUMMARY

summary is given (see Tables I., II., III., IV.) of the requirements of the secondary school-leaving examinations of France, Prussia (for the nine-year secondary schools) and See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland, and of the university of London . There are in England a number of school examinations which, under prescribed conditions, also serve as school-leaving examinations, and give entrance to certain universities, especially the Oxford and Cambridge See also:

• LOCAL

local examinations (both established in 1858),and the examinations of the Oxford and Cambridge "See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

Joint Board." A See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement to reduce the number of entrance examinations and to secure uniformity in their standard was set on See also:

• FOOT

foot in 1901 . In that year the General Medical See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

Council communicated to the Board of Education a memorial on the subject from the Headmasters' See also:

• CONFERENCE

Conference . The memorial was further communicated to various professional bodies concerned . Conferences were held by the consultative See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

committee of the Board of Education in 1903, with representatives of the universities, the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

Head-masters' Conference, the Association of Head-Masters, the Association of Head-Mistresses, the College of Preceptors, the Private Schools' Association, and with representatives of professional bodies . The committee were of See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion that a central board, consisting of representatives of the Board of Education and the different examining bodies, should be established, to co-See also:

• ORDINATE

ordinate and See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control the standards of :the examinations, and to secure interchangeability of certificates, &c., as soon as a sufficient number of such bodies signified their willingness to be represented on the board . They recommended that the examination should be conducted by external and internal examiners, representing in each See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case the examining body and the school See also:

• STAFF (O. Eng. staef, cf. Du. staf, Ger. Stab, &c.; Icel. stafr meant also a written letter, and O. Eng. stafas, the letters of the alphabet; " stave," one of the thin pieces of wood of which a cask is made, is a doublet)

staff respectively, and that reports on the school work of candidates should be available for reference by the examiners (circular of the Board of Education of 12th of July 1904) . The " accrediting " system in the United States was started by the university of See also:

• MICHIGAN
• MICHIGAN, LAKE
• MICHIGAN, UNIVERSITY OF

Michigan in 1871 .

A school desiring to be accredited is submitted to inspection without previous See also:

• NOTICE

notice . If the inspection is satisfactory, the school is accredited by a university for from one to three years, and upon the favourable report of its principal any of its students are admitted to the university by which it has been accredited without any entrance examination . In practice it is found that many students whom their teachers refuse to certify are able to pass the university entrance examination . The See also:

• STATISTICS

statistics of nine years show that the standard of the certified students is higher than that of non-certified students . Two hundred and fifty schools are accredited by the university of Michigan . In 1904 it was stated that the system was gaining favour in the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east,' and that it had been adopted more or less by all the eastern colleges and universities with the exception of Harvard, Yale, See also:

• PRINCETON

Princeton and See also:

• COLUMBIA

Columbia . 4 . Methods of Examination.—Examinations may test (i.) knowledge, or, more exactly, the power of restating facts and arguments of a kind that may be learnt by rote; (ii.) the power ' See E . E . See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

Brown in Monographs on Education in the United States (ed. by N . M . See also:

• BUTLER
• BUTLER (or BOTELER), SAMUEL (1612–168o)
• BUTLER (through the O. Fr. bouteillier, from the Late Lat. buticularius, buticula, a bottle)
• BUTLER, ALBAN (1710-1773)
• BUTLER, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1818-1893)
• BUTLER, CHARLES (1750–1832)
• BUTLER, GEORGE (1774-1853)
• BUTLER, JOSEPH (1692-1752)
• BUTLER, NICHOLAS MURRAY (1862– )
• BUTLER, SAMUEL (1774-1839)
• BUTLER, SAMUEL (1835-1902)
• BUTLER, SIR WILLIAM FRANCIS (1838– )
• BUTLER, WILLIAM ARCHER (1814-1848)

Butler, 1900, i .

164), and T . See also:

• GREGORY
• GREGORY (Gregorius)
• GREGORY (Grigorii) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1734-1783)
• GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-19o9)
• GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774—1841)
• GREGORY, ST (c. 213-C. 270)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329–389)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (c.331—c. 396)
• GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594)

Gregory See also:

• FOSTER, GEORGE EULAS (1847– )
• FOSTER, JOHN (177o-1843)
• FOSTER, MYLES BIRKET (1825-1899)
• FOSTER, SIR CLEMENT LE NEVE (1841-1904)
• FOSTER, SIR MICHAEL (1836-r9o7)
• FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS (1826-1864)

Foster and H . R . Reichel, Report of Mosely Educational Commission (1904), pp . 117-119 and 288-289.of doing something, e.g. of making a precis of a written document, of See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing a See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter or a report on a particular subject with a particular object in view, of translating from or into a foreign See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, of solving a mathematical problem, of criticizing a passage from a literary work, of writing an See also:

• ESSAY, ESSAYIST (Fr. essai, Late Lat. exagium, a weighing or balance; exigere, to examine; the term in general meaning any trial or effort)

essay on an See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical or literary subject with the aid of books in a library, of diagnosing the malady of a patient, of analysing a chemical mixture or See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound; and (the highest form under the See also:

• RUBRIC (Fr. rubrique, Lat. rubrica, Tuber, red)

rubric) of making an See also:

• ORIGINAL

original contribution to learning or science as the result of